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PROFITABLE COMMERCIAL POULTRY FARMING IN NIGERIA:
Production, Processing, Marketing and Utilization
EXTENSION BULLETIN No. ---216---
Poultry Series No.----------
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We wish to express our profound gratitude to the Management of NAERLS who approved the writing of this Bulletin. This is in response to the call from the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development to provide information support necessary for the new moves to completely transform agricultural practices in Nigeria from subsistence to Agribusiness. This bulletin is a complete hand book on best practices on profitable commercial poultry enterprise. This write up will not have been successful without consulting works from various scholars. These information sources have been duly indicated and acknowledged in the bibliography page.
Ikani, E.I, Dikko, H., Iyiola-Tunji, A.O., Suleiman,N., Usman,S. Umar,M.A. and Dantani,
A.
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Table of content
Table of ContentsPROFITABLE COMMERCIAL POULTRY FARMING IN NIGERIA:.........................................................................1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT....................................................2
INTRODUCTION..............................................................5
What is Poultry?.........................................................6
Why poultry farming?.................................................6
Gainful employment...................................................6
Good attitudes for Success in modern poultry farming.......................................................................6
Choice and types of poultry enterprise...................7
Types of Poultry farming enterprises.....................7
REESOURCES FOR SUCCESSFUL POULTRY FARMING......9
POULTRY MANAGEMENT.............................................13
Brooding Management.............................................13
PULLET MANAGEMENT................................................33
MANAGEMENT OF LAYERS...........................................43
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Management Guide for Layers.................................47
POULTRY HEALTH MANAGEMENT................................51
National Veterinary Research Institute Vaccine Guide.................................................................................59
POULTRY PRODUCTS MARKETING................................67
POULTRY PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION....................78
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INTRODUCTION Poultry farming has been identified as the fastest way to make up for short fall between animal protein demands- supply and to bridge the gap. Meat products and eggs from poultry are among the best known nutritious products worldwide in human diets. The biological value of protein in egg is so high that it has often been used as the standard for assessing the quality of other food protein sources. Thus, commercial investment into poultry enterprise in Nigeria is not only economically attractive but highly profitable business. The value of commercial poultry industry in Nigeria is estimated at N80 billion ($600 million) and is rated as the most industrialized component of the livestock Sub-sector. Over 25 million people are employed directly and indirectly in the commercial poultry industry. The entire poultry subsector contributes over 25% of agricultural Gross Domestic Products. Poultry population in Nigeria is estimated at about 130 million, with chickens as the most predominant .This write up therefore, will basically concentrate on chickens along the value chain approach; Input, production, Processing, value addition, marketing and utilization. We hope this information will be useful to commercial poultry producers whether beginners or more experience farmers, extension workers and researchers.
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What is Poultry?They are domesticated fowls (birds) reared mainly for the purpose of meat or eggs. Examples are: chickens, ducks, guinea fowls, turkeys, goose, pigeons, quails etc.
Why poultry farming? Reasons why people go into poultry farming include the followings:
Provision of animal protein in form of meat and eggs.
Gainful employment Income generation via sales of poultry products and by- products, such as meat, eggs and manure.
Poverty reduction couple with livelihood enhancement
Rapid turnover of invested capital. Broilers can be harvested in 8 weeks while pullets begin to lay eggs at the age of five months.High demand /market for poultry products
Good attitudes for Success in modern poultry farming.
Good attitudes are necessary to succeed in any business. Commercial poultry farming is not an exception. Some of such success-prone attitudes include:
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Being positively inquisitive and pro-active Strong passion for being successful in the enterprise Good focus and commitment to the job
Quick at consulting and updating knowledge from specialists
High value for accurate farm records
Choice and types of poultry enterprise The prospective farmer’s first major assignment is to decide on a suitable poultry enterprise based on available resources and the market demand for poultry products in his locality.
Types of Poultry farming enterprisesThere are three primary farming enterprises. These are: (1) breeding and hatchery operations, (2) commercial egg / broiler production and (3) feed milling
Breeding and hatching of day old chicksThis enterprise involves the rearing of parent stock hens and cocks in the correct ratio to produce fertile eggs which are then hatched with the use of incubators and hatchers. The chicks so hatched are then sold out to poultry producers.
Table egg productionFor table egg product, pullets are purchased from a hatchery and these are then brooded and reared to
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the age of about five months before they begin laying eggs.
Broiler productionBroiler production has the fastest rate of return of all the poultry enterprises. Commercial day old broiler chicks are purchased from the hatchery and reared to market weight. With good feeding and management broilers should be ready for market between seven to ten weeks old, when they should be weighing between 1.6 to 2.4 kg each. The broilers may be sold live or processed (fresh or frozen).
Line breeding and grandparent stock productionThe production of pure lines and the different types of parent stocks are a highly specialized field of poultry production that relies on the expertise of well trained and tested poultry breeders. It is extremely critical since in the long run commercial egg and broiler production would phase out if such breeding work is not maintained. Furthermore, it is at that level that the initial selection and breeding for desirable economic traits occur.
Integrated projectsThe three primary enterprises are often integrated on large-scale farms. Integration often includes feed milling and product processing as well as other ancillary enterprises. The major advantage of such integrated projects is the reliability of sources and supply of primary inputs. It also promotes the
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enforcement of quality control measures in the production of feed and poultry products.
Feed millingFeed account for between 60-80% of the cost of production and because of the crucial need for quality controls, most large scale poultry producers often make their own feed. Feed milling involves the procurement of ingredients needed to produce feed, grinding, mixing and bagging.
REESOURCES FOR SUCCESSFUL POULTRY FARMING Regardless of which enterprise is to be operated, there are certain resources that are commonly needed for the establishment of poultry projects.
Land:- Select on the basis of easy access to marketing outlets for the procurement of inputs and disposal of products. Desirable topographical features are a well drained site and freedom from features that would block free air movement. The size would depend on the type of enterprise, but in general breeding projects require more land because of the greater requirement for physical separation between the hatchery and other buildings for the rearing stock. A certificate of occupancy is a necessary condition if the project is to be financed by a lending agency. If a virgin land is to be used, the land has to be cleared before the layout of building and other infrastructure.
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Housing: - Facilities are needed for brooding and growing, laying hens, breeders or broilers. The farmer has to decide whether to brood and rear in the same facilities or use separate ones. Layout of houses and infrastructure must be carefully planned to maximize land use. However, recommended distances between buildings or different segments of the farm must be observed in order to enhance good management, cost effectiveness and disease control. Hatcheries and feed milling facilities must be designed professionally and must take into account anticipated expansions in the future. Many farmers install feed milling machines but do not provide for ingredient and finished feed storage which are very crucial to the successful operation of a feed mill. To determine the numbers and sizes of houses required, floor space requirements per bird must be taken into account. Poultry houses do not have to be limited in length if the terrain allows it but must be limited in width to not more than 11 metres in order to facilitate natural ventilation. Good housing designs take into account the requirements for optimum ventilation, provide for equipment installation where necessary, and facilitate ease of movement and cleaning within and around the houses. Construction materials must be cost effective but durable enough to withstand windstorms.
Access roads and other infrastructures: - Access roads leading into the farm and good housing layout that cater for the free movement of vehicles
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between houses greatly enhance good management practices. In addition to houses for stock, buildings for offices, conveniences, storage rooms for equipment and other products not in use or that are being held temporarily should be provided.
Water supply: - water is a very critical nutrient for poultry, more so during hot weather. A dependable source of water supply should be provided either from public water, well or borehole. In addition, storage tanks should be installed to store water.
Fencing and security: - fencing and security arrangements to safeguard land encroachment by neighbours and the pilfering of eggs and poultry by staff and visitors are critical. Fencing also helps to control or restrict the number of visitors and vehicles that can enter the farm. This is an important requirement for disease control.
Transportation: - To facilitate easy movement of goods and the delivery of essential services, it is necessary for a commercial poultry farm to have enough vehicles at its disposal. Poultry products are highly perishable so it is sometimes necessary to carry them to markets faraway if that is the only marketing outlet. The type of vehicles to be purchase must be capable of moving appropriate quantities of goods.
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Equipment: - Some equipments are basic to all poultry enterprises while others are specifically needed for particular enterprises. Conventionally, the brooding of chicks, rearing of pullets, broilers and breeders are usually done in deep litter floor. Consequently, equipment used for brooding and rearing are common to all poultry farms.
Information and marketing services: - Timely marketing of products is an absolute necessity for successful poultry production. The smart manager must from the start set up the machinery for gathering information needed to enhance improved productivity and rapid disposal of products. It is not unusual in this country to find large scale farmers who simply do not see their value. Professional societies such as the Nigerian Society for Animal Production, Animal Science Association of Nigeria, and farmers groups such as the Poultry Association of Nigeria are organizations to which poultry farmers can be members and benefit from information sharing and support services provided to members.
Waste disposal: - Farms located in sub-urban centres may sometimes run into problems of poultry litter waste disposal. Fortunately, poultry litter makes very good fertilizer so it is usually in high demand. However, it is important to ensure that there will be no serious complains from neighbours about unpleasant odour or other forms of pollution that may arise from the farm in their locality.
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Risk awareness and risk management: - The key to risk management is to plan properly before embarking on the farm. Establish checks and balances that will minimize risks that can be avoided. Employ only competent, trustworthy and dedicated staff who are capable of providing optimum management at all times. With the setting up of the Nigerian Agricultural Insurance Agency, it is advisable that farmers take advantage of this and insure their flock.
Records and accurate record keeping: - Good record keeping is indispensable for any successful business venture. Production, operational and accounting records must be properly kept and analyzed regularly to aid in management decisions and to identify problem areas in the farm’s operation. Inventory records are vital for security reasons and depreciation computations.
POULTRY MANAGEMENT
Brooding ManagementBrooding is the art of caring for young chicks after hatching. It involves the provision of those factors that are necessary for the survival and rapid growth of the chick. Such factors include heat, light, humidity, ventilation, feed, water and disease control. In Nigeria and indeed most tropical
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countries, humidity and ventilation can be taken care of by means of properly designed housing, but heat, light, feed and water have to be provided as necessary. During the first few weeks of bird’s life (between 0-6 weeks) it is usually necessary to provide supplementary heat to keep the birds comfortable. This period is referred to as the brooding period. Basically, there are two methods of brooding:-
Natural brooding:- This is the method whereby a broody hen takes care of the chicks she hatches, although the hen can also be made to adopt purchased day-old chicks. The local fowls are suitable for this purpose and some Rhode Island Red birds may occasionally be reliable. A good sized broody hen can be given as many as 12 chicks in cool weather and up to 15 in the hot season. Natural brooding is only practiced when small numbers of chicks are reared. It is quite unsuitable for a commercial scale operation.
Artificial Brooding:- This is brooding without the mother hen. It necessitates the use of equipment which provides conditions similar to those of the broody hen, such as adequate warmth, protection against harsh weather and predators. It also makes for proper feeding, watering and disease control. Artificial brooding is the best method for the commercial producer. It is advisable for the beginning poultry man start brooding a small number of chicks. If he is successful, i.e. with less
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than 4% mortality up to 8 weeks of age then he can go on to brood larger numbers.
Facilities required for brooding and rearing Housing: - House for brooding should be such that they conserve heat to keep the room warm. Houses meant for young chicks should be located at least 50m (150ft) away from houses containing older birds in order to minimize the risk of transferring diseases from old to young stock. In constructing a house, it is important to note the following:-
Foundation and wall:- A solid and strong foundation is necessary. Digging should be done to a depth of between 0.5-0.7m (1.5-2ft) or more depending on the nature of the soil. After digging, a layer of concrete should be poured in to a depth of about 10cm (4"). This will form the basement upon which the blocks will be laid. To minimize the effect of termites, an anti-termite chemical can be poured on top of this basement. For growers and broilers the wall should be half-open sided. The open sided portion of the wall has to be screened with chicken wire mesh. The total height of the wall need not exceed 1.9m (6'') from the floor to the caves.
Roof:- Roofing materials such as zinc and aluminum roofing sheets are good for poultry houses. Asbestos is best because it doesn't absorb as much heat but it is relatively expensive. Thatch roofing should be discouraged because of maintenance problems, difficulty of clearing
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parasites from the house and fire hazards. It is important to provide a good roof overhang of about 0.9m (3ft). This is necessary to prevent rain draft from entering the house through the open sides of the wall. The roof overhang may be longer than this on the side of the building facing the rain bearing wind.
Doors:- Doors should be wide enough not less than 0.9m (3ft). This is to facilitate easy movement of staff, equipment, birds and manure in and out of the house. A footbath of disinfectant is needed at the entrance of each door. This maybe built in at the doorstep or it may be a movable container.
Storage Space:- Provision of storage space should be made in the house for storage of equipment, feeds and other items that have to be kept in the house. The size of such a space should be about one-tenth of the total size of the' house.
Equipment:- A number of equipment are needed for the supply of heat and light, feeding and watering, manure handling and egg handling. These can be made locally, or purchased from a poultry equipment dealer. Factors to consider when buying equipment are cost, durability and ease of handling.Brooder boxes:- The use of brooder boxes (Figure 1) is necessary to conserve heat within a limited area when lamps (kerosine or electric) are used as
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source of heat for brooding. Brooder boxes can be made from wood or metal or may be improvised from thick cardboard paper or wooden boxes. All brooder boxes should be constructed with holes at the top to provide for the escape of fumes especially when kerosine lamps are used. A space allowance of 7sq cm per chick under the brooder box is adequate, i.e. a box measuring 1.25m x 1.25m (4 x 4ft) is adequate for up to 400 chicks.
Figure 1: Brooding box
Source of heat:- Warmth is the most important requirement for the day old chick. Once the environment becomes too cold it can easily die especially when reared in large numbers. Heat for brooding may be supplied through kerosine
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lanterns, electricity lamps, charcoal, gas brooders or hot water pipes. Whatever source is used for ·heating, it is essential to prevent it from direct contact with chicks, litter material and brooder boxes. Two to three kerosine lamps placed on the floor or two 100 watts bulbs hung at about 20cm (8-10 inches) above the floor is sufficient to provide heat and light for up to 75-100 chicks. A recent report indicates that under Nigerian conditions brooding with kerosine lamps as heat source is much cheaper than other sources although it requires more care.
Feeding and Watering Troughs:- These are used for feeding and watering the chicks. Feeders may be longitudinal or conical in shape. A linear feeding space of 2.5 metres (8ft) is adequate for up to 100 chicks from 0-4 weeks of age for broilers and from 0-6 weeks for pullets. Such a feeder should be shallow, not more than 7.5cm (3 inches) deep and be placed on the floor. The feeding space should be doubled for broiler chicks from 4-10 weeks and for pullet chicks 6-14 weeks. For this age and beyond, the feeder should be about 15cm (6 inches) deep. This means that 100 chicks would require one 1.25in (4ft) long feeder up to 4-6 weeks of age and two of such feeders up to 10 or 14 weeks of age. Beyond 14 weeks of age, use 3 of such feeders per 100 pullets or layers. Feeders should be constructed
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with lips to minimize feed wastage and fitted with rollers at the open end to prevent chicks from jumping in and contaminating the feed with their faeces. Feeders may be metallic or wooden. Most waterers are conical in shape. Two, 4 litre capacity waterers are adequate for up to 100 birds from day old to 6 weeks of age. They should be shallow (less than 5cm or 2 inches deep), to prevent drowning the chicks. After 6 weeks, bigger waterers should be used. Two waterers of 10-15 litre capacity may be used for 100 chickens up to 200 weeks and three of such waterers should be provided for 100 birds during the laying period. Waterers should not be too large since they will be too heavy and tend to waste water. Waterers are usually made of metal, glass or plastic materials. In general feeders and waterers are often constructed in two standard sizes, one for chicks and the other for older chickens. The chick feeders and drinkers are used during the brooding period while the bigger sizes should replace these as soon as the birds outgrow them, usually between 5-8 weeks of age, depending on whether they are broilers or pullets.
The poultry keeper may find it convenient to improvise his own feeders and waterers. The point to observe in such a case is that the feeders and waterers should be designed to minimize feed or water wastage and to prevent the chicks from
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jumping into feed or water thereby contaminating it. For waterers there should be no leakage and it should be easy to wash.
Litter Materials:- It is necessary to cover the floor of the brooder house with some dry, clean, coarse, and absorbent material before putting in the chicks. Such material is meant to absorb the moisture from water spillage and chick droppings in such a way that the house is kept dry all the time. The most popularly used litter material is wood shavings from sawmills and carpenters sheds. Other litter materials include: chopped maize cobs, guinea-corn and millet husks, chopped rice straw chopped dry grass, crushed groundnut shells and rice husks.
Miscellaneous equipment:- In addition to the list enumerated above, the poultry keeper would need things like buckets, brooms, shovels, wheelbarrow, feed scoops, chicken crates, ropes for hanging feeders, water tanks for water storage, egg laying nests, egg trays, weighing scale and for commercial operations, office space and equipment would also be needed. Other equipment may also be purchased depending on availability and need. A list of equipment needed per 100 birds is given in Table 1 below.
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Table 1: list of equipment per 100 birds*A. Feeding and watering
3 chicks feeders (2´´ of feeding space/bird; 3´´ deep)
3 chick drinkers (2 litre capacity).
2 chicken feeders (4" of feeding space/bird; 6" deep).
2 chicken'drinkers (8-10 litre capacity).
1 (200 litre capacity) water tank for water storage
Feed scoops (use plastic plates or bowls).
2 buckets.
1 Roll of twine (for hanging feeders only).
B.Brooding
1 Brooder box
3 Kerosine lambs or 3 100 –watt bulbs
¼ of a roll of plastic sheet (for open-sided
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houses only).
C.Cleaning and manure handling
1 broom
1 shovel
1 wheelbarrow
D.Egg handling (for layers only)
1 laying nest (20 cells).
6 Egg trays (30 egg capacity each).
Plastic bags (for packing and marketing eggs).
E.Miscellaneous
1 weighing scale.
4 chicken crates.
Record books or sheets.
Sack for packing feeds and litter materials.
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*The list is meant for equipment needed when rearing chicken on deep litter with no automated equipment.
Preparation for the arrival of chicks
Buying chicks Day old, chicks should be purchased from a reliable hatchery in order to obtain quality chicks which are very healthy and have the genetic production potential. Place your order well in advance (about 6 months) and remember to indicate the sex, strain and quantity required. Seek the advice of your nearest poultry/livestock extension officer on the choice of breed and the hatchery.
Some poultry keepers might prefer to buy only started pullets or point of lay chickens so that they do not have to brood the birds themselves. Started pullets or point of lay chickens are not being produced commercially in this country but it is one form of poultry business that can be very profitable if there is good co-operation between the pullet rearer and the egg producer. Before buying started pullets, be very sure that the producer has done a good job of rearing by going through the records and by physical examination and weighing a sample of the birds to see whether they have attained recommended weights for the breed or variety at that age.
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It is very important to be fully prepared before you collect day old chicks. This will ensure that they are properly transported and received at the farm. This increases their survival rate during the brooding period.
Brooder house. Get the brooder house ready about 3 weeks before the chicks arrive. Work to be done include: Making necessary repairs to mend leaking roofs, repairing doors and plastering cracks in the walls. Removal of old litter from the house already in use, sweeping, thoroughly washing and disinfection of the house using a suitable disinfectant such as ‘Izal’, ‘Dettol’, ‘Sanitas’ or ‘ Milton’.
Feeding troughs and drinkers already in use should also be thoroughly washed and disinfected. Making sure that all the necessary equipment have been purchased and are in good working condition.
Two Days to arrival Sweep the house and clean the equipment. Put litter on the floor. If the floor is not cemented, put a layer of dry clean sand before putting the litter. Put the litter to a depth of about 7.5cm (3 inches). Cover the litter material with rough brown paper or old newspapers. This is to prevent the chicks from eating fibrous material while learning to eat. The paper may be removed after four days. Assemble all equipment with the brooder box in the
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middle and the feeders radiating from it as shown (Fig. 3). The source of heat should be distributed evenly under the brooder box. The water fountain may be set between the feeders but near the edge of the hover. The whole arrangement is then enclosed by a chick guard of cardboard paper about 45cm (30 inches) high and about 105m (5ft) away from the brooder box. Blocks or any other suitable material can also be used. The purpose of the chick guard is to prevent the chicks from drifting too far away from the source of heat. The guard may be moved back a little every day and then completely removed after 10 days. Test all equipment to make sure that they are in proper working condition. If a half-open sided house is to be used, cover the open sides with plastic sheets, thick cardboard paper, native mats, empty feed bags or any other suitable material.
BROODING BEST PRACTICES
Arrival of Chicks About 6 hours before the chicks arrive, fill the drinkers with medicated water, put on the heat source to warm up the room and place feed in the feeders. Some feed may also be sprinkled on the paper covering the litter. Flat feed trays may also be used as feeders during the first week.
Transport the chicks as fast as possible from the
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hatchery to the farm with minimum disturbance and preferably during the cooler part of the day (early morning or in the evening). Ensure that the chicks are adequately ventilated while in transit, e.g. the chicks should not be locked up inside the boot of a car while in transit.
Collect all relevant information about the chicks from the hatchery of purchase. Have they been vaccinated? Are there any special management practices to be observed? What is the anticipated growth or production potential?
As soon as the chicks arrive, count and put them immediately under the hover. Remove all deformed chicks. Teach the weak chicks to drink. If chicks are transported over long distances by road, the addition of glucose (or sugar if glucose is not available) to the drinking water may help to increase their survival rate.
After putting down the chicks stay and watch them for the next one hour and observe how comfortable they are. If they spread evenly under the hover, they are comfortable. If they huddle in the centre close to the source of heat they are cold. If the room is too hot, they will move away from the source of heat and be pushing up against the chick guard. The heat supply should then be adjusted accordingly. Chicks have tendency to crowd around corners of the building especially when frightened or if they feel cold. Piling can lead to mortality. It is therefore advisable to round off any sharp or square corners
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of the house with boards, bricks or jute sacks in order to prevent piling.
Daily Routine Activities
During the first week, inspect your flock as early as possible in the mornings, as late as possible in the evenings and occasionally at other times to ensure that the birds are comfortable. Remove any dead birds and dispose properly by burial or use of a disposal pit. Remove mouldy or contaminated feed and add fresh supply. Feeders should only be filled about half to two-thirds capacity in order to minimize feed wastage. They should also be placed in such a way that no bird has to walk more than 3.05m (10ft) to get feed or water. Remove the waterers and wash properly before refilling with fresh clean water that is fit for human consumption. Use medicated water throughout the first week. The water should be change again in the afternoon, if it becomes dirty or refilled the waterer any time it is empty. Waterers may be raised on blocks to minimize contamination. Remove wet litter and replace with fresh and dry litter materials. When kerosine lanterns are used:- (a) Fill them up only two-thirds full every morning
and evening. (b) Remove any accumulated soot. (c) Trim the wick periodically in order to obtain
uniform flame.
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(7.) Fill in the records. For small holders a hard covered notebook is adequate but for large units a number of forms with the appropriate columns are usually kept for each pen. (8.) All corridors and storage spaces should be swept clean and all equipment not in use should be neatly packed in such storage spaces. (9.) If abnormal signs are observed, such as decreased feed consumption, bloody faeces, decreased activity or droopiness, report immediately to your nearest livestock or veterinary officer.
Periodic Activities Cull birds that are deformed, stunted or are manifesting lack of growth and poor productivity. This cuts down on the cost of feed and also increases the space allowance for the healthy birds. Debeak the birds at 3-5 weeks old and between 15-17 weeks of age by cutting off about one-third of the upper and lower beaks. Electric debeaking at about 3 weeks of age gives a more permanent debeaking than cold scissors debeaking. Deworm at 8 weeks and thereafter as necessary depending on the incident of re-infestation of the flock by worms. Follow the routine vaccination programme recommended for your area.
BROILER MANAGEMENT
Well managed good quality broilers should be ready for market by 8 weeks at which time they should be
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averaging 1.7-2.0kg each. The large scale production of broilers depends heavily on the availability of processing and marketing facilities for rapid disposal (sales).
Housing and Equipment
Housing The most practical system for broiler management is the "All in" and "All out" method, whereby chicks are brought into the pen at day old and reared to slaughter (market) weight. They are then removed at once, the house is cleaned, washed, disinfected and allowed to rest for not less than two weeks before a new set is brought in.
EquipmentThe equipment for broiler production are as described under brooding management (Table 1). Because the watering chore takes more time than other routines, it is advisable to install an automatic watering system. Automatic watering only requires an overhead tank, a pump to deliver water into the tank and the automatic waterers. Once the tank is full, water fills the waterers by force of gravity. However, it is important to check the watering lines everyday to ensure that there are no blockages.
Feed and FeedingBroiler feeds are high energy, high protein-containing feeds designed to promote rapid growth. There are two types of broiler feeds available commercially. The broiler starter which should be
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fed for the first 1-4 weeks and the broiler finisher should be fed from 5 weeks to finish. Both feeds can have the same energy level (3000 ME Kcals/kg of diet), but broiler starter should have a higher protein (23%) than the finisher (20%). There is the need to ensure that broiler feeds contain a good quality animal protein source or synthetic amino acids in enough quantity to meet the indispensable amino acid requirements. Good quality feed is an absolute necessity for the successful production of broilers and other poultry.
Broilers are usually fed ad libitum (at all times). The use of artificial lights to stimulate feeding during the day and night can increase feed intake and promote a more rapid growth. To make feed available all the time means that care must be taken to minimize feed wastage as this tends to increase with such liberal feeding practices.
The amount of feed required to raise a set of broilers would depend on the quality of feed, the duration for which the broilers are kept and the amount of feed wastage. The consumption of starter mash should be between 1.5-2.0kg/bird from 0-5 weeks while the amount of broiler finisher should be between 3-4kg/bird. Table 2 summarizes the requirement per 100 broilers.
Table 2: Broiler feeds and requirements per 100 birds
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Feed Name Age to Feed
Quantity/100 birdsKg No. of 25kg
bagsBroiler Starter
Broiler Finisher
0-5 weeks
5-9 weeks
200
300
8
12
Table 3: 13-week calendar of activities for rearing one set of broilers
Week Age of birds (week)
Activity
0-2 - - Sweep, wash and disinfect house.- Assemble all equipment and check to ensure they are working well.- Carry out house repairs.
1-2 0 -Allow house to rest.2-3 0 - Set brooder house ready for arrival
of chicks.3-4 0-1 Arrival of chicks.
Provision of optimum brooding care.Vaccinate birds against Newcastle disease, Marek’s and Gumboro before 10 days of age.Feed broilers starter mash.
4-5 1-2 Continue brooding care.Complete vaccination as above
5-6 2-3 Continue brooding care.Gradually reduce supplementary
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heat.6-7 3-4 Gradually reduce supplementary
heat7-9 4-6 Discontinue supplementary heat.
Vaccinate against Newcastle disease, Gumboro and fowl pox.Change feed to broiler finisher.Change to adult feeders and drinkers.
9-10 6-7 Activate the machinery for marketing.
10-11 7-8 Complete arrangement for marketing.
11-13 8-10 Sell off broilers.Sweep, wash and disinfect house, allow to rest and bring in the new set after two weeks of rest.
Management Routines:- Daily and periodic routines during brooding have already been described. However, broiler production has the following peculiarities: deworming of birds is not necessary. Check weights weekly by sampling about 5% of the birds.
Production goalsThe continuous production of broilers demands the best of managerial ability. Feeding, disease control programmes and records keeping with regular analysis must be routinely and strictly maintained if
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the birds are to be ready for market as early as possible. Production standards must be set for each flock and the records must be used to periodically ascertain whether or not such standards are being met.
On the basis of a 12-13 week management calendar per set of broilers, the farmer should aim to produce at least four sets of broilers per house per year in order to maximize the use of invested capital. The profit margin per bird is usually small and so the larger the quantity produced, the greater the volume of profits. The judicious use of available marketing outlets to ensure maximum production cannot be overemphasized.
PULLET MANAGEMENTPullets are young female Chickens that are grown to start laying eggs by the time they are 20-24 weeks old. The primary goal of the pullet grower is to produce a lean, large-framed pullet that will become an economical and profitable layer. The Shika brown, Isa brown, Bovan Near and Dominant Black breed of pullet are strongly recommended for good and dependable result in Nigeria egg production environment
Housing and Equipment
Housing: Pullets like broilers are most often reared on deep litter floors. The discussion on housing under brooding is therefore relevant to pullet housing. However, it is important for the farmer to
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decide whether to have separate brooding and pullet rearing houses or use the same facility to brood, grow and lay. For ease of management, it is better to have a separate house for brooding and rearing. Since it takes 4-5 months to brood and grow pullets to point of lay, one brood and grow house can be used to produce pullets that will occupy 3 or 4 laying houses. For a farm that plans to produce eggs all year round, the first set of pullets would be brought in January and transferred into a laying house in April, the second set should begins in April/May which would be transferred into a second laying house in August. The third set would be started in August/September which would be transferred into a third laying house in December. Brood-grow pullet rearing houses should be designed to give a space allowance of 0.14sq m/bird (1.5 sq. ft). The floor space requirements/bird or chickens of varying ages is given in Table 4.
Table 4: Floor Space requirements/bird for chickens of varying ages
Age of birds (weeks)
Broiler chickens
Pullets (brown eggers)
Sq. ft
Sq. mFloor rearing
Cage rearing
Sq. ft
Sq. m Sq. ins.
Sq. cm
0-5 0.5 0.046 0.5 0.046 282 1816 -10 0.8 0.074 0.8 0.074 48 310
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11-15 - - 1.0 0.093 55 35516-20 - - 1.5 0.140 552 35521-72 - - 2.0 0.186 702 4521Source: Olomu, 1980. Practical hints for backyard poultry keepers. NAPRI Bulletin 2: 19802Source: North, 1984. Commercial chicken production manual 3rd Ed.
Production goals for pulletsIn order to produce pullets that will be economical and profitable layers, great care must be taken to provide the management that will enhance good body development without accumulating fat. It is therefore necessary for the pullet grower (farmer) to periodically (2 weeks intervals) monitor the pullet growth rate and compares with acceptable growth standards for his breed. It is desirable that 80% of birds weighed must weigh within 10% of the mean weight of the sample because the uniformity of individual weights is just as important as the average flock weight. The sample should be a random selection of about 100 birds per house. The growth rate and feed consumption of medium-sized pullets under Nigerian conditions are given in Table 5. Delaying sexual maturity is often a desirable goal because this helps to reduce the number of small eggs/bird. Mortality rate from day old to 20 weeks should not exceed 5-6%.
Table 5: Growth rate (kg) and feed consumption (kg) of medium-type pullets
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Age(weeks)
Live weight(Cumulative)
Feed consumptionPer week
Cumulative
0 - - -1 - .058 .0582 - .125 .0833 - .181 .3644 0.0222 .223 .5875 - .230 .8176 - .312 1.1297 - .332 1.4618. 0.650 .352 1.8139. - .368 2.18110. - .398 2.57911. - .433 3.01212. 1.011 .492 3.50413. - .542 4.04614. - .547 4.59315. - .549 5.14216. 1.379 .560 5.70217. - .560 6.26218. - .570 6.83219. - .612 7.44420. 1.696 ..664 8.10821. - .689 8.79722. - .710 9.507
Feeds and feeding
Feeds: There is a tendency to think that pullet feeding is not critical since rapid growth is not a
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priority, more so that delay in sexual maturity is often a desirable goal. This is an erroneous concept because a badly reared pullet can never be a good layer. Growers mash is the feed for pullets from about 8 weeks old to between 18-20 weeks of age. Chick mash would have been fed from 0-8 weeks. However, the present trend worldwide is to have two types of pullet developer ratios, one to be fed from 8 up to about 14 weeks and second from 14 weeks to point of lay. Table 6 gives the feed names and quantities per 100 birds based on the two feeding regimes with no feed restriction.
Table 6: Pullet growing feeds and feed requirements per 100 birdsFeed %
proteinAge to Feed
Quantity requiredkg 25kg
bags Programme 1Chick mashGrower mash
2016
0-8 weeks9-20 weeks
200550
822
Programme 2Chick mashPullet mash 1Pullet mash 2
201614
0-8 weeks9-14 weeks15-20 weeks
200250300
81012
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Feeding restriction: when pullets are fully fed, they tend to mature easily and may begin to lay from 18 weeks of age. Most of these eggs would be too small to fetch good prices. It has therefore become a common practice to restrict feeds for growing pullets. The advantages of feed restriction are: It reduces the number of small eggs because the birds produce larger eggs soon after the commencement of lay. Tends to reduce laying house mortality. It often, produces a bird with a larger frame and capacity at point of lay.May result in increased egg production. May produce significant savings in feed cost per pullet.
Feed restriction however, should be practiced only when sample weighing indicates that the birds are growing too rapidly. One of the following three methods can be used: Skip-a-day: Full feed for 2 days and then skip a day without feed. This is the easiest method and it also tends to be less harsh on the birds.Restrict total feed intake: Feed only about 80% of the regular feed intake on a daily basis.Restrict the intake of protein or energy: This method can be applied if the farmer mixes his own feeds or is custom mixed.
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Although feed restriction is a good management practice for pullets it must be applied only if a definite need for it has been established. The fact is that most commercial grower mashes are already restricted in energy and protein, this means that further physical restriction of feed intake would lead to excessive feed restriction that will be harmful to the birds. Precautionary measures necessary for effective application of feed restriction procedures include the following: Be sure to have adequate feeder space, especially if daily physical feed restriction is adopted. Bird must be properly debeaked as there is a tendency towards increased incidence of cannibalism.
If these precautions are not taken pullet size uniformity at point of lay would be jeopardized and cannibalism could be a serious threat.
Pullet management calendarA list of management practices for rearing pullets from day old to 20 weeks of age are given in Table 7.
Table 7: Calendar of management practices for growing pullets
Age of birds (weeks)
Management practices
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0 2-3 weeks before arrival of chicks, thoroughly wash and disinfect house. Allow house to rest for at least two weeks.
0 2-3 days before chick arrival, set up facilities for brooding (see brooding management).
0-1 Receive chicks and provide optimum brooding care.Vaccinate chicks against Newcastle, Marek’s and Gumboro before 10 days of age.Feed chick mash.
1-2 Continue brooding care.Complete vaccination as stated above.
2-4 Debeak if not done at day old.Continue brooding care.Gradually phase out supplementary heating.
4-6 Continue brooding care.Discontinue supplementary heating.Vaccinate against Newcastle disease, Gumboro and Fowl pox.
6-8 Separate cockerels from the pullets if straight run chicks were brooded.Continue with routine management practices.
8-10 Change feed to grower mash.Change to adult size feeders and drinkers.Deworm the birds if possible.
10-12 Initiate feed restriction if necessary.Continue with routine management.
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12-14 Continue feed restriction if necessary.Continue with management practices.
14-16 Continue feed restriction if necessary.Debeak if necessary (Be sure to have ample feed and water on days after debeaking).
16-18 Full feeding.Vaccinate against Newcastle.Vaccinate breeder flocks against Gumboro at 18 weeks.
18-19 Move birds into laying house. (Be sure to leave about one week between vaccination and movement to laying house).Introduce layers mash after 19 weeks but before 21 weeks.
Debeaking: This is very important pullet management practice which if properly done have the following advantages: Reduces mortality due to feather and vent picking.Decreases egg picking. Improves feed efficiency by decreasing feed wastage.
Early debeaking at 6-10 days of age is the most preferred because chicks are easier to handle than pullets; it prevents the cannibalistic habit at an early age; there is less interference with later vaccinations and there will be greater bird uniformity in the flock. Debeaking may also be done from 14-16 weeks.
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The debeaking process is a major stress factor regardless of the age of birds on which it is done. It is therefore important that it is done rapidly and properly. For a small sized flock, debeaking may be done with cold scissors but this often leads to excessive bleeding and high mortality. The best method is to use an electric debeaker. The procedure for debeaking is summarised as follows:
Mobilise a sufficient number of staff for holding the birds and trained personnel for debeaking. Work during the cooler periods of the day. If possible avoid debeaking during the hotter periods of the year. Work out a system for the most efficient and rapid handling of bird during the process. Cut between ½ to 1/3 of the upper and lower beaks. Cut sharply and cauterize properly to avoid excessive bleeding. Provide plenty of feed and water after debeaking. Use anti-stress feed or water additives for about three days after debeaking. Do not debeak birds that are already under some kind of stress e.g. vaccinations.
Moving Pullets into laying Houses: The movement of pullets from a rearing house into laying facilities is a significant stress factor. Care must therefore be taken to ensure that the effect of such a stress is minimal. Movement should take place between 18-20 weeks old i.e. before the birds begin laying. The procedure should be followed as
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stated below: Move birds during the cooler periods of the day, best of all in the evening. Get the laying facility fully supplied with feed and water prior to stocking. Use anti-stress feed or water additives. Eliminating feed 12 hours before moving may be helpful in decreasing pullet dehydration. Birds should be handled gently. Scratches or bruises can produce cage layer fatigue in caged layers. Avoid overcrowding. Provide a minimum of 0.150 sqm. (2sq ft.) of space per bird in the laying house if deep litter is to be used.
MANAGEMENT OF LAYERS
Pullets fed liberally under good management conditions may begin to lay eggs anytime after 18 weeks of age. However, delaying sexual maturity is common management practice which often leads to hens coming into lay after twenty weeks of age. Good layers should attain 50% hen-day egg production by 26 weeks of age.
Egg Production Goals
The profitability of any egg production enterprise depends largely on the number of eggs produced per
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laying hen. The primary goal of this enterprise is therefore to produce the maximum number of eggs at minimum cost. Under Nigerian conditions a good laying hen (medium sized brown eggers) should be able to produce about 220 eggs/year and consume an average of 120g of feed/day. Mortality rates should not exceed about 1 % every month.
Housing and equipment
The farmer is often faced with the dilemma of raising layers on deep litter floor or in cages. In both cases solid structures have to be erected, but if cages are to be installed additional expenses must be incurred in the flooring construction to provide for heavier concreting with deep pit. Both the deep litter floor and cage systems have their advantages and disadvantages.
Under normal conditions the deep litter system is cheaper and more profitable. The provision for good ventilation is the most critical factor in the design of laying houses in the hot tropical environment. The essential considerations for battery cage system and deep litter are as follows:-
Battery cage system:- Most of the commercial layers today are kept in cages. This is particularly true in fully automated production systems. The birds are easier to manage in cages.
Cage related problems:- layers kept in cages sometimes develop some problems whose specific
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causes have not been ascertained. Such problems are not common among layers managed on the floor. The main cage-related problems most commonly encountered are cage layer fatigue (birds are unable to stand due to weakened bones), fatty liver syndrome (lots of fat deposition, especially in the liver.
Deep litter system Install nests and fresh nesting material such as wood shavings, rice hulls or sawdust. Well designed nests should be provided to reduce time needed for caring for the laying flock and the eggs. Nests may be made of wood or metal and of varying managements, but should provide for convenience in egg collection. They may be placed in the middle of the pen or along the walls inside the building. Provide one nest measuring 30cm (12") wide, 35cm (14") high and about 30cm (12") deep per 4 hens. For community nests, allow O.15sq m (1sq ft) of nesting space per 5 hens. Nests should be cleaned regularly and new nesting materials added as needed to produce clean eggs.
The litter should be stirred frequently and new material added. Wet and "caked-over" spots should be removed and replaced with fresh, dry litter. A common problem with hens on deep litter is floor eggs. Eggs laid on' the floor easily become dirty and are susceptible to breakage.
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Figure 2: Lower side wall house for deep litter system of poultry production
The following management practices will help to ensure that the birds lay inside the nests rather than on the floor: Have nests in the laying house before the pullets are housed or introduced the nests before the pullets begin to lay eggs. Provide adequate, well-ventilated nests to prevent overcrowding. Round off corners of the house which serve as nesting places. Close nests at nights. Provide nests with clean nesting materials. Use darkened nests and place them in darker sections of the house. Feeds and Feeding Layers mash may contain between 2400-2800 Kcals or ME/Kg of diet and 16-17% protein. The peculiarity of layer's feed, however, is its high
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calcium content which may be up to 3.5%. The high calcium is necessary for stronger egg shells. In recent years, phase feeding of layers has been advocated to be in line with the different phases of an egg production profile. The first phase starts at point of lay to the period of peak production i.e. between 20-35 weeks; the second phase begins at 35 weeks and ends at about 55 weeks while the third lasts to the end of lay. Under such a system the ration for phase one should have 17% protein, phase two 16% and phase three 15% protein. This takes cognizance of the differences in egg production during the three phases. The calcium level however, should be slightly increased from phase one to phase three to minimize egg breakage which normally increases with age of the hen. Feed and water should be given liberally.
Management Guide for Layers The following is a summary of management routines for laying hens: Provide optimum space per bird. A space requirement of 0.186m (2sq ft) is adequate at point of lay. Introduce the pullets to layer's mash preferably after the first eggs have been dropped (a production level of 2-5%). Inspect birds daily for any signs of disease or abnormal behaviourMaintain accurate records of feed consumption, egg production and disease control. A sharp drop in feed consumption is often the first indicator of a pending
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disease outbreak or response to a major environmental stress. Under hot weather conditions, provide plenty of cool drinking water, if possible. Use artificial lights in the early mornings (from about 3.00 a.m.) to stimulate feed consumption during the cooler times of the day. Always enter the house courteously, rude entrance can create hysteria. Regularly cull unproductive birds. Removal of such hens creates more space for the remaining birds and saves on the feed cost that would have been expended on them. These birds may also fetch a better price at the time of culling than if they were left to be older before sale. All layers should be sold off after about one year of lay unless they are still economically productive. At the first signs of disease or any other problem, set up the machinery for immediate diagnosis and apply the necessary preventive or corrective measures promptly. 9. Prevent feed wastage.
Egg Collection and HandlingThe chicken egg is one of God's most wonderful creations. Inside it is a warehouse of nutrients concocted in such a way that they can form a chick if the egg is fertile. This concoction of nutrients is held inside the shell, built in such a way that it is strong to bear the weight of a brooding hen but weak enough for the completely developed chick to break through at hatching time. The shell is also
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porous enough to allow gaseous exchange between the inside contents and the external, atmosphere.
This delicately designed bag of nutrients manufactured by the laying hen must properly cared for if its original quality is to be retained during handling and storage. The conditions for handling and marketing of good quality eggs are as follows:
Provide adequate nests for hens on deep litter. The nest may have a hinged door at the top to facilitate easy collection of egg.Keep litter dry. The egg is at its best at the point of oviposition. To prevent it from picking up dirt, the litter should be kept fresh by regular turning of the old litter, removal of wet spots and topping up with fresh dry' litter when old litter becomes “craky” or too moist.Collect eggs at least three times a day. Frequent egg collection prevents the unnecessary accumulation and trampling of eggs by hens. The use of paper or plastic egg trays is best for egg collection because they make it possible to collect and stack eggs with minimum breakage. Store eggs in a cool place. Egg quality deteriorates very rapidly in a hot environment. The optimum temperature for storing eggs is about l3oC (55.4°F) at 75-80% relative humidity. Use the egg room only for eggs. Eggs should be kept away from onions, kerosine and other products with pungent odours that eggs might absorb. During periods of egg glut, spraying or dipping eggs in mineral oil (groundnut oil, cotton seed oil or
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palm oil, etc.) for one minute will preserve egg quality under normal room storage conditions for about 4 weeks.
Selection and Culling
The selection and culling of unproductive hens from the flock has the following advantages: More floor space will be created for the good producers. Saves on the feed cost of maintaining unproductive birds. Culling at an earlier age may fetch a better market price for the bird. May lead to a reduced incidence of diseases. It results in an improvement of feed efficiency for the entire flock.
Culling is a process that should actually begin at day old. Weak, diseased unthrifty birds should continuously be culled out during the growing period. Culling of laying flocks should commence soon after the hens attain peak production.
The best time to cull is in the evening just after dark using a flashlight, but culling can also be done during the day. The age at which to dispose of old layers is the point at which the cost of egg production; exceeds income from sale of eggs. Layers can be recycled by using a force molting programme.
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POULTRY HEALTH MANAGEMENTThe methods of rearing poultry have undergone lots of changes over the years. Poultry is probably the most intensively raised livestock. The intensive system of management creates an environment for the multiplication of disease causing bacteria fungi and viruses. Some of such common diseases of poultry are as bellow:
Common diseases of poultry Disease
Poultry diseases can be caused by
Bacteria
Viruses
Fungi
Parasites
External Internal
Nutritional deficiencies
Common bacterial diseases of poultry include
Fowl typhoidFowl cholera (Pasteurellosis)Pullorum (Salmonelosis)Chronic respiratory disease (CRD)
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Collibacillosis
Figure 3: Swollen Joint; one sign of fowl cholera
Viral diseases of poultry
Viral diseases are those caused by viruses and in poultry these include
Newcastle disease (ND)Infectious bursal disease (IBD)- GumboroFowl pox (FP)
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Marek’s disease (MD)Avian influenza (AI)
Fig.4a. Wing paralysis
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Fig.4a. Torticolis (twisting of the neck)
Fig.4a. Wing paralysis
Figure 5a:Wart-like nodules on comb ??Figure 6b: Wart-like nodules
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Figure 6a Torticolis (twisting of the neck)
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Figure 6b: Leg paralysis
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Figure 7a: Dark bluish comb as sign of AI
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Figure 7b: Neck twisting as one of the signs of AI
Heat stress in poultryWarmer climates give rise to hot weather that produces heat stress to poultry. Poultry becomes heat stressed when it cannot maintain its body temperature for all its natural activities. Heat stress can bring about reduced weight gains and poor feed conversion in broilers, and decreased egg production, egg weight and shell quality in layers. It can also lead to death. For efficient broiler production, the optimum environmental temperature is 15oC – 27oC (60o – 80oF) for birds of 4 – 10 weeks old. During the 1st 4 weeks of age high temperature is not a problem. Layers produce efficiently at temperature of 18oC – 24oC (65o – 75oF) when temperature exceeds 38oC (100oF) and Relative Humidity 50% (RH), poultry mortality reaches 20% or even greater especially in broilers.
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National Veterinary Research Institute Vaccine Guide
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Fig.7c High death rate is a major sign of AI
(Table 8:)Vaccine: Newcastle Disease Vaccine (I/O)Packaging/ storage
A vial of 200 doses store at 40 C for 12 months
ReconstitutionA 200 dose vial to be dissolved in 10mls of sterile distilled water or cold sterile normal saline.
dosage/ route of administration
Instil one drop (0.5ml) into each open eye, inject 0.05ml/bird or by aerosol spray.
Minimum age at vaccination
1-7 days.
Duration of immunity
3 months.
NOTE After 3 weeks, vaccinate with NDV-L
Table 9.(VACCINE: Newcastle Disease Vaccine Lasota (NDV-L)Packaging/ storage
A vial of 200 doses store at 4o C for 12 months.
Reconstitution A 200 dose vial to be dissolved in 2 litres of chlorine-free drinking water or in 10mls sterile
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distilled water or sterile normal saline.
Dosage/ route of administration
10mls of vaccine in cool chlorine-free drinking water/bird (deprive the birds of water for at least an hour before administration). Or instil one drop (0.05mls) into each eye of the bird.
Minimum age at vaccination
3 weeks.
Duration of immunity
4-6 months.
Table 10.(VACCINE: Newcastle Disease Vaccine Lasota (NDV-L)Packaging/ storage
A vial of 500 doses store at 4o C for 12 months
Reconstitution (a) 500 dose vial to be dissolved in 5 litres of drinking water.
(b) Dissolve 500 dose vials in 25ml of sterile distilled water.
Dosage/route of administration
(a) Administer the vaccine in cool chlorine-free drinking
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water. After depriving birds of water for at least an hour before vaccination.
(b) Instil one drop (0.05mls) into each eye of the bird.
Minimum age at vaccination
3 weeks.
Duration of immunity
4 – 6 months.
Table 11.(VACCINE: Newcastle Disease Vaccine Komarov (NDV-K)Packaging/ storage
A vial of 200 doses store at 4o C for 12 months
Reconstitution A 200 dose vial to be dissolved in 40mls of sterile distilled water or normal saline.
Dosage/route of administration
Intramuscular injection using 0.2mls per bird.
Minimum age at vaccination
6 weeks.
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Duration of immunity
About 1 year.
NOTE: Previous vaccination with NDV-i/o or NDV-L is compulsory before NDV-K
Table 12.(VACCINE: Newcastle Disease Vaccine Kamorov (NDV-K)Packaging/ storage
A vial of 500 doses store at 4o C for 12 months
Reconstitution A 500 dose vial to be dissolved in 100mls of distilled sterile water and inject 0.2ml/bird.
Dosage/route of administration
Intramuscular injection using 0.2mls per bird.
Minimum age at vaccination
6 weeks.
Duration of immunity
About 1 year.
NOTE: Previous vaccination with NDV-i/o or NDV-L is compulsory before NDV-K
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Table 13.(VACCINE: Newcastle Disease Vaccine (Strain I2) [NDV I2]Packaging/ storage
A 200 dose vial store at 4o C for 12 months
Reconstitution A 200 dose vial to be dissolved in 2 litres of chlorine-free drinking water or in 10mls of normal saline. Keep reconstituted vaccine away from sun.
Dosage/route of administration
(a) Administer vaccine in cool chlorine-free drinking water at the rate of 10mls of water/bird or
(b) 0.5ml (one drop) into each eye of the bird.
Minimum age at vaccination
3 weeks
Duration of immunity
4 – 6 months.
NOTE: For use in scavenging chickens, turkeys, guinea fowls, ducks and geese.
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Table 14.(VACCINE: Gumboro Vaccine (IBDV)Packaging/ storage
A vial of 200 doses store at 4oC for 12 months
Reconstitution A 200 dose vial to be dissolved in
(a) 2 litres of chlorine-free drinking water
(b) 10mls (for eye drop) or
(c) In 40mls (for injection) of distilled sterile water.
Dosage/route of administration
Administer vaccine
(a) in drinking water at the rate of 10mls/bird
(b) eye – drop (0.05ml/bird) or
(c) Intramuscular injection (0.2ml).
Minimum age at vaccination
10- 21 days.
Duration of immunity
One year
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Table 14.(VACCINE: Fowl Cholera Vaccine (FCV)
Packaging/ storage A vial of 100 doses store at 4oC for 3 months
Reconstitution Liquid
Dosage/route of administration
Inject 1ml under the skin/bird
Minimum age at vaccination
6 weeks
Duration of immunity 12 months.
Notes
Farmers should never vaccinate livestock by themselves Vaccinations are to be carried out by professionals only (veterinarian or para-veterinary personnel).Vaccines once opened or reconstituted must be used within one hour and should be buried away. Never store any balance of reconstituted or liquid vaccine.
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Vaccinations are carried out routinely throughout the year. The minimum vaccination age is day old for poultry.
POULTRY PRODUCTS MARKETINGThe marketing of poultry products is an important function of the poultry industry as it plays a major role in transferring products from the poultry farm to the final consumer. Marketing is a complex activity which commences with the poultry farmer’s decisions on how to dispose his produce, to the activities of intermediaries including product, assembling, transportation, storage, processing, packaging, wholesaling, retailing and ownership by the final consumer. Developing marketing strategies based on product pricing, distribution and market information decisions is another important marketing activity. Many factors will therefore determine the quantities and quality of the poultry product. Of great importance could be the price received at various levels of the marketing process. At the poultry farm level for example, input and output prices will be determining factors, while at the intermediary level determining factors could be market conduct, structure and performance. At the consumer level-determining factors will include product price, incomes, substitutes etc
Definition of Marketing:
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It is a general term used to describe all the activities that lead to final sales of poultry products. It is the process of planning and executing pricing, promotion and distribution to satisfy individual and organizational poultry needs in order to accomplish the poultry producers’ objectives. From this definition it is easy to see that marketing in poultry business is more than just the process of selling a poultry product. A basic knowledge on marketing process in poultry business is an essential component, and without proper marketing idea, even the best poultry producers may receive less or even no profit.
Therefore, marketing activities bridge the gap between the poultry production and consumption. This is shown schematically as:
Production Marketing Consumption
A poultry farm manager must have a basic knowledge of what is happening in the poultry marketplace in order to meet its customer’s needs. Such information on the market demand and supply, prices and the unexploited market shares and possibility of taking forward steps along the value chain for value addition to enhance profit and developing strategies and techniques to maintain and retain the market shares should be properly
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used by farmers to adequately plan the poultry business.
In summary, the poultry farm manager should have market information on market and marketing for proper decision making on the following four (4) P’s:
• Product
• Place/Distribution
• Promotion
• Pricing
Poultry Meat and Eggs Quality Grading, Certification, and Verification
Chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, guineas, pigeons, and shell eggs are all eligible for grading, certification, and auditing services. Different actors along the poultry value chain have standards for poultry products grading activities to ensure that their requirements for quality and other factors are met.
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Poultry Marketing Standards
The sale of poultry meat and eggs for human consumption must be in accordance with marketing standards legislation. Usually, such regulations facilitate harmonized standards throughout the poultry products markets in terms of:
the hygiene requirements for poultry products marketing,the food labeling indicating expiring date, temperature control, packaging materials and weights.
Poultry must be marketed in one of the following conditions:
Fresh poultry meat: This is defined as poultry meat not stiffened by the cooling process, which is to be kept at a temperature not below -2°C and not higher than 4°C at any time.
Frozen poultry meat: This is defined as poultry meat which must be frozen as soon as possible within the constraints of normal slaughtering procedures and kept at a temperature not higher than -12°C at any time. The temperature must be stable and maintained at -12°C or lower,
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Quick-frozen poultry meat: This is defined as poultry meat kept at a temperature not higher than -18°C at any time, and
Non-floating eggs when immerse in water.
Source: (FAO, 2008):
The Distribution Chain of poultry and poultry products
The distribution chain of poultry products begins at the farm level to the final consumer. A farmer or an actor who wants to add value or utility to the poultry product in order to maximize profit should have a basic idea on movement channel of the poultry products. Usually farmers receive relatively low prices from poultry products sold at farm gate to buyers while those sold at markets or directly to processors gain higher profit. Most of the times, group marketing of the poultry products helps to increase bargaining power of the farmers and reduces marketing costs which will automatically lead to enhanced profit.
The overall objective of marketing in poultry is to supply buyers and consumers with poultry products to meet market demand in different periods of the year. Below is a distribution chain of poultry products marketing in Nigeria.
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Fig.14. Nigerian poultry market chain
Source: Adapted from FAO, 2008
A poultry distribution channel can be as short as being direct from the vendor to the consumer or may include several interconnected intermediaries such as wholesalers, distributors, agents, retailers. Each intermediary receives the item at one pricing point and moves it to the next higher pricing point until it reaches the final buyer. During festive occasions (Christmas, New Year, Easter, end of Ramadan), there is a peak in demand for poultry meat and eggs.
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Types of Poultry Markets
Basically, there are two types of poultry markets in Nigeria
Weekly poultry marketsDaily poultry markets
Weekly poultry markets
These are poultry markets that mostly operate on weekly basis and have relatively non-permanent structures. In this type of markets, there are different poultry products mediators, referred to as:
• Collectors - persons who buy poultry directly from small rural and urban producers, at home or at the market.
• Middlemen - persons who buy poultry from collectors or other middlemen.
Weekly poultry markets have three basic functions:
as places where rural, small-scale and backyard producers sell their products. as drainage of local and some exotic poultry products for other markets.
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as normal markets, where the final consumer can buy poultry for his/her own consumption, for home rearing and/or for sacrifices.
Weekly poultry markets are mainly located in rural and semi-urban areas, where they drain products from the surrounding areas. Only a small portion of the poultry comes from the industrial sector or from far away.
Fig.15.Typical examples of Weekly poultry market
Daily poultry markets
These are poultry products markets that operate on a daily basis, usually characterize by more permanent structures. Daily poultry markets have two basic functions:
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to offer urban and semi-urban consumers the possibility to buy products for their own consumption, for family rearing and/or for sacrificesto act as the main markets for the sales of commercial producers
As their name implies, the daily markets work on a daily basis, with only a few partially closing during major festivities. They are located in urban and semi-urban areas and receive poultry from the surrounding weekly markets and from the larger poultry industry. The place of origin of the products may be either close or distant.
Fig.16.Typical Examples of Daily Markets
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Figure 17: Downloading of spent parent stock in daily poultry market in Onitsha town
In the daily markets, the poultry sector is active as long as there is daylight, and all year round. Retailers are mainly the small merchants seen in the weekly markets. Poultry marketing system in Nigeria is dynamic and competitive involving continuous change and improvement. There are periods of gluts and also periods of peak sales. For instance, broiler marketing is best during festivities such as Christmas, Sallah and other national celebrations. While eggs peak sales fall within cold seasons like hamattan, glut is usually experienced during hot seasons.
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Fig.18. Egg sales van on transit
Knowledge of this dynamics in poultry marketing is vital for the producers, processors and traders to harmonize their activities to take advantage of these periods for good profits. Again beside the local markets opportunities abound in the West African sub-region particularly the ECOWAS neighbouring countries. However, international trading standards must be strictly adhered to for good results. The poultry market within and outside Nigeria is enormous. Advantage can be taken for good gains in the industry.
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POULTRY PROCESSING AND UTILIZATIONThe objective of a centralised poultry processing plant of any scale is to produce material at a price which customers can afford, which is hygienic, wholesome, attractive and saleable, of consistent appearance and quality, and with a realistic shelf life
Slaughter
The system of operation used in the production of poultry depends very much on the nature of the market and what it requires. This varies very much throughout the world. The systems described here are for a completely cleaned out bird with head, neck and feet removed. The heart, liver, neck and gizzard are wrapped and returned to the bird as giblets and placed inside the carcass. Variations on this process are left to the individual operator.
The birds are removed from the crates and slaughtered before placing in the bleeding cones for the blood to drain.
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Fig. 19. Bleeding cones
Defeathering
After the bleeding period, carcass is removed from the cone without delay and passed through the hatch, on to a holding table.Pulls the flight and tail feathers of the carcass by hand. In turkeys and larger birds, a special machine may be necessary to remove these feathers. The body is then applied to the dry plucking machine.
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Fig.20. Removal of flight feathers
The back of the bird is presented to the plucking head. Holding a wing in each hand and supporting the neck, pluck the back completely.
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Hold the legs in the right hand and the neck in the
left, stretched tightly the skin across the breast before presentation to the plucking head. Completely pluck the underside of the carcass. Pluck the inside of the wing. The bird is held by one leg and allowed to swing so that this leg can freely rotate against the plucking head until the feathers are removed. Repeat this for the other leg.
Fig.21. Mechanical removal of down feathers
The area around the vent is plucked by holding the carcass in the left hand, breast uppermost and, with the right hand pulling both legs back towards the operator. The lower part of the carcass and the vent is thus presented to the plucking head.
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Unwanted stubs are presented to the plucking head to finish the operation completely.
Cooling
The carcasses are placed into a cooling bath at the end nearest the slaughter room. The bath contains water, chlorinated to a minimum level of 50ppm, which is either cooled by a refrigeration unit attached to the bath or slush ice. The bath should be set so that it overflows at the evisceration room end. If ice is used, approximately 2kg will be required to cool each bird.
Giblets, wrapped and set in plastic packets, are brought to the dressing table one tray at a time. The chilled washed carcases are removed from the rack and placed on the packing table. They are inspected for damage, poor dressing and possibly graded. The grading at this stage will be concerned with defects. These will include colour faults, bruising, blood clots, and broken bones, remains of organs or feathers. If they are not to standard, corrections are made (eg removal of the odd feather, piece of lung tissue etc) or the carcases are returned to the chiller for other remedial action. The packages are then placed into a cardboard carton or in a stainless steel mould on a trolley ready for the chill or freezing cycle.
Packaging
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Successful and appropriate packaging is necessary to assist with preservation of the product, protect it from physical damage, confine the product so that it remains intact and will pack better into larger containers, and add visual appeal so that customers will wish to buy. The package must look good in itself, so not only must it be potentially suitable and attractive but also must be applied with care. Good packaging is expensive so it must be wholly appropriate for the market. There are three types of packaging of interest to the poultry producer at these levels of throughput:
Over - wrapping: This is carried out on expanded or rigid plastic trays. The tray is over - wrapped with a clear film of high oxygen and low water vapour permeability. This method is the most popular but relies on good refrigeration and efficient distribution and product turnover.
Bag wrapping: Whole birds or portions packed on trays are placed in a clear bag which has a high oxygen and low water vapour permeability. It is sealed at the neck.
Vacuum Packaging: The use of gas-impermeable plastics reduces evaporative losses, prevents further microbial contamination and reduces proliferation of microbes already present, due to the natural production of carbon-dioxide as a result of tissue
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respiration. It is mainly used for the distribution of cut portions to butchers.
In some markets, the addition of a special absorbent pad of tissue is required to take up extra moisture.
Preservation of Poultry Meat
Food preservation is a method of maintaining foods at a desired level of properties or nature for their maximum benefits. Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, yeasts, fungi, and other micro-organisms (although some methods work by introducing bacteria, or fungi to the food), as well as retarding the oxidation of fats which cause rancidity. There are various methods of preservation chilling, freezing, curing, smoking, dehydration, canning, radiation preservation etc.
Conclusion…..?
BIBLIOGRAPHYAgricultural Extension and Research Liaison Service, 1982. Brooding and rearing of chicks. AERLS bulletin No. 23. AERLS, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Service, 1975. Culling hens for egg production. AERLS Extension Guide No. 33. AERLS, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
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Agricultural Extension and Research Liason Services, 1976. Management of laying hens. AERLS Guide No. 84. AERLS, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Dafwang, 1.1. 1987. Resource requirements and expected output in commercial poultry production. Paper Presented at the workshop for Assessment of farm loan proposal Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. 1987.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2008). “Assessment of the Nigerian poultry market chain to improve biosecurity”. Pp 17 – 29
Ikani, I.E. and A.I Annatte (2000). Improving the performance of local chickens. NAERLS Bulletin No.92, Poultry Series No.5 pp.1-31.
Ikani E.I. and Dafwang I.I. (2004). The production of Guinea Fowl in Nigeria Extension Bulletin No. 207, Poultry Series No. 8 pp1-30.
North, M.O., 1984. Commercial Chicken Production Manual3rd Ed. AVI Publishers. Olomu, J.M. 1979. Poultry Nutrition Research - Its contribution to national poultry industry. Production standard for Poultry in Nigeria. Paper presented at the National Seminar on Poultry Production, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Olomu, J.M. 1980. Practical hints for backyard poultry producers. NAPRI Bulletin. 2: 23-42. Sunde, M.L., 1984. Poultry Science Lab. 101. Lecture notes for Poultry Science and practice class. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Fall., 1984.
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