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Dedication

~or An DinetteLinn the young lad,es of Our Lady's Convent Schoo;, LoughboroughWJ"/e fates permIt us Jet',,, be merry,Pass all we must the fatiil ferry:And thIS our life too whir's awayWith the rotation of the d.,y'To Enjoy Ille Tlille.' by Rouert Herrick (1591 1674)

Publisher's Note

Readers may WIsh to study thiS title In conjunction with thefollowing Osprey publications:MM 140 Ol/oman Turks 1300-1774MAA 259 n,e MamluksFllte 58 Jamssanes

Artist's note

Readers may care to note that lhe original paintings from which thecolour pliltes In thIS book were prepared are available for privatesale. All reproduction copynght Whatsoever IS retained by thePublisher. All enquiries stlould be addressed to'

Scorpio Gallery, PO Box 475, Halisham, Easl Sussex BN27 2SL

The publishers regret that they can enter into no correspondenceupon thIS l'Th:Jttcr.

ARMIES OF THE OTTOMANEMPIRE 1775-1820

INTRODUCTION

Sultan Selim III receiving anambassador at the 'Gate ofHappiness' in the TopkapiPalace. This anonymous paintingillustrates the formal nature ofthe Ottoman court and the uni-formed costumes worn by allthose present. (Topkapi SarayMuseum, Istanbul, Turkey)

t the close of the IRth cenLul)' the Ottoman J::mpire still had hugemilitary potential. [I wa.~ a complex slructure of mil ita I)' pruvinces,autouomous regions ane! vil"tually indepeudent 'regencies'. Each

prm'ince had a governor or /)a~a, "~th a laIX(~ st;~ff including numerousmilitary figures. This local adlllinistratioll was primarily coucerned withthe \luslilll population, while tlw (;hl-istian cUIUJnunilies governedtheuls('!\"cs - unless Iheir affairs impinged UpOIl those of the Ottomanstale itself. SOllIe rq~ions lI"ere of greater Illilital)' significance thanothers, and most of thcse were on the frontiers. They included theDanube valley which had sC'rved as a m~or ehanllel for Ottomau raidsinto cenlral Europe 'Iud now fOnlled a vulnerahk opening where lilt'(;hl-istian Hahshurg Empire (later knowu a.~ Austria-I-lungaJ)') could

3

4Today the village of Pociteljstands next to the frontierbetween Croatia and Bosnla-Hercegovina. During theNapoleonic Wars it was theOttoman border town facingVenetian (SUbsequently French)Dalmatia. The existing fortifi-cations, like the church towerand a mosque hidden behind thetrees, are largely Ottoman.(Author's photograph)

ill\-

The ceremonial tents of theVizier Davut Pa~a on campaignagainst the Russians and Austro-Hungarians In the Balkans, 1788.(Aquatint by W. Watts, after adrawing by Luigi Mayer, Bib. Nat.Cap. d'Estampes, Paris, France)

wholesale adoption of western F.umpcan miliwry systems "'ould r('mainunanswered until til(' destruction of li1(, .I:lI1issary corps in 1~~6. II wasalso diflicult 10 reform the military while the state was at war. as th('Ottoman Empire W:'lS on and off rhmughout the Napoleonic era.

Of all the Ottomans' neighbours, Tsarist Russia was the mostpredatol)'. It wanted control of the Bosphorus and Dardanelle Straitsand intended 10 dominate the Orthodox Christian Balkan;,. :'I1eanwhile,Napoleon sa'" OllOm:ln territories as the route to British-ruled India.Br'itain itself feared bOlh Russian control of the Dardanelles and FrenchinJ1uence in the Middle East, and consequentl), tended to support theOllotnan Empire.

THE PEOPLE OF THEOTTOMAN EMPIRE

The Olloman Empire had a larger population than its land conldactually support which resulted in bloated cities, migration to unlic'r-populated mountain regions, ,,~dcspread bandilI)' and piracy. It alsomeant that Ottoman armies had a ready pool of miliL:.{I)' manpower.

Within O[1olllan Furope there were MusliJn majol-ities in Albania,Bosnia, Hercegovina, Crele, parts of Bulgaria and most of the cities. TheMuslim population was, however, in J'elative decline becausc it suffereddisproportjonately high militar), casualties in :l state where, officially.only Mnslims served in the ann)'. ChJ'istian expansion was also tumingthcMuslirns into a thrr.atened, though socially dominant, (Iile.Furthen110re, recent Ottoman milit:uy defeats had "'itnessed analal'ming new phenomenon; namely the wholesale slaughter of Muslimpopulations in lost rerritories. Such 'ethnic cleansing' had not been seenbefore, bur was to remain a feawre of most Christian Balkan 'nationalliberation' movements dO"~1 to the plTsent da),.

The :'I1uslim population of the Ottoman Empire was largely of theSunni persuasion, although there were large Shia minorities in easternAnatolia, Syria and Iraq. Non-Muslims were members of one of the mil/f'lsor brgely autonomous communities into which the entire O[1omanpopulation was divided; such as the Armenian Christians, OrthodoxChristians, Catholic Christians, and Jews. In rural regions thesenon-Ivluslim populations were ruled by their 0\\'11 'notables' who

were responsible forJaw and 01"der :mct also forrelations \\~[h the MuslinJelite.

Greek Christians rnjo),-ect a culturalI-' and evrn :1politically p"i"i!egecl posi-tion compared to theothers. blll the WesternEuropean visitor tellded tobe dismissive of these fellowChristians, and g-ener'allyadvocated alliance with thedominant Turks. 5

\'i,itillg \I'{'sl('1'Il ,,,Idiers and diplolllilb had

l'hither was the army's senl h)' the Cr'eat Sultan's( onll11and;

Illlt s on the foe o'erthrew and defeated his luckkssbann.

'J hell you went ann sC:-llleren the vile foe Oil evel)halld,

'''1Ien tJ1ey your lightning, life-

CHRONOLOGY

177!i

1792

1799

1807

o09

I78l:l17 91791

1797179l:l

'1'1 eat\, oj fZii 'Cd, Kaynar a ends Ouoln,lnRussian \\'a,;Abdnihalllit J becomes sultan.Ouol11am cede BnkO\ ina to Ilab~i>nr"!{s; dekal of pani. hinvasion of AIg-el ia.

17tl::l E'L'olern Georgi;J pas es from Persian to Russian sULeraint\'.1787-92 Ollol11an-Russian war: OUonlans encourag-e allli-Rmsian risings

in Caucasus.Ilabsburgs auack Ouoman bllpil e :LS all) uf Rnssia.S

The French artist Jean Brindisiproduced a large series ofOttoman costume prints In the18205, including uniforms andceremonial dress trom manyyears earlier. This picture shows,from lett to right: a fuhadarJ orgovernment representative of theJanissary Corps, a divan yavu~u.the official responsible for main-taining order during governmentsessions, and a Janissary aux-iliary responsible for guardingforeign embassies.

\\

Ii') I~ Treaty of I~ucharest enns Russian-Olloman \\'ar, Ollomans cedelkssarabia (Moldu\'a) lO R!lSsia; I'a~,l of Algiers declares \,'ar OIllJS/\.

IR12-1 7 SlIlta n 's :1111 hori I)' rei 111 posed Oil mosl of Analoli:,.1~14 Renewed Serbian I"(\olt.IHI?) OUOIII,III aUlhorities negotiate Seruiall aUlonomy: A.mel-icms

def{'al AIg-(~riall fleet.1815-20 Olloman allihoriry reimposed on most ofSHia.1tl~0-~3 Olloman empire defeated in "'ar wilh Persia.1H2] Slall of Creek revolt in the Pelopollllese allu Aegean islanns.

RECRUITMENT AND RANKINGOlloman armies consisted of salarie-n !W/)J!III!II regulars, tOjJm!dl regionalirregulars, shun-lerm le"ies called lIIiri-as!a'ris, )'Plii IIIji:rat0 cOllsislillg oflhe elllir'e 1v11151illl populalion oJ'a tOlln called lip for local defence, annrill' ~(jI1l"illii\,ol1, a g-c'lwral Illass of Irihal irrq~lIlars. 'V!OSI officel's lackedformal lraining and many han simph' purchased their ranks. ""eslern"isilol s wei e aSlOnished lhat a man could bu' weapons and simplyneclare himself 10 be a soldiel lJ)' reg-islering- with ;; .Janissary regimenl,allaching himself to a senior officer. orjoining the armcd following of aprovincial leader. The fact that the man could jusl as ea ily declarehimself no longer a soldier, and lea'e withont criticism, caused e\'cnmOlT amale-ment. Fon~ig-rwrs a];,o fOlllH! il hard to disting-uish belweentruejanissaries and their YOl/loks, or anxiliaries, many of whom were Iner-

cenaries who carried uul the janissaries' militarydulie,. The\' could ch;lug-e their 011([, 01 regiment.whenevari

,-

10

their prospects \\'('n' va,th,IH'ller thall ill th(' ..\lIIel ican pLult,lliuns, En'lIless well kno\\'n is Ihe blet 1h;1l s')IIle \\'hite sl;I\'('s of Europeall 01 igill \\'('I'eexpuncd in the ui!i!0si' di,eClion, rrom Otlolliall lorth Arrica toMuslim 't

Leather case to hold a smalldrum which would have beenattached to the front of a cavalryofficer's or NCO's saddle andused to help reassembledispersed horsemen. (Author'sphotograph; National HistoricalMuseum ConservationDept. Store, Moscow,Russia)

w('slerners. including some captured oming his remarkable defeat of theHritish ilwasion of 1807.

Ranking StructureTitles could ha\e dill"erent meaning in diffet-ent area.s 01 lypes of unil.Hasically, however, ranks ran as follows:Administrative officers:N;'lZIr Supenrisor of a corps,Aga Commander of a regimell[ or large unil,

K~lhLlda T.ienlenanl or assistant to a commanding oflicer,Kethl~l(laYel; [xecutivf" Officer,Kalib Chief Suibe,

12

Print by Jean Brindisi illustratinguniforms of the modernisedHumbaraci Mortar Corps. Left toright: Tlmarlt l supported by agovernment fief Or estate,Ulufe/i, paid directly by the state,Tlmar/, Subay" or officer.

to 1Il

13

This bronze cannon in thefortress of Nizwa In Oman is atypically old fashioned piece ofOttoman or Persian artillery.(Author'S photograph)

'.-

,.~ ';A.". ~ ..

......

..'

- "

inf,"lln' almost as mindless automatOns, lacking prowl'ss alld hOllollr.1;t1,issaries partirularly objected 10 the bayonet which they saw as a prr-'",',s;on ufthe 'cold ste('I' (~thic, forcillg nwnto fightl1lore like machines.

The Hos/(l1IC1S were anotlwr lI'aditional Otlolllan inh1J1try corps whoformed part of the IW!J1!wlu. salaricd regulars. Thrir 011([ (regilnenLs)\I'en' stationed around Istanbul and Edirne as an elite reserve, but theynumbered only a few thousand and were ahnost as resistant to change asthe.Janissaries, The Soloks wel'(~ an even smaller cerenlonial guard for tl,esultan's palace.

The galTisons of the Bosphorus forLS were increased in 179~-4, thoseon the Asian shore being placed under a boga: 1/aWI, or Ho phorussuperintendent, while each fort was commanden hy a dizd([l' or wardell.Thp eadier spit!Jam had ueen incorporated intO the Janissary corps whilean entil'el)' separate spkb([n rorps now sl'rvl'd as a rural militia largelyrecrllited from Anatolian Turkish peasants. The fii(l'nkri.\, 'musketeers',\I'ere 1I10re like mounted infantry and were largely rerruited fron, Kurds.The term If'vPnd or levellf, was even less precise, being applied to banditsin the eastern rrO\~ncps, to troops recruited from such outlaw groups,and also to some naval sailol's. r,ocal flalkan fon'es had also increased inilllportance. They included Hosnian pantll/ks or paHdlll:\', and ('flak sharp.shooters; the Muslim Bosnians having Iisen to military prominence e"enbefore the Muslim Alb;l11ians.

Irregular and semiregular infal1lry equippen t1wlIlselv{'s accordingto their own preferences, resulting in coloudul blll not unifon11edforces. Those from what might he called 'warrior populations' tended tohe' excellent marksmen, enterpl'ising, aggressil'e and highly efJective inforests, mountains ai1d broken country particularly wlwn coopel'ating\\'ith cavall)'. The best Ouoman loot soldiers were, in fact, light infantry.So it is ironic that while the sultan was struggling to 'modernise'Ottoman armies by il1lroducing western European line infantry, westernEuropean armies were re-introducing light infanll}' to offset theincreasing fin~powerof a modern battlefield.

Traditionalist refon11s by the (;r,lI1d Viziprs (;azi Hasan 1'a a and HaliIH~mit 1'a a in the 1770and 17l'\Os had littJe impacl.They focused on weeningoul the corrupt orincapable, lI}'ing to makethe men live in ualT

The modernised Tophane orCannon Foundry with thebarracks of the Top~u Artilleryand Top Arabacl Corps to theright, as rebuilt at the beginningof the 19th century.

lho>'.: allempting to send ,ubstiLLIlCS \\el e expelled. Corrupl ofliccr5 wcr~di"llIis,ed while lIe\\' officels \\'ele offererl onll lhree-lear cOll1lllis"iollsSoldiers ,,:cre ordered lO l,'ear llllifonns at allti;lIe5 allt] 10 train e\'en da;('x('(pt Tuesdays alld fridays. Foorl allo"

,,,I

IllUSll'ICd. SOUll' Id'ormer~suggesled Ih;tt Ihe Sipahicorps should be replacedby an clllirel) new forcebased upou Llll' Deliirrl'/{ular hOI'se. InSLead,Sclim u-;ed to relUl'I1 Ihe'ipahis LO their orif(inal

'plll .... ~tate, whill' Irving toInake Lhelll accepl model IIweapons. I Ie ,\Iso tried 10improve the 'ipahis'abilitie b\ ordel in/{ thatthe) cOllie to Istanbulfor inslrllClion 1'1 om''''estern advisers, InosllyFr elich, for SIX monthsIrainin/{ l'\'('ry 1\\'0 years.At firSL some Sipahisseemed LO SUppOlL Lhis a away of Slrl'n/{Iheninf( theJll-s('lves in the face or localJani saries who had beenseiling Sipahis esLaIf'S, 8ULill /{elll'roil Sl'lilll's allempls10 reform the feudal cavalrywere a un uccessful as his ellill'ls to reform theJani saries.

Reg-IIlar 01' kolllkulu cavalrv paid direclly hy Iheslale had, of cour e, exisled 101 Cl'nllll-;es, HUIman)' Kaplkulu Sipahis had beell ohliged LO leavetheir barracks in search of work to suppleln .... ntsalaries Wh(lS(> \".-IllIe werl' eroded by illOalioll,This was eyen more of a problem fOl' cav

,en A fortress has stood on thesite of the Kalemegdan inBelgrade since pre-Roman times.Most of the existing Innerstructures date from Ottomantimes. (Author's photograph)

"FLOW. LEFT Ali Pa~a 01 Janinain old age. Though he remainednom inally loyal to the sultan, Ali

Pa~a ruleu his territoriesaccording to his own wishes andby so doing showed the GreekChristians that it was possible todely the Ottoman Empire. (Printby Havell after a drawing byCartwright, Bib. Nat. Cep.dtEstampes, Paris, France)

OELOW Ali Pa~a's palace and thebeautiful Mosque of Asian Pa~astand within the fortifications ofthe Frourion which dominate apeninsula jutting out into LakeParnbotis. These defences werestrengthened by Ali Pa~a withFrench technical guidance In1815. (Author's photograph)

The Technical Corpsl.ate l:Sth-century Ottoman artillery was still uasically the same as it hadbeen a cenlUr)' earlier. Consequently, OUotnal} cannon had a notablyslower rate of fire than European weapons. Allempts to recuf)' this sit-Ilation had limited resnlts until more drastic measures wel"(> taken toimprove the ,['aNu Drag, (Anilkry Corps) and Hl/.lIIoa.rau Ucaf;! (MortarCorps) in the late ll:lth and early lYth cetltnries, mostly under Frenchguidance. The resulLs were sUIlleUtUeS striking. In 1807, for example, ant-itish fket forced iLS way into til(' Sea of Marmara to threateu theOttoman capital bUl then had to retreat through the Dardanelles Sn-,tiLswhere ancient artillery pieces dating from Ihe 1'ilh century hadnwanwhile hecn strengthened by ~O(j caunon, 16 mortars and thousandsof additional troops undel- the technical guidance of men frolll uleFrench and Spanish embassies. The result was a close-run thing fOl- theRoyali'Javy.

The schizophrenic altitude of Ihe Ottoman elite IOwards ''''esterntechnology was reflected in everal tories concerning ballooning. In17l:l:) a 'Persian', or more likely' Parisian', scientist reporteclly ascendedfrunl Istanbul in a hut-air ualluun with two members of the sultan'sRoslal1o guard as passengers, though this may have been a myth. In 1l:l02a Hritish balloonist certainly sent up an unmanned balloon in thepresence of Sultan Selim 111; receiving a more enlhusiaslic response thandid Napoleon's balloonists when they unsuccessfully tried to impress thepeople of Cairo some years earlier.

The late ll:lth-cenlUry 'l'ajJ(u Ucagi (anillery corps) fort lied part of thekajl/kuhl salaried regular troups, cunsisung of amund 30,000 men. A newSiiml(i Deaf;!, Rapid-Fire Fielcl Artillery COI-pS, had been establishecl in1774 under the guidance of Bamn de Tot!, and was supponed by a newcannon-Ioundry making modern gun-barrels. In 17R2 foreign adviserswere recaII ecl, instrucljutl Iltanuals translated into Turkish, and theSiiml(i Deap increased to 2,000 men with higher salaries. These reforms

1'l

18

An Albanian of the Janina regionof what is now northern Greece.Most Albanians were Muslim andduring the early 19th centurythey provided several Ottomanarmies with their most effectiveinfantry. (Print by Havel! after adrawing by Cartwright, Bib. Nat.Dcp. d'Estampes, Paris, France)

cominucd under, eli"l IJ I. As a result Ollomau !{uuIH'rs hal! large Siirutanl! slliall A/no, both of which were 'Westelll' cannon, while continuingto lise II'aditioual guns kuown as B(l~)'nllez auo Sohi. The slrUClure of theArtillery Corps was also streamlined; Ihc' number of regiments beiugincreased, each with ten caunon (four 51"01, two A/JII.~, plus lour olderBalymU'Z aud )ahi) , na./yemr.. aud ~'ahi were so difficult to mm'e LlI

The r,agllllrl Omgl or Mine-La\'ers was 1I10re like a curp" of" ellgill(,('J"s,tradiuonally being associated with Ihe !\1orl;lr C0'1)s. In 1774 naron deroll established a military engineering section specialising in pOl1loonbridges, anrlthereaf"ter the Laglll/o ()cagl gOt its best recll.lits from Bosniaand \lbania. Sultan Selilll continued expallsioll alld re f"Ori liS; the ellgi-neel;lIg school at 11askiiy beillg elliargerl ,,'ith a morlern clln;clIlum andregular examinations for new and oldel' members of the c0'1)s,

provincial Forces'J he most imp0rlalltpro\illcial troop ,,'elT theka/Jlhn!kl or allllies raised byprO\'incial gon~rnors. Thevillcluded feudal troops suchas Sipahis, a well as merce-Il,u;e;" militias and tribaJ1('\ ie

Early 19th century Albanianwarriors dressed and equippedas volunteers rather than asOttoman regular soldiers.(Engraving by J.B. Villiard, after adrawing by J.B. Hilair, Bib. Nat.Dep. d'Estampes, Paris, France)

eX-(.:!lli'Lian n:nl'f.!;:lde., and local illt"glll

----I1,,'i1lltain IJandits ,lnd ft'onticr/"",,111/1 \lho lot tiled an irregular11l(.iI tnilitia. In Ct~ti()\a. capital"I ,,-cstet n or 'I.ittk'\bll;lChia, the jJ{fl/dllrsI

Interior of a leather cavalryshield, probably dating from the18th century, (Author's pho-tograph: Museum 01 the Bekta~iDervish Order, Haeci Bekta~tTur1

RI:I OW. LEFT 18th centuryOssetian warrior from theCaucasus mountains. His gun isprotected from the weather by aleather or perhaps sheepskincovering. (Drawing by Beggrov,location unknown)

RELOW RIGHT 18th centuryChechen warrior. The MuslimChechens successfully defendedtheir independence until they fellunder Russian domination in themid,19th century. (Drawin9 byBeggrov, location unknown)

Ha~, or governor, of Tigre Inall)' miles inland, Lhough the 01l0lllan Pa aofJiddah did uppl), a small garrison to defend Ma.,sawa itself.

The french conquest of Eg)11L was IW\'er complete. as the pon ofQUS

4Murat Bey al-Kazdugll, one of themost powerful Mamluk leaders,under whose leadership Egyptgained almost completeautonomy from the OttomanEmpire. (From Description del'Egyptel published in Paris1809-25)

pislols and a short cal bine or IJlundcl buss ill addition to more tradi-tional wcaponl". The MaIIlluks illlIJorled 11I

REGUlAR CAVALRY1, o.ll c.valryman, ..,ty ll1th c.nturyZ: o.li B """oI'Y offlc..- lrom SyriIl3.: T.U" c ~ II1th c_ury

I ,--

c

DTl-IE N~M-' eECIT 'NEW ARMV'I; Kol.ga.. 01 .... I., Otla 01 Nllam-' C..:Iil

lnl...lly, ~.180112.: MiilUJn u.ul.nan' 01 Hi,am, c.dil

II1lantry. C.I8083; Hll:om' C..:II, N.t..-l, 0.18004, Ho,er! 01 111. Nll:am, C..:Iil 2nd Ort.o

'provlnolal mililla' ~.1795

NAW1: Po.... Bal CO..."" _ """oj officer,

.any tlllll eMIl.....,.2: ........n

FBA1J(AN PRQVINC:Al FORCES1: AIbanUon""""", oatIy

11111 C8fltUry2, H..'omb..... ,.,d.,.1

Bal""n Hal"I"" inlOg.......",. 18th Cltntury

3: W.llachlln bora., e.l8004; Iklstllan P"n

-_~~ ;;F_":.:..-Z'-

,PROVINCIAL~O CAUCASUS,,""",_ RefS2: Cl Slp"hl C........_--

reas.lan ..~-."_.3: Armonlan arch... cavalryman

ANATOLIAN

.!lld LiH' R(~d Sea porL~, partiCidarh- Ihos(' of I, ~'PI'S nel\' goveruor.\llllid r.~pt and imtead raise a force oft:gyptian :-\i 7;J Ill-I Cedi!. "'ithin momh ;-'Iuhammad Ali emerged a.~"a\llui/wlIl or commander 01 Olloman forces in [g'pl. \luhalTllllae! Ali

ne~t faced a tin eat fronl an nnexpeClee! dir(,C1ion \,'hen the Ottomanstdtan's pre\iolls allies, the RI-iti,h, ,uddenh' invaded Egypl. In 1807(;('neral ;-"lackel17ie Fraser occupied Ak:-..amh ia and pi essed in lane!.forcing the 19:-ptians into acti"e re,ist;\IlC

engineers ("'Olll theTvrolean hallation, 01:--.:'apokon, ,trill\", Frenchsole!iers who cOIl\'ert

BELOW, LUi Cairo Janissaryinfantryman. By the time of theFrench invasion theseJanissaries and their Azap rivalshad lost most of their militarypower to the Mamluks.(Engraving by N. le Mire, after adrawing by J.B. Hilair, Bib. Nat.Dep. d'Estampcs, Paris, France)

BE:LOW Arab tribal chief fromUpper Egypt. Most formed a locallandowning elite and would playa significant role in MuhammadAli's creation of a new Egyptianarmy in the earty 19th century.(English print, Bib. Nat. Dep.d'Estampes, Pads, France)

proH>d H'I]" ef!eClive. Soldiers who showed rowardice in the face of the

Most of the remaining fortifi-cations of Tiberius in Palestinedate from 1738 when the townwas virtually rebuilt by the Oruzeprince' Tahir alUrnsr. (Author'sphotograph)

pr,IClisec! such m;UlOl'uvn's un Ihe heach, Ihree 01 fuur men Charging orpursuing one another in an allenlpt to fire lheir gun und('\" Iheilopponenl's horse, \\'eapons were otherwise similar to Ihe Middle Easl,except thai the Ylaghrihi fl)'ssa sabre was broarler, straighter and oftenharl a full guarrl arouud the gl~ip,

THE NEW ARMIESNizam-r Cedit and Segban-r Cedit

The firsl 'weslernised' infantry unil in ihe Ollolliall army consisted ofasmall nUluber uf caplives U,lined to pelfon11 Russian drills, who formedKoca YllSuf Pa~a's gua,d while he was campaigning against the Russiansin 1791. Ouce peace re(lImed, Sultan Selim III saw Koca Yusurs guardanrl ",a, so impressed thaI he decided to estahlish a I egirnenr along,illlilar lines,

Thi, was the firSI rleparrure fwm the sullan's conservative policy ofreforming Olloman fUlces hy lelUrning the to an 'unco'Tllpted' state,Ne,'eriheless, Selilll set ahout things in a trarlilionalmallner, consul linga !lIlJl;; I "11'~lWlei council of eSlablished experts, The result was the Niwlll~I (;Mi/, the' 'e\l' Army', which was a slrange mixture of old alld new,In wille ways it was the last gasp of a d)~ng milital)' trddition, and inolhers it was the first Ollomall allelllpt to ("slahlish a co-ordinaterlmodern army,

The first' hundred Ni,wm-I Cedit infantry were recruited fromIstanbul's poor, wilh officers alld drill maSlers drawn from Russian orGerman renegades, Thi. regimenr of 1794 was abo 'camounaged' in thehope of making it acceptable to the traditiollalisls hy being atracherl tothe olrl {$O.llfl11 rl-l llass f.lite inf;'l1Iry ~lard, alld callerl lhe Bus/anCl

'I'r'Jmkji~i, ur 'BoslanCl muskeleers', Even so conservatives wpre antago-nistic, \I'hile supportel maintained lhal in the izam-l Cedit disciplinew~ easier to enforce, anrl real unifonns marl deseniun difficult. Its rate

36

Although this horseman isdescribed as a 'CavalierEgyptien, I his costume,weaponry and facial featuressuggest that he Is a Turcomantribal warrior rather than aMamluk. (Print of a drawing byCarle Vemet., Bib. Nat. Dep.d'Estampes, Paris, France)

of shootinl{ was much greater than tradirional infant.r)', and its cohesionlIIeant that defeat was less likely to become a roul.

Numbers now increased rapidly. and ,1('\\' barracks wel'e buill atLe\'end (:ifLlik, weapons and other equipnlent being imponed fromwestern Europe. Mosr offic.ers from rhe ne\\' military rec.hnical schoolswelllLO the Nizam-l Cedit where the firsr reKimelll had its O\\~1 unirs ofGwalry and anillery. Cavalry ofJIcers and NCOs were largely drawn fromrhe sultan's existing horse guards, while Ni7.am-! f:edit artille.)' largelycame from the existing arlillel)' corps. One out of every five men c.ouldreturn to their family for up to six months in \\imer, but there wa" heavypnnishment for absence without lea\'e or for late return, and no leavewas perrnilled in summer. Pensions for those who retired ill or al{ed werehalf that of a man's pay, but if the soldier rerired hec.ause of wounds orwas a specially deserving case, he got full pal',

The Nizall1-' Cedit disciplinary system and internal stnreture waslargely Iraditional, and promotion wa.s srdcrh' \Iithin the hierarchy,special prornotion only being permitted in cases of proven abilit), on theballiefieid. The offic.ers of tJle firsr regimeI1l consisted of a bil1l)(l~'I. orcolonel, the aga-l )'emin (m~or of the right) and aga-/ ye>aT (m~or of thelel'L) each in charge ofa lain,,', or banalion. These were suhdi\'ided into12 hiil-iik, or c.ompanies, each led by a b6liikhaJI or )'-iizJ){~'I, and intoplatoons under an onba,J!. Each b6liik had one GUlnOn with eight tofJri(anillel)'men), a lOp usla,;/ (c.annon master), five ambari (calnlOnwagoners), six ktllltlk~u (orderlies) and I'adous minor officials. The corpswas also supponed by a separate !md-/ Cl,dit financial system largelydrawing revenues from customs dues. Nizam-, Cedit training was basedon French military manuals, with tlie infanll" ctrawn up in two or three

lines to prO\~cte rescl'ves and mutual supporl. Solctiers gottheir first uniforms on enlislIlwnt, new ones tlien being

provided each year. Oflicers I,'ere, however, expeC!ect toray for their own uniforms,

The success of this first 0Ji7.am-\ (;edit regiment and. the French invasion or Eg:'Pt encouraged Sultan Selim

?'c to enlarge his New Anm'. Additional hattalions were;;. established outside (sta;lbul, while a rather dilrerenl

fonnation called the Second Regiment of Nizam-lCedit was also created. This lI'as a provincial militia or

mouI1led inranU)' to be based in AJlatolia, reclLlirecthy loyal prolincial governors, trained in

the east by Nizam-I Cedit ollicersand with a main base at LJskiidar,

facing Isranhul on the easternshore of the Bosphorus. Most

recruits were Turki 'hpeasa11ls and their task\\as to Inaintain secllrity inAnarolia. In an allelll[Jt toplacate the consen'ativcs,olTicns sent fi'om Ist.anbulwere called Sll7/w!< Beysas if they were localfellctal cav:llr)'-

BI' .filiI' IHili onl)' lIille gOH'rn"r~ had h"ellwilling 10 raise local unit~. aile of these II'~I~,\bdul rahllian I'a~a of l0traman, who lias nladecommander of Ihe prolillcial :-. played a leadingrole in L11e caplllre of Ra.,hid. Thereafter, illlel nal campaigns in L1leBalkans remained Ihe :--lew Army's primary rolc and the Nizalll-t Cedilplayed (111)' a small parr in res; 'ulIg Ihe Russian ima,ion of 1806-7.

FollOII;ng the coup which toppled Selim III in I 07, the :--iizalll-lCedit II-a.' officially destro}ed. though in realit;' 1110 l of its soldierssur'l;ved alld a la, ge pro-portion ofit.'jllnior oflicerswere out of hartll's \\'a\' I,;ththe main Olloman al m),.MllSlafa Ba)'l-aktar, Pa a ofRuse (Rus',:uk) ill Bulgali:l.tried LO cOl1linue lhemilital)' refomls, firslly asMustafa IV's Grand ViziC'rand later h)' cngineeringthe relllOl.ll of Mustafa inf:lVOIlr of Mah11lul II. Theylried lo rect eale L1le Nizalll-I e"nit, gil1ng iT Ihe ne\\'naille of Segvllll-I Cedit inthe hope Ihal hy h:lrking

38 back to the allcient hut

Libyan bedouin singing anddancing in the desert. Thesepeople were an important sourceof military recruit's in NorthAfrica, Egypt and Syria. (ex-R.Tully, Narrative of Ten Years'Residence in Tripoli in Africa,london 1817)

'i!.~,':-'~_-"'-- --'

L[FT Sidi Has.m, the Bey orautonomous ruler of Tripolitaniain Libya. His magnificent cere-monial court costume includes at;:e/enk, a fwreath' or broochgiven by the sultan in recognitionof bravery and fastened to histurban. (e1.-R, Tully, Narrative ofTen Years' Residence in Tripoli inAfrica, London 1817)

The Nizam-I Cedid of SultanSelim III had been disbanded bythe time Jeane Brindisi paintedhis Ottoman costume prints Inthe 1820s. Presumably he basedthis picture on Illustrations hefound during his visit to Istanbul.Lett to right: kalpakll or lkalpak'hat-wearer, ~ubara neferi 'flanksoldier't Nizam-I Cedid nefer; orordinary infantryman, ~ubaranefer; 'flank soldier'.

defune! Segl),Ul ,egiments of Jani,,,,ries the cOIl,erYatives woulci he1'1I

40

Costume print by Jeane Brindisi.Left to right: kefeli ne'er or'vagabond' Janissary soldier;Nlzaml Cedld blnbaf', majorjto~u b8fl artillery officer,binba1' of what is described asthe 'new army of Sultan MahmudII.' The last figure's costumelooks much more like that of aNlzam-l Cedld officer, so it ispossible that the magnificentuniform in the centre is that ofMahmud II's new troops.

al,o 1l1.1d,' 10 r

The Kapitan Pa~a or GrandAdmiral Gazl Hasnn Cez.aylrliwith his pet lion. The ships in thebackground still have the tallcarved sterns characteristic ofOttoman warships before the late18th century reforms. (Engravingfrom a drawing by Cassas, BibNat. Oep. d'Estampes, Paris,France)

warships in Bombay, but was refused on the grounds that Britain did notwant a revival of Ouoman naval power in the Red Sea.

()/,spite all these nifficu!ries, the OUolllan 11m)' saw Illany anionsduring the I apoleonic Wars ann WOII s "eral engagements. Thereformed fleet fought the Russians and Austrians to a c1r::",' by 179~. annin 1798 the Danube fleet enablen Crand Admir

Ahdn;\llJ('AJa) ban

AnnalOlpA~'an'\7.a[1Be\'Ik\'lcrbc)'

B61i"lk~:eIeJlk:criC;tlrllCll

DahiDcliDorobanrciIlayoulHisarlis

GLOSSARYpact conil'rriJlg \'a.~sal SlaillS("

IlospodarKap,k1llnKapihalkiKirdzhalllKlephtMaashhMilletMorlukO.;-akOrtaSeguanSiratkuluS1Iba: ITilllarToprakiJTilfeukTugYamakYuri:d,

aU[Qnomo1ls rider of MlllrLl\ia or v\'allachiasalaried regut,,, troopsarIn)' raised by pl"O\,jncial governorlocall)' rccruited \1uslim policemanGreek ballditsalaried Orroman solliiernon-Muslilu aUlUilUllJOUS cOlumunirybanditcorpsregilllellli n 1;\11 Uytroops raised 0)' provincial governorsdisciplinary ofIicer or policcmanliefnnpaid irregular troopsmuskethOl'SNail bannerjallissar-yauxiliaryTurkish nomad considerf'd part of the militaryestablish lIlelll.

FURTHER READINGCM. AJexander, 8aghrlfld in l3ygOllf /Jo)'.\ (Loudoll 1928).Ali Bey el Abbassi, Travels of Ali Bn' in MOJOfco, hilJOii, ()'pI'llS, 1:j;yjJI,

Ambia, S)'1ia allrl Tmill") bftween/hf Vfan ISO] and 1807 (London JR16,repJinted Wf'stmead 1970).

R.c. i\m1erson, Naval Wars ill the Lrvant, 1559,1853 (Princeton andLiverpool 19.'02).

E. Ast,'atsaturyall, Oruzh)'e Narodov }{mtlwsa (Moscow 199", in Russian.G. Baldwin, Pulitiml Recolleftiolls fMalilif to FfJlpt (London 1802).S. Dearden, A Nfst of COJ:\airs: Thf Fighting Kammanlis of Trif)oli (Londou

1976).G.M. D'[rulllberry, \'oyages

iJ ConstantinojJle, en !tali,'et (lux'iles de ['archipel /JarI'AUP'lllagllf ft la HOllgi/'(Paris 1799).

S. Doras and S. Kocaman,OOllflnlzlar Albiimii(Istanbul 1983), inTurkish.

G. Goodwiu, Th,' jallissaries(London F)'1()).

M.G. Guemard, 'De i'ar,mament et de l'cq1lipe-menr des Mameluks',Bult-,tin de Uns/il/ltd/r.i!:Jptf VII (1926),1-19.

C. and B. jelavich, Theh;stabli.lhmfnt of tllp

This Kadirga is the oldestsurviving galley in Europe. It isbelieved to have been one of theOUoman sultan's state bargesand probably dates from the late18th or early 19th centuries.(Deniz MOze Naval Museum,Istanbul, TurkeYi Author'sphotograph)

44

BollwlI Noliul/ol SIOIl'nI)' Coml; Algin< 1/.lIdl'1' Ilze 'l'lIrlls (. ew York 1979).

LE:FT Officers of the sultan'spalace guards rela~ing. Thisillustration dates from around1815 and shows the great varietyof uniform headgear worn byOttoman soldiers and theirofficers. (eJ;-R. TUlly, Narrative ofTen Years I Residence in Tripoli inAfrica, London 1817)

RIGHT Mamluk officers watch anEgyptian puppet show. Thisillustration from around 1815shows the huge difference indress between the higher ranksof society, with their multiplelayers of tunics, cloaks andturbans, and the poorest peoplewho often wore little at all.(ex-R. Tully, Narrative of TenYears' Residence In Tripoli inAfrica, London 1817)

THE PLATESA REGULAR CAVALRYA1: Deli cavalryman, early 19th century Ely the late 8thcentury Deli volunteer cavalry were found in most provincesand formed the Ottoman Emplfe's most numerous cavalryforce. They had no uniform but were generally identified bytall black felt hats. They acquired weaponry wherever theycould and rode what Western observers often descnbed as'English saddles' as distinct rom tl1e almost medievalMamluk saddles. Nor was their equipment as magnificent ordecorated as that of thelf Mamluk nvals. ThiS man has beengiven a captured Russian carbine and English pistols.A2: Deli BaSI cavalry officer from Syria ThiS a Icer hasadopted the costume of the province where 11e IS sta loned.but he still wears the typical tall black hat. The padded fabrictop of this hat seems to have been an indication of rank andenabled men to Identity their leaders more easily. The broadwaist sash to carry weapons had an anCien history in theMiddle East, and was very comfortable In hot climates. Thebroad cummerbund beneath thiS sash also gave supportwhen riding long distances.A3: Tatar courier, early 19th century Similanty betweenthe headgear of the courier corps and that of the DeliSsuggests they may have been associated. Though describedas Tatars they were recruited from many sources. The loose'gaiters' around his ankles may reflect a steppe heritage. Thisman has been given a decorated Yatagan short reverse-curved sword and a Turkish pistol. He is also carrying a saz.

B MAMLUKS OF EGYPT61: Mamluk officer in full armour, c.1795 EgyptianMamluks occasionally wore armour, though this may onlyhave been for parade purposes. Most armour was In Persianrather than Ottoman style. This man wears Arab-[gyptlancostume suited to his homeland, and is characterised by themagnificence typical of the Mamluk eli e; the number ofweapons carried by many Mamluks was part 01 thelfmystique.

62: Mamtuk cavalryman, c,1798 Even without armour, thefully equipped Mamluk was a magnificent sight. Bright redtrousers became a sort at unofficial unlfonn, though notevery Mamluk wore them, and they were later adopted bylight cavalry in several armies. More specific to the Mamluksthemselves was a heavy blunderbuss, preferably of Englishmanufacture, which could be a devastating short rangecavalry weapon.B3: Mamluk Bey or senior officer c.1800 Rank or statuswas Indicated by the quality and magnificence of a man'scostume and by the wearing of ornaments. The spontoon-like weapon appears In several sources and was another signof rank. This aged officer is also armed with a long Caucasiandilgger and the very curved sabre characteristic of bothMamluk and Persian cavalry.64: Child sword-bearer, c.l800 The entire Mamluk systemwas based on slavery With only those of flfst-generation slaveongln being eligible for the highest military ranks. ThiS elhewas. however, recruited from European peoples, and stavesof African origin could only hope to rise in ciVilian society. Thetuft of hair left on top of an otherwise shaved head wasbasically a Turkish tradition, although it was adoptedthroughou much of the Muslim world.

C THE TECHNICAL CORPSC1: Artillery Yuzba~l, c,1815 This yDzba~l, roughlyequivalent to a captain, was distinguished by a pair of ornate'buttons' on the breast of his coat. During the reforming reignof Sullan Mahmut Il Ottoman artillery uniforms changedseveral times, and the precise date on any particular versionis difficult to specify. Generally, the changes showed a trendaway from Ottoman Turkish tradition towards Balkanfashions. It is also interesting to note that thiS man carries hissabre on a shoulder baldric rather than a waist -belt.C2: Humbaracllar of the Mortar Corps, maintained by aT,mar or fief Many members of the Humbaracllar corps ofmortar gunners were supported by fiefs confiscated frommembers of the Sipahi cavalry, while others were paiddirectly by the government, but whether this was indicatedby differences in dress seems doubtful. The uniform of theHumbaracllar was based upon the traditional costume ofBosnia which included a version of the tall black hat worn byDeli cavalrymen. The curved Yatagan was also usedthroughout the Balkans and may even have originated there.C3: Mounted artilleryman, c.1812 Sultan Mahmut t1'smounted artillery were an elite force, but were given suffi-ciently traditional uniforms to appease conservatives inOttoman society. This included the coats with long false-sleeves worn since the 15th century at least, and loosegaiters comparable to those wom by the Tatar courier corps.C4: Pioneer of the Ulglmcl Corps, earty 19th centuryThough forming one of the technical corps, the Uigimci rarelylooked very impressive in the sources. This particular indi-vidual is smoking a nargile water-pipe, often called a'hubble-bubble' by Westerners. More critical observersmaintained that Ottoman troops spent a great deal of theirtime smoking and drinking coffee.

D THE NIZAM, CEDIT 'NEW ARMY'01: Kolagasl of the 1st Orta of Nizam-I Cedit Infantry,c,1806 The title ko/agasl, roughly equivalent to a senior lieu-tenant, reflected Sultan Selim Ill's attempt to appease the 4

46

The massacre of senior Mamluk officers and Beys byMuhammad Ali's Albanian Infantry In the courtyard ofCairo's Citadel, in 1811. (Lithograph from a painting byJoseph Vernet after a sketch by Forbin)

conservatives. It meant 'chief of slaves in the Sultan'sservice' though the wo,d kof had long since ceased to mean'slave' ,n a literal sense. His un,lorm is relatively simple w,lhthe minimum of weapons. and was only dislrnguished fromthat of hIS men by gold braid'ng.02: MUiazin lieutenant of Nizam-I Cedit Inlantry, c.l808This figure is based on an ,lIustratlon which may show ceremOnlal or parade un'form. It includes abundant gold brald,ng,and the blue cuffs may indicate regiment or battalion. The tallred cap was based upon Ihat of the traditional BostanciCorps, itself aff,liated to Ihe Janissaries, and was a sop toconservative opin,on. Nevertheless, the rest of th,s unilorm'ncensed traditionalists who considered it almost indecentlytight tittlng.03: Nizam-, Cedit Neteri, c.18oo Much to the annoyance 01the Brit,sh ambassador, the firs N,zam-, Cedit regiment wasissued with French rather han English muske s, but thep,ece of equipment wh,ch caused most problems for trad,-tional Ottoman forces was the bayonet. It was seen asreducing a proud ,ndlvidual warrior to the status a a merecog ,n a fighting machine, and only he N,zam-, Cedlt wereprepared to use them.04: Neteri 01 the Nizam-, Cedit 2nd Orta 'provincialmilitia', c.179S The second Nlzam-, Cedit orta or regimentoperated as mounted ,nfantry rather than line-infanlry like thefirsl orta. Their un,forms were much the same, though mld-blue instead of red. The small red cap shown In somepictures may also have been more pract,cal on horsebackthan the tall and even "opp,er Bostanc' hat.

E NAVYE1: Pasa B~s Cavusu senior naval officer, early 19thcentury The proud hentage of the Ottoman navy wasre lecK'd ,n the stllk,ng costumes adopted by a ,cers andmen. This ,ncl ded abundant gold and Silver embroidery onmost garmen S Including tlOusers OthervVlse there was nounl orm as such. and rank seems to have been indicated bythe abundance and quality of th,s decoration. Ottoman navalpersonnel were also ,lIustrated carry,ng what looked likewh,te blankets, pe,h"ps as a protection against the weather.E2: Levend navaf rating, c.18oo Trad'tionally there hadbeen strict separation between fighting men and Virtuallynun-combnlDnt SDilors aboard Ottoman warships. Wherei1sthe former were Muslims, the laller were largely drawn fromChristian coastal peoples. But towards he close a the 18thcentury, as Turkish coastal peoples were registered as navalrecru' s, these distinctions ended to disappear. The heavyhooded coat worn by thiS sailor IS clearly a weatherproofgarment.E3: Kalyoncu marine, early 19th century Kalyoncu orgalleon men' appear In several sources and tend to bealmost prratical ,n tlleir appearance. Whether they ,ncludedgunners as well as mannes IS. however. unclear. Lrke sailorseverywhere they often decorated therr bodies With tatloos.Tllis man also carries an unusual straight-bladed lorm ofYatagan.E4: Tershane Bas

links with the neighbouring Russian Empire. In fact thisWallach Ian carnes a Russian cavalry sabre.F4: Bosnian Panduk, c.1775 Unlike Haydut bandits, thePandllks or Pilndurs were largely recruited from ex-soldiers.Many had experience in Austro-Hungarian or Russian rankswhile otllers were ex-Ottoman regulars. ThiS man's hatsuggests that he had been a member of ttle TurkishBostancls. In It he has a Jewelled qe/enk awarded for out-standing courage. In addition to his Balkan Yatagan. pistolsand decorated musket. he is armed with an Italian straigllt-sword purchased on the Adna ic coast.

G ANATOLIAN AND CAUCASUS PROVINCIALFORCESG1: Anatolian Sipahi cavalryman Though called Sipahis,the early 19th-century cavalry of that name was a new forceof regular rather than feudal horsemen, though tlley seem toIlave operated more like mounted infantry than pure cavalry.It is unclear to what extent they had a uniform in tile truesense of the word, although their simple costume and thedistinctive headgear would influence the uniforms ofOttoman and Egyptian cavalry later In the 19t1l century. Tilelong-stemmed tobacco-pipe was a prized possession ofmany Ottoman soldiers during this period.G2: Circassian annoured cavalryman The Caucasus wasperhaps the only part of Europe wllere full cavalry anmourwas still worn in battle; men equipped in this mannerappeared in Russian as well as Ottoman irregular forces. Tilearmour itself, like tllis man's weapons, was made locally asthe Caucasus region remained a centre of traditional armsmanufacture until the 20th century.G3: Armenian archer This Armenian tribal infantry archersreliance on an archaic fonm of composite bow was as old-fashioned as the Circassian's armour. The wearing ofgenerally muted colours or black became a tradition inArmenia and Georgia, perhaps as a result of centuries ofOttoman sumptuary laws which tried to reserve brightercostume for the ruling Turkish elite.

H MIDDLE EASTERN AND NORTH AFRICANPROVINCIAL FORCESH1: Cairo Janissary The Janlssanes of Cairo were regardedas Turks by Arab Egyptians, but their costume Ilad little incommon with that of traditional Janissary regiments. The flat,almost table-shaped hat seems to have been characteristicof these particular Janissaries, and the man in this illustrationhas also been given an old-fashioned Jazayl matchlockmusket of the kind used throughout much of the Arabianpeninsula. The large leather waterflask on his hip had been afeature of Egyptian troops since he earty Middle Ages.H2: Palestinian auxiliary U e he traditional costume ofSyria. that of Palestine was a mixture of Arab bedOUin andTurkish elements. During the la e 18th century Palestine alsoasserted a distinct identity. while remaining one 0 the mostloyal parts of the Ottoman Empire. This man's green turbanIndicates that he is a Hajl who has been on pilgrimage toMecca. Such men served as auxiliary infantry and cavalry tomaintain local law and order; many also resisting the Frenchinvasion of t 799.H3: Maghribi infantryman The tribal people of North Africawere among the poorest and most backward in the OttomanEmpire. Perhaps for this reason they were attracted to Egyptand Syria where they were recruited as infantry. Europeanobservers described them as remarkably poorly equipped,with generally rusty weapons.H4: Libya Kuloglu Tile Kuloglu claimed descent fromTurkish fathers and local Maghribi women. They formed aninfluential military group within Ottoman North Africa,basically serving as auxiliary cavalry though tlley were alsoeffective on foot. ike the Mamluks of Egypt, many Kuloglllwere armed with blunderbusses; a weapon also issued to thebodyguards of the Bey of Tripoli among others.

Captured Ottoman troops during the disastrous Battle ofAbu air. The accuracy of their costume shows that theartist must have used sketches made during or after thebattle. (Detail of a painting by General Lejeune; Musee deVersailles. France)

4