The Origin of Ancientand Modern Superstitions

THE subject of superstitions.anci<yet always somehow à la mode-interestingly treated by .1. Art

Hill, in "t'hambers's Journal." He nc

that:"M»*"'» curiosity is in excess of his po*

to interpret and aadarstaad ( «msequer

he f\i««*e*. and «v«1«" be gues«es w.ldly an

ax it i«(Dis to other«, probably of later d

inaccurately, his guess is called a super:

"Owing te ths inna'e conservatism

human r.a'.¡ ition will lir.ger !c

»ft«r its origin is completely forgotten «

»fttr people h»ve clearly seen that there

no rational evidence for the thing believ-¦ < applies to customs of «1! sort«.

"It is on record that in « certain chui

the peasants were in the habit of bowingjenuflecting when they passed a certain pi

ct the wall. None of them could give «

rea»on, except that they had been taughtdo it. Kve: inhabitant had nev

heart' of any reason, and did not think th

»ny wa» known to the previous generaticIt was just a custom that had been hand

down. But when some repairs came to

nude and the wall was «tripped of lime

w»s found that a painting of the Virgin Ma

had «xi»ted, and »till fragmentarily exist«

«.. that place. It had evidently been cover

up at the Reformation; but the customa

ebeuance had been kept up even after eve

one had forgotten the reason for it.

The Persistent and Ancient

Superstition About I 3"St with .«uperstitions. There is some so

of reason to begin with, usually a mistak«

fuess; bu', this is forgotten, while the beli

remains. For instance, take the 'thirteen

tab;- n, which has spread to thi

teen of anything- even to No. 18 in a stre

or terrace, which often remains unlet, tl

landlord sometimes resorting to the subte

fuge of 12A and 1¿B. The origin of this preadiee against the number i« usually suppose

to be the fact that thirteen persons sat dow

»? the La«: Supper, after which occurred tlrno»t tragical event of the Christian era. Bi

it car be shown that of any thirteen peop!taken st random- or any twelve or fourtee

la an even chanci« that one wi

à'.* m »bout a year. Quételet pointed this ov

in his 'Theory of Probabilities' applied to p<

litical and moral science; but superstitiodies hard when it has a sort of quasi-suppoifrom facts."Matthew Arnold was one of a party o

.«en, and ho died within the year. T

many people this would be convincing evi

dencc of the maleficence of the number; bu

h« would have died all the same If there ha

b«en fourteen. Moreover, the thirteen superit.tier, is older than Christianity, for Hesio

«.7« it is unlucky to sow corn on the 13th o

the first month."And there is an old Norse legend accord

jig tc which the twelve great divinities wen

ft-.ning in Valhalla, when Loki, the god o

d.'cord, appeared, and a quarrel with Baldu«nsued, in which the latter.the god of peacwas killed. There is a similar belief il

The superstition languished in thlate Middle Ages, but had a curious rejuvenatior. Iq the last, century. In many capital!no*ably London, there were men who made

li»ir.g by hiring themselves out at a moment'notice as guests at dinners where, owing t.

»crr.e disappointment, the number at tabl.would otherwise be thirteen.

The Mystic "Three" Has AlsoIts Important Significance

ce Bismarck shared the 'thirteen»ea-.r.e?s, and indeed was rather ¡»per.ali}««perst.'ious about numb«-: was hi!

one. He wa* Chancellor under three

«cperors, received three title* of nobility«as responsible for three wars, and had three

Iren; ar.d, according to the caricaturists,aid three hairs on an otherwise bald head."Tkers are various forms of this 'three' aa-

HMti'.ion, one of the most objectionable.from ¦ housewife'« point of view.being the.Saamoo ht -anti that if they break.c article two more are sure to meet theurr.e fate before the day is out. A certain». Baacouaiat» lapsrstitiea, was

»'.er.; to »ce her Abigail open the backdoor »¦ : 'lei.beiatcly smash a jam j. t on

*.c« fr?, fturwafd pieklag up the piece«»nd trrwi- thaa* "'o the dustbin. Hv

cautious inquiry she discovered that the girlhad accidentally broken a plate and a cupthat morning, and a« she firmly believed thatthi gods demanded three such sacrihces be¬fore they would be appeased, she selected thejam pot les*, the doom should fall on some¬

thing more valuable.

Then There's Friday.theDay Feared by Many"The 'Friday' superstition has a religious

origin, having arisen because the Crucifixionis supposed to have taken place on that day.It ha» been recognised as particularly un¬

lucky by «sailors. A« with all such »uper»fi-tion», men noticed when it 'came off,' andoverlooked the mi<s whca it did r.ot. Butwith greater control of the elements, andgreater safety of travel barring torpedoesthe superstition has faded. Probably fewpeople now, even sailors, have much fear ofembarking on a Cunarder which sails on a

Friday; and railway journeys are undertakenon that day without hesitation. To manymillions of people Friday is the hu-kiest «layof the week, for it II their wage day!"The unluckiness of spilling the salt has

not been unanimously «wplain.-d. Some thinkthat it is because Judas Iscaiiot seems to bespilling it in Da Vinci's picture of the LastSlipper. Others think that it is because saltis a symbol of incorruptiblity, and its spill¬ing is therefore a sign of broken friendshipsand general upset«. Wry superstitious peu¬ple will take a pinch of the spilt salt andthrow it over the left shoulder, which is sup¬posed to avert the evil consequence» of themishap. The left shoulder is associated withthe devil, or one's evil genius, and the thrownpinch is supposed to appease hjm."There are iome curious and very wide¬

spread customs, of superstitious nature,about sneezing. Old country people will oftensay 'God bless you!' to the sneezer. TheRomans had a similar custom 'Jupiter pre¬serve you!' etc. as Martial and other writersshow. The Greeks did the same, and thecustom was ancient even in the time of Aris¬totle, for he endeavors to account for it inhis 'Problems'; but he evidently knew nothingof its origin."The various knife superstitions are ea«i!y

explicable. It is unlucky to give a knife to a

friend, because knives «ever things, and mightfcvfr friendship; but if he gives you a half-prr.r.y in return the danger is avoided, for hisgift is a token of continued affection. It isunlucky to place one's knife and fork cross¬

wise on nn empty plate, because it invitescrosses and misfortune, also recalling theChristian symbol of suffering.Black Cats Are EsteemedEmblems of Luck

"Black cats are lucky, but nobody knowswhy. Cats of all sorts were regarded withreverence In ancient Egypt; but if is curiousthat black the sign of mourning in Westerncountries should be associated with luck.The Jam of Nnwanagar i'Ranji' of cricketfame) had a partiality for this superstition,claiming that twice in succession the timelyappearance of a black cat had been instru¬mental in winning a county match for Sussexas well as on other occasions."A rather common bit of p»uedo-science is

the belief that for healthful »leep the bedshould be north and south. I know a man

who believes that he was cured of long stand¬ing disease by changing his bed from itsformer east-west position. Charles Dickens,whenever he left home for a night, alwaystook a compass with him, so that he could

his bed north-south."Other famous men have had their weni.

Uacaolay had superstitions aboutstepping on this or that part of flagstone» or

paving «tor.«-; Mas Mailer always tarried inhis pocket a small coin with a hole in it, andLord Roberts irai OOCt ctcdited but in a

German newspaper) with a fondness for a

horseshoe picked up near the Nelson Monu-...r Sqaatt, as well as with a

constitutional dread of cats."The superstition» connected with marriage

are legion The most sensible one is "Happythe bride the eun »hine» on,' for fine weatheria particularly welcome at time« of gorgeousapparelling. But in some countries the bridoprays for rain, taking it as an omen that allher tear are shed before marriage, which»hows the optimistic faith of the femaleheart in assslslsi Ala« that she should some¬

time» be disillusioned!"

In the Air and Under the Sea

rHESE fantastic get quite plausthlc tj-position» of tuhmarmr and aeroplane ncttvitie» ore reproduced bj tourteau of ''Popular Metkauaica Monthly." The

larqrr picture represent» a \iiualuni approximately duplicated in grim rraittt, mom » then » tint «¦ the th ginning of the Herman reign of ruthlessness at sea.

The submarine, pictured here glidinc/ on to fresh forat/r, hat just tunk the stramrr, which lias »titled (o the bottom of the ocean. Of the two tmallrr view', the

upper illuttrates a postible collisityn in the air, while the lower portrays much the same tort of occident, involving, however, l-boatt instead of aircraft.

Defying Woundinfection

THE demonstration of the value

chloramine paste in wound aseps

Il the latest contribution to tl

science of conserving life by the Rockefc

11er Institute for Medical Research, c

which Dr. Simon Flexner is the head. D

Alexis Carrel, the distinguished Frana

American surgeon, who has done almo;

I as much to save human life as Hindenburj las done to destroy it, is the actual demorttrator of the extraordinary value of thinew antiseptic treatment. The latest bu!

letin from the institute's field laboratoriei under Dr. Carrel in France gives us thes

j üei.ails of chloramine paste:"The chloramine paste is designed to main

tain in an aseptic condition wounds whiclhave already been disinfected, or to sterilu

slightly infected wounds. It should only b

applied to wounds which yield small quantii.e.- of secretion, have little or no necrotitissue, and little or no infection. Neutra

sodium oléate is poured onto the wound an.

the surrounding skin from «a flask with i

rmnll opening. The granulation», the epv

thelial «dfjes. nn.l the skin are genMy swabhe«

with a piece of absorbent cotton attached t(

I i<,rce|.«."The chloramine paste should be applied

only under the condition« »pecit.cd in «>ui

experiments; that is, in connection «ritterately infected wound« which have beer

carefully wa«hr«l \.-ith sodium oléate anc

I possess but flight quantities of secretionUnder these conditions, the chloramine past«

I effects the complete disappearance of th«bectena, and maintains the sterility thui

| secured for as long a time as may be wishedI Chloramine paste is not injurious to the tis¬

sues, for the cicatrization curves of the

wounds thus treated show but slight modiil-cation from the calculated curves. Chlora¬

mine paste makes it possible, therefore, tc

keep wounds »ulTiciently free from micro-

orgfinifms so that the effect of substanceswhich are believed to influence cicatrizationcan be studied."

Tapping Alaska for Naval Coal

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_.»_._-. ¦ ¦¦ tmMmmmmmmmmwlmoÊmÊmeTommmwsmwsa*mmwsmwswsmmomwmsa*wo**oM=*» «Ve» Map of AUtkan Coalfield Section

THE United Sutes has not embarkedupon railroad building in Alaska

»ut a dual purpose, economicsr.d nava'.. The coaling of the Pacil.c fleetbas a!-.«.a tad a problem, forwhich oil burning engines have been sug-

¦. medy. The government,however, has gone Ottt after a fat pocket

in the heart of Alaska. This willbe rrm if more accesaible than is any pres¬ent source of coal. "The Official Bulletin"authorizes the use of the adjoining mapar.d eaatrihutas this information:

"Or. : |fl4, the Alaskan railroada« was apprcv«d b| the President. This act

..-id directed the President to lo-*Sm * ra-.lroad in the Territory of Alaaka»*>t to exffe'l In th» »rgr*g*t« 1,000 mile».1h* parpo»*» of th» ro»d, a» »et forth in that

sra:"1. To «Mas --. ¦ | e r.r saeee <>1 the open

M »he southern co»»tef Asska with the navigable wate« in th»tterior.1 7o i«vr.r»-t with the coal flelde so as

n th» development of th» agri-eesel '¡t other resources.

- ..»...«iir of coal for"? »fit«/ ar,d navy, »rar,»portation of troopa,¦«»¡?.¡or.» of y,%T> the mail», »nd for other«t»v«rB«r.n.a| mTxe\ public uaas, Including th»tr*"»fer'«'.',r. »J p»«««ng»r» and freight.T«>» r» U«aa af the road I» now under

Weetreetion from S»w»rd, on th» Pacific«ovt, Maes' for 470 mil«« to Fairbanks, on

,t,!» Ter.ar» llvar, a large and navtgabl»Wb-jUry af .;,,, «, J<or. Theft is now in.**'»t¡.-,r, ¡',o altas Tas «a*)sss»faaylai m»p*..» the ;,n« of the ro«d*T»e rtja-i »%r,» fee large «*eal fields, th»

T*»*«"«-» sad ;ha Neaaaa It is estimated**'¦ »'¦ the pr«»*r.t rat« MaUnuak» cal ran¦. eali«*,jr«d for tr« reeds of the navy and.....?'.1 ase on »h« Pacifie Coaat In th»***** «ws»m»r of 1911."

The Prehistoric TickleTHE tickle is a relic of prehistoric

perils, according to Dr. George W.("rile, the distinguished surgeon,:

.in his new volume. "Man.An AdaptiveMechanism." Dr. Crile'b "kinetic theory"is an attempt to apply Darwin's c-voiu-tionary theories to medicine and surgery.His studies show the various discharges

¡of bodily energy by which the organs ofthe body protect themselves. The externalstudies include an analysis of ticklish-ness. Dr. Crile says:

"it is more strange than appears at first

I fiance thnt the tickle reflex can be excited

only la certain parts of the body, by but

types el tactile impre.s.-ion, and that it

is invariably accompanied by a h.'.f-pro-trc-tive reaction. One type of the tickle re¬

flex is elicited by a light, running n.otmn on

ihe seriate of the skin, which produces a

sensation like that produced by a crawlinginsect, with an irresistible desire to scratchSt rub the affected part. A »harp impactcrtii ss pain, but if the. adequate stimulus ofeoataet which simulates the crawling of an

insect be applied again und «K'n.n in the

same spot it will cause each time the same

This refles srs

rdly «Jereleped St a '.ime When .ns'Ci were

i great menace to life, and when only thosiindividuals which evolved an i

war« ablo to prevail."Another type of ticklo r« flei Is elicit«.

1; leen pressure in the ribs, the loin.» or tiiof the feet. The reaction is a viole:.

of laughter, with cries for mercv

In the Middle Ages rictimi of torturo wen

OftCfl killed by prolonged tickling. Tin

tickle r.reas have always been the peint,most frequently attached by savage beast»

"i'hildren and young animals at play in

variably recapitulate the ti¿ht maneuvres ol

their ancestors by attacks in ticklish apotaPlayful puppies in frolic lie flat on then

backs. with »hoir le«?« u«raiMai, Th«y &ghlplayfully and in *( if-def- cc while the on«

or. top pummel; and claw« the «other in nee!and ribs in a playful effort to excite himthe m.mic contest not Infrequently termi¬

nating in a reil fight, in which the same

:.re vigoro-. ed."The relation of tickling to laughter is an

interesting feati.i :<flex . . JimDOW it is sufficient to note that there is nc

luught«-r m response to tickling by an ir. act,but boisterous laughter .¦ stimulation of t'.icd ep ticklish areas. l*he e.<rtnditure of en-

»port louai to thef the original condl-

I refl x.r-flex i« an excellent

I«r»»n t» H J niawa»ll>» loll 1 »r A I n!»>¦'« Latf« "Í An.:.

Contest between ant-bear and puma. This attadi «with teeth and claws uponunprotected parts illustrates the m.-thod by which deep ticklish points may luvebeen evolved..From Mor.An .\da¡<tatiie Mechari*m.

Artificial Limbs Made of CardboardFew people would imagine that artificial

limbs could be made of such unlikelymaterial as cardboard. Yet this is bein<-:done on a considerable scale. hecOltUag to

the London correspondent of "The Man¬chester (iuardian." Legs and arms sr« cutout from cardlxiard about three-sixteenthsof an inch in thickness and bound togftharw ith bandages soaked in a solution ofstarch.Two flat pieces of cardboard ars cut cut,

of which the combined widths equal thegirth of the limb. These are scaked inwater until they can be bent round into therequisite form, when the afOtWJêU star.-helbandages nre applied. The finished articlebeing holl«iw. ir etM) be worn before the

stump of the leg or arm has COCDpleteljhealed; in fact, this is often done within s

fortnight «if amputation. In the case of

«eg! tKi-* invention obviate« the need forcrutcheu..Chambers's Journal.

Shaw on ChildWelfare

THE presence in England of JudçeHenry Neil, of Chicago, "father ofthe American women's pension

laws," has prompted George Bernard.-haw to make another drive at the mod¬ern state for its neglect of tho primaryrights of children to food and to protec¬tion. Judge Neil is in England for thepurpose of conferring with Lord Lyttonand members of the House of Commons on

the subject of the mothers' pension sys¬tem. He recently sent to the Council ofNational Baby Week a message receivedfrom Bernard Shaw, which was subse¬quently printed in "Everyman" (London) :

"Child poverty is the only sort of poverty.hut mutter». The adult who has been poor

- shlld will never «¿ret the chill of povertyout of his bones; but he will make room for

tter nourished generation."There are no doubt property owner* in

America who tell Judg». Henry Neil that it is

confiscation to tax one man's property to

ay tor '.he education of another man's chil¬dren. We have scoundrels of that sort in

England, too. Some day they will perhapshave the opportunity of saying it to a higherjudge than Henry Neil. He will send themto the place he reserves for those who huv«

learned to say 'Our Father,' but have not

ay 'Our Children.' The one with¬

out the other is a blasphemy. Also it is un¬

businesslike folly. N'eglectad children soetmore than vvcü-iiourisii< il ants '«¦ >¦¦ r\',.. !-.

except their immefliat» parent»."The principal bu»iness of a policeman a"

present is to prevent hungry children fromobtaining food. The proper primary businessof a policeman is to seise every hungrv childand feed It, to collar every ragged child andclothe it, to hand every illiterate child over

to those who will teach it how to read andwrite.

"If America cannot see this, there is no

future for America. And it is because sh»has been slow to see that so m-ich of her past

.:. fil and so much of her present mis¬erable."

The Cattle Supply ofthe World

IN FRANCE the itoek fell in the firstyear of the war from well over H,-000,000 head to little over 12,000.000.

The supply of Great Britain, Italy andGermany has naturally been decreased, butwe have no exact figures. It goes withoutsaying the reconstitution of adequatestocks in ail the belligerent countries willbe a question of years, ami will entail largeand continued importation» after the endof the war.

Of the countries of supply the ArgentineRepublic takes the lead, with its herd of29,000,000 head of horned cattle in 1008.Since then the number has remained sta¬

tionary, but there are, no doubt, largepossibilities of increasing the production,above all, in the eastern sections of thecountry, which are sparsely inhabited.Canada and Australia, with 7,000,000

and 11,000,000 head, respectively, andNew Zealand, with 2,000,000, continue to

export largely, but care will be necessaryto prevent undue depletion of stockthrough the present huge demands.

Among the countries likely to come to

the fore in the future, Brazil is probablyto be placed in the front rank of all, the

plateaus of the southern interior offeringexceptional advantages. The stock ofhorned cattle is said to have alreadyleached 30,000,000 head, and cattle rearingis being widely encouraged by the govern¬ment. The states of Sao Paulo, RioGrande do Sul and Rio de Janeiro have,with great success, installed meet frees-

hsf plants.Among the French colonies Madagascar

and French West Africa will soon he cap-! able of sending larga supplies of frotenneat to the mother country.

Eugenics andBirth Contro

IS THFRE pn issue between eugenand birth control, or, if they can

harmonized, how shall it b« dor

Paul Popenoe tries hi» hand at blendingthe current number of Margaret Sangofugitive magazine, "Birth Control I

view," which one may buy only surrep

tiously on the street ccrners. Mr. I

renoe, who is editor of "The JournalHeredity," drawing a fine distinction I

tween birth c«introl as new practisedthe rich and birth cont-ol "as it should

practised by the unfit," wiites:To be eugenic, a measure must favor t

reproductivity of the happier and more e

cient parts of the population and discours

the increase of the les» c»p»bl« part»."It is a matter of common notoriety th

birth control as at present practised do

(eat the reverse. The superior part» of t

population are limiting their famili««

much that they are not even reproduce.heir own number», while the increa»« of i

ferior familie» is checked only by the dea

rate, because they do not practise ofTecti

method» of birth control."It i» nocc»sary to conclude, therefore, th

birth control «s »t pr«*ent practised in tl

Datted State» is the reverse of «ugenic.is tending to race deterioration."A spread of birth control to the les« cap

Us part of the population will be an impotaut advance for ««ugenic» in cutting down t

ráela! contribution of inferior stock». Buti.» not likely that the gain will be a* gre

as is ««.bmetime«, supposed. It seems probabthat those who will practise birth contr

most effectively are the prudent, far-sight»conscientious pareni«, whose children the ra

needs; while even possession of a knowlediof contraceptive method» will not affect tlreckless and improvident, those who procrate while drunk those, in short, whose chidren the raco would be better off without.

"EVOB though he firmly adheres to the priiciple of intelligent and voluntary moth«hood, the eugenist cannot think that the un

versal practica of birth control will have t

drawback.». It will be a better condition th«

that which at present exist«, when the sup.

rior eins«»« «lone limit the «is« of their fan¡lies effectively; but it will inereaie th« tas

of eugenics, aince it will require vigoroimeasures to augment the birth rnte of ei

geaieallp »uperior families,"Some people need fewer children, «om

need more. It it not fair to expect the birtcontrol propagandists to carry on a simultjneous campaign on the«e two sides of thquestion, but they ought at least to recojznizth« two side« and not throw unnecessary or.

¡ stacles in the way of ««ugenic»."It makes no difference whether one be

lieves in universal knowledge of birth cor

trol; it cannot now be stopped and must b

regurded a« a fact to be reckoned with. Bu[ believe eugenists go much further thaithis. They will look with satisfaction on ai

extension of birth control to the inefficienpart of the population, and many of them an

taking an active part in th« campaign."Havelock Ellis, writing in "The Eu¬

genics Review," believes:"That we posses» in birth control an in¬

valuable instrument, not merely for immedi.»te social betterment but for th« «lev»tlonof the race, is tacitly admitted to-day by n«ar>

ly all thoughtful eug»nists, though they oftenrefrain from emphasizing the fact."

And this able psychologist discuss«?three «iirertions in which society might'¦..orí: "toward rendering eugenic ideal»effective la social and racial life." Brieflystated, these are as follow«-:

"1. By increaiing and promoting th«knowledge of the laws of heredity. Knowl.edge must come before action, and our knowl«edge of the tendencies of heredity in Hibearing on eugenics is »till far from ad«.quate. While th« expert biologieal In-

.-ator may be expected to tak« th«chief part in thii extension of knowledge,

j it i« by no mean.» confined to him. Ev«r«. -v 11 h ca»e» of family heredity

weeld be de»:rav/e to explore, it

far as may be possible, and it is hi» duty to

put them on record. Without going outiid«one's own family, indeed, provided one can

trace backward for a few generation«, it il

possible to draw a picture, even if only foione'« private edification, for example or foiwurimg; while those of us who ran followour ancestors backward for 4ev«ral centurleimay find in our hands a study tall alike ofíasc.nation and instruction.

"2. By popularizing a knowledge of th«method« of birth control. A knowledge ofthe methods of limiting offspring by th« OSS

of contraceptives, which in th« eighteenthcentury seems »till to have been confined tothe rake« of the fashionable world and onlyused for immoral purposes, began about a

century ago to be associated with moral sndpriKlenMa! motive*. Since then it ha» »t«ad-ily tended to spre»d In all civilised eountri«!throughout the world.

"In the United Status ... a barrierhas been ererfd Ly the law. The result h«abeen that heroic «pior.etr», like Mr». MargaretSar.ger, in a generous pastion of humanité«rian ardor, have flung defiance at th« law«.The method of reforming bad law» by break«ing »hem is DO. that which commend» itselfto an Instinctively law-abiding community,even when the law-breaker is inspired byth«* nob!e«t anotire«. But the fact that Itshould be neoessary to break a law In orderto carry out ?o exalted a talk .. that ofworking for humanity and for the elevationof the race is itself an outrage on «omethlngeven higher than law. In educating the com¬

munity and in remoulding the law In accord«anee with that educa'.iou there i* evidently»till room for much work In Arnerca.

"3. By acting in accordance with earknowledge. It is not enough to acquire a

knowledge of the laws of heredity. It i« notenough to spread a knowledg« of th« methodsof birth control. Fach of th«»« »«paraUly,however d?sirable, will »carce'.y «fr«ct rauchfor th« pr»etic»l «ug«nie «Uvatlon of man¬kind. It Is only when they ar« combinad, inthe light of a hie-h sena« ot personal rcipon-libility, to become a guiding motive of ee-

tion, that Um task i« achieved. For this high»«me of re»pon»ibility, directed toward indi«vidual action, lies at th« root ot the whole¦satter "