Origin of the English Language

7/24/2019 Origin of the English Language

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Origin of the English Languageseminar work

Speech in English LanguageŠimon SlávikConstantine the Philosopher University in Nitra!"#



$ntro%uction&$n this seminar work $ will focus on the origin' %istri#ution an% evolution of the Englishlanguage from the Ol% English to (o%ern English) $ choose this topic #ecause $ thinkthat only few people know it in %etail an% $ take the view that history shoul% not #eforgotten)

Contents&

Ol% English * + ,(i%%le English - + .Early mo%ern English " + //(o%ern English /0 + /12i3erencies an% comparison /,Conclusion an% 4i#liography /-

5he Ol% English 6 11"7//88



5he recor%e% history of the English language #egins in the 4ritish $sles' wherespeakers settle%) 2uring the perio% when the language was spoken in Europe'it is known as pre+Ol% English)

SOME KEY EVENTS IN THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD:

• 11" ngles' Sa9ons' !utes' an% :risians #egan to occupy ;reat 4ritain 7changing its ma<or population to English speakers an% separating theearly English language from its Continental relatives' the actualmigrations #egan earlier)

• ,"= Saint ugustine of Canter#ury arrive% in Englan% to #egin theconversion of the English #y #apti>ing ?ing Ethel#ert of ?ent' thusintro%ucing the in@uence of the Latin language)

• --1 5he Syno% of Ahit#y aligne% the English with Boman rather thanCeltic Christianity 7 linking English culture with mainstream Europe)

• =*8 5he enera#le 4e%e pro%uce% his Ecclesiastical Distory of the EnglishPeople' recor%ing the early history of the English people)

• =.= 5he Scan%inavian invasion #egan with rai%s along the northeastseacoast)

• .-, 5he Scan%inavians occupie% northeastern 4ritain an% #egan acampaign to conuer all of Englan%)

• .=/ lfre% #ecame king of Aesse9' rallying the English against theScan%inavians' retaking the city of Lon%on' esta#lishing the 2anelaw'securing the kingship of all Englan% for himself an% his successors' an%pro%ucing or sponsoring the translation of Latin works into English)

• ".= Flfric' the homilist an% grammarian' went to the a##ey of Cerne'

where he #ecame the ma<or prose writer of the Ol% English perio%• ""/ Olaf 5ryggvason inva%e% Englan%' an% the English were %efeate% at

the 4attle of (al%on)• /888 5he manuscript of the Ol% English epic

4eowulf was written)• /8/- Canute #ecame king of Englan%'

esta#lishing a 2anish %ynasty in 4ritain)• /810 5he 2anish %ynasty en%e% with the %eath

of ?ing Dar%icanute' an% E%war% the Confessor#ecame king of Englan%)

•

/8-- E%war% the Confessor %ie% an% wassuccee%e% #y Darol%' last of the nglo7Sa9onkings' who %ie% at the 4attle of Dastings whileGghting against the inva%ing army of Ailliam'%uke of Norman%y' who was crowne% king of Englan% on 2ecem#er 0,)

PBONUNC$5$ON N2 SPELL$N;

?nowle%ge of the pronunciation of Ol% English can #e only appro9imate) 5heprecise uality of any ol%er speech soun% from the era #efore soun% recor%ingscannot #e %etermine% with a#solute certainty) (oreover' in Ol% English times'



as to%ay' there were regional an% in%ivi%ual %i3erences' an% %ou#tless social%i3erences as well) t no time %o all mem#ers of any linguistic community'especially an entire nation' speak e9actly alike)

Vowelsnglo7Sa9onsH pronunciation of vowel length was a signiGcant %istinction in Ol%

English) Correspon%ing long an% short vowels pro#a#ly %i3ere% also in uality'#ut the length of time it took to say them seems to have #een of primaryimportance) Ae conventionally mark the spellingsof Ol% English long vowels with a macron an% leave short vowels unmarke%'thus& gI% Jgoo%H versus go% Jgo%)H $n phonetic transcriptions' %i3erent vowelsym#ols will #e use% where we #elieve %i3erent ualities occurre%' #ut vowellength will #e in%icate% #y a colon' thus for the same two wor%s& Kgo&% versusKgM%)

5he vowel letters in Ol% English were a' ' e' i' o' u' an% y) 5hey represente%either long or short soun%s' though sometimes scri#es wrote a slanting linea#ove long vowels' particularly where confusion was likely' for e9ample' g%for Kgo&% Jgoo%'H #ut that practice was not consistent) 5he Gve vowel letters a'e' i' o' an% u represente% what are sometimes referre% to as ContinentalQvaluesRappro9imately those of $talian' Spanish' ;erman' an% to some e9tentof :rench as well)

5he letter represente% the same soun% for which we use it in phonetictranscriptions& K) 5he letter y' use% e9clusively as a vowel sym#ol in Ol%English' usually in%icate% a roun%e% front vowel' long as in ;erman 4hne'short as in fnf) 5his soun%' which has not survive% in (o%ern English' wasma%e with the tongue position of Ki Tlong or KV Tshort #ut with the lipsroun%e% as for Ku or KW respectively) 5he soun%s are represente% phonetically

as K& an% K ) $n the e9amples that follow' the (o%ern English form inparentheses illustrates a typical (o%ern English %evelopment of the Ol% Englishsoun%&

• a as in ha##an Thave X as in hXm Thome• as in Yt Tthat Z as in %Zl T%eal• e as in settan Tset [ as in f[%an Tfee%• i as in sittan Tsit \ as in r\%an Tri%e• o as in mo]]e Tmoth I as in fI%a Tfoo%• u as in sun%or Tsun%er ^ as in m^s Tmouse• y as in fyllan TGll y_ as in my_ s Tmice

StressOl% English wor%s of more than one sylla#le' like those in all ;ermaniclanguages' were regularly stresse% on their Grst sylla#les) E9ceptions to thisrule were ver#s with preG9es' which were generally stresse% on the Grstsylla#le of their main element& wi]f`ohtan Jto Gght against'H on#n%an Jtoun#in%)H 4e7' for7' an% ge7 were not stresse% in any part of speech& #e#%Jcomman%ment'H forsb] Jforsooth'H gehp Jconvenient)H

VerbsLike their (o%ern English counterparts' Ol% English ver#s were either weak'

a%%ing a 7% or 7t to form their preterits an% past participles Tas in mo%ern talk7talke%' or strong' changing their stresse% vowel for the same purpose Tas inmo%ern singsang7 sung) Ol% English ha% several kin%s of weak ver#s an%



seven groups of strong ver#s %istinguishe% #y their patterns of vowel changedan% it ha% a consi%era#ly larger num#er of strong ver#s than %oes (o%ernEnglish)

MorphologyOl% English also retains original grammatical gen%er Tmasculine vs feminine vs

neuter' #ut with some irregularities) ;en%er is not Jse9H& it is simply aclassifying system' in which each noun has to #elong to some category whichpre%icts its agreement #ehaviour Tforms of pronouns an% a%<ectives) So st_anJstoneH is masculine an% takes h_e as its agreeing pronoun' cil% Jchil%H is neuteran% takes hit' later it' lufu JloveH is feminine an% takes h_eo) P$E ha% threenum#ers& singular' %ual Ttwo an% two only an% plural) 5he %ual remains only inthe Grst an% secon% personal pronouns)

Synt!Nouns' a%<ectives' an% most pronouns ha% fuller in@ection for case than theirmo%ern %evelopments %od the in@ecte% forms were use% to signal a wor%Hsfunction in its sentence)%<ectives agree% in case' num#er' an% gen%er with the nouns they mo%iGe%)%<ectives were also in@ecte% for %eGnitenessQ in the so7calle% strong an%weak %eclensions)Ol% English ha% no articles' properly speaking)

5he Ol% English negative a%ver# ne came #efore Trather than after the ver# itmo%iGe%& $c ne %y%e J$ %i% not)H Conseuently it contracte% with certainfollowing ver#s& nis Tne is Jis notH' nille Tne wille Jwill notH' nfY Tne hfY Jhas

notH)Ol% English wor% or%er was somewhat less G9e% than that of (o%ern English#ut in general was similar) Ol% English %eclarative sentences ten%e% to fall intothe su#<ect7ver#7complement or%er usual in (o%ern EnglishRfor e9ample' D[ws sw\]e sp[%ig man JDe was a very successful manH an% Ea%wine eorl cImmi% lan%fyr%e an% %rXf hine ^t JEarl E%win came with a lan% army an% %rovehim out)H

Gen"er #n Ol" Engl#shsi%e from its pronunciation an% its wor% stock' Ol% English %i3ers marke%lyfrom (o%ern English in having grammatical gen%er in contrast to the (o%ernEnglish system of natural gen%er' #ase% on se9 or se9lessness) ;rammaticalgen%er' which put every noun into one of three categories Tmasculine'feminine' or neuter' was characteristic of $n%o7European' as can #e seen from



its presence in Sanskrit' ;reek' Latin' an% other $n%o7European languages) 5hethree gen%ers were preserve% in ;ermanic an% survive% in English well into the(i%%le English perio%d they survive in ;erman an% $celan%ic to this %ay)2ou#tless the gen%er of a noun originally ha% nothing to %o with se9' nor %oesit necessarily have se9ual connotations in those languages that have retaine%grammatical gen%er) Ol% English w\f Jwife' womenH is neuter' as is its ;erman

cognate Aei#d so is mg%en Jmai%en'H like ;erman (%chen) 4ri%% Jyoung#ir%H is masculined #earn Json' #airnH is neuter) 4r[ost J#reastH an% h[afo%Jhea%H are neuter' #ut #r^ Jeye#row'H wam# J#elly'H an% ea9l Jshoul%erH arefeminine) StrengYu JstrengthH is feminine' #roc JaictionH is neuter' an% %r[amJ<oyH is masculine)

:or futher rea%ing&Dogg) 5he Cam#ri%ge Distory of the English Language) ol) /& 5he 4eginnings to /8--)4aker) $ntro%uction to Ol% English):aiss) English Distorical (orphology an% Aor%7:ormation)

5he (i%%le English 6 //887/,88 5he #eginning an% en%ing %ates of the (i%%le English perio% are two points intime when ongoing language changes #ecame particularly noticea#le&grammatical changes a#out //88 an% pronunciation changes a#out /,88) 5heterm mi%%le in%icates that the perio% was a transition #etween Ol% English an%early (o%ern English)

SOME KEY EVENTS IN THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD:

•

/8-- 5he Normans conuere% Englan%' replacing the native Englishno#ility with nglo7Normans an% intro%ucing Norman :rench as thelanguage of government in Englan%)

• /081 ?ing !ohn lost Norman%y to the :rench' #eginning the loosening ofties #etween Englan% an% the Continent)

• /0,. ?ing Denry $$$ issue% the Grst English7language royal proclamationsince the Conuest)

• /**= 5he Dun%re% earsH Aar #egan an% laste% until /1,*' promotingEnglish nationalism)



• /*1.+,8 5he 4lack 2eath kille% an estimate% one7thir% of Englan%Hspopulation an% continue% to plague the country for much of the rest ofthe century)

• /*-0 5he Statute of Plea%ings was enacte%' reuiring all courtprocee%ings to #e con%ucte% in English)

• /*./ 5he PeasantsH Bevolt le% #y Aat 5yler was the Grst re#ellion ofworking7class people against their e9ploitation) lthough it faile% in most

of its imme%iate aims' it marks the #eginning of popular protest)• /*.1 !ohn Aycli3e %ie%' having promote% the Grst complete translation

of scripture into the English language Tthe Ayclite 4i#le)• /188 ;eo3rey Chaucer %ie%' having pro%uce% a highly in@uential #o%y of

English poetry)• /1*8 5he Chancery oce Twhere legal recor%s were %eposite% #egan

recor%keeping in a form of East (i%lan% English' which #ecame thewritten stan%ar% of English)

• /1=- Ailliam Ca9ton #rought printing to Englan%' thus promoting literacythroughout the population)

•

/1., Denry 5u%or #ecame king of Englan%' en%ing thirty years of civilstrife' calle% the Aar of the Boses' an% intro%ucing //. years of the 5u%or%ynasty)

• /1"= !ohn Ca#ot saile% to Nova Scotia' foresha%owing English territoriale9pansion overseas)

$ore#gn #n%&en'es on (o'b&lry2uring the (i%%le English perio%' Latin continue% to e9ert an importantin@uence on the English voca#ulary) Scan%inavian loanwor%s that must havestarte% making their way into the language %uring the Ol% English perio%#ecame rea%ily apparent in (i%%le English' an% 2utch an% :lemish were alsosigniGcant sources) Dowever the ma<or new in@uence' an% ultimately the mostimportant' was :rench) $n the comparison %own' you can see changes from Ol%'



to (i%%le an% (o%ern English)

)onsonnts !ust as :rench wor%s were #orrowe%' so too were :rench spelling conventions) et some of the apparent innovations in (i%%le English spelling were' in fact' areturn to earlier conventions) :or e9ample' the %igraph th ha% #een use% insome of the earliest English te9tsRthose written #efore "88R#ut was replace%in later Ol% English writing #y an% j) 2uring the (i%%le English perio%' th wasgra%ually reintro%uce%' an% %uring early (o%ern English times printersregulari>e% its use)Similarly' uu' use% for Kw in early manuscripts' was supplante% #y the runicwynn' #ut was #rought #ack to Englan% #y Norman scri#es in a ligature% formas w) 5he origin of this sym#ol is accurately in%icate% #y its name' %ou#le7u)

Other new spellings were true innovations) 5he Ol% English sym#ol Twhich wetransliterate as g was an $rish shaped the letter shape g entere% English writinglater from the Continent) $n (i%%le English times' the Ol% English sym#olacuire% a somewhat %i3erent form' Tcalle% yogh' an% was use% for severalsoun%s' nota#ly two that came to #e spelle% y an% gh later in the perio%) 5he

comple9 history of these shapes an% the soun%s they represente% is illustrate%#y the spellings of the following Gve wor%s&

Re"&'t#on o* In%e't#onss a result of the merging of unstresse% vowels into a single soun%' the num#erof %istinct in@ectional en%ings in English was %rastically re%uce%) (i%%leEnglish #ecame a language with few in@ectional %istinctions' whereas Ol%English' as we have seen' was relatively highly in@ecte%' although less so thanProto7;ermanic) 5his re%uction of in@ections was responsi#le for a structuralchange of the greatest importance)

Loss o* Gr++t#'l Gen"er

One of the important results of the leveling of unstresse% vowels was the lossof grammatical gen%er) ;rammatical gen%er' for psychological reasons ratherthan phonological ones' ha% #egun to #reak %own in Ol% English times) $n Ol%



English' gen%er was rea%ily %istinguisha#le in most nouns& masculinenominative7accusative plurals typically en%e% in 7as' feminines in 7a' an%shortstemme% neuters in 7u) $n (i%%le English' on the other han%' all #ut ahan%ful of nouns acuire% the same plural en%ing' 7es Tfrom OE 7as) 5hesechanges' couple% with invaria#le the Treplacing Ol% English masculine se'neuter t' an% feminine s[o' eliminate% grammatical gen%er as a feature of

English)

M#""le Engl#sh Vowels 5he Ol% English long vowel soun%s [' \' I' an% ^ remaine% unchange% in (i%%leEnglish although their spelling possi#ilities altere%& thus Ol% English f[t' (i%%leEnglish f[t' feet JfeetHd OE r\%an' (E r\%en' r%en Jto ri%eHd OE fI%a' (E fI%e'foo%e Jfoo%Hd OE h^s' (E hous Jhouse)H E9cept for Ol% English an% y' the shortvowels of those Ol% English stresse% sylla#les that remaine% short wereunchange% in most (i%%le English speechRfor e9ample' OE wascan Jto wash'H(E washend OE helpan Jto help'H (E helpend OE sittan Jto sit'H (E sittend OEhoppian Jto hop'H (E hoppend an% OE hungrig Jhungry'H (E hungry)

Loss o* S'hw #n $#nl Syllbles 5he levele% Gnal e K was gra%ually lost in the North in the course of thethirteenth century an% in the (i%lan%s an% the South somewhat later) (anywor%s' however' continue% to #e spelle% with 7e' even when it was no longerpronounce%) 4ecause a wor% like r\%Te TOE r\%an was for a time pronounce%either with or without its final K' other wor%s like #r\%Te TOE #r% acuire%#y analogy an optional inorganic 7e in #oth spelling an% pronunciation) Aeknow that this unhistorical K was pronounce% #ecause of the meter of verses'such as ChaucerHs #ry%e shal net eten in

the halleQ TCanter#ury 5ales' in which the scansion of the line of iam#icpentameter reuires #ry%eQ to have two sylla#les) 5here was also a scri#al 7e'which was not pronounce% #ut merely a%%e% to the spelling for variousreasons' such as Glling out a short line' in the %ays #efore English orthographywas stan%ar%i>e%)

:or further rea%ing&4lake) 5he Cam#ri%ge Distory of the English Language' ol) 0& /8--+/1=-)4runner) n Outline of (i%%le English ;rammar)?urath an% ?uhn) (i%%le English 2ictionary)(oss`) Dan%#ook of (i%%le English)?ristensson) Survey of (i%%le English 2ialects' /0"8+/*,8)

5he Early (o%ern English 6 /,887

/.88 5he early (o%ern perio% was transformative for #oth Englan% an% the



language) 5he si9teenth to eighteenth centuries were a time of revolutionary%evelopment' opening the way for English to #ecome a worl% language)

SOME KEY EVENTS IN THE E,RLY MODERN PERIOD:

• /,*1 5he ct of Supremacy esta#lishe% Denry $$$ as Supreme Dea% of

the Church of Englan%'Q an% thus ocially put civil authority a#oveChurch authority in Englan%)

• /,1" 5he 4ook of Common Prayer was a%opte% an% #ecame an in@uenceon English literary style)

• /,,. t the age of 0,' Eli>a#eth $ #ecame ueen of Englan% an%' as awoman with a Benaissance e%ucation an% a skill for lea%ership' #egan aforty7Gve7year reign that promote% statecraft' literature' science'e9ploration' an% commerce)

• /,==+.8 Sir :rancis 2rake circumnavigate% the glo#e' the GrstEnglishman to %o so' an% participate% in the %efeat of the Spanish

rma%a in /,..' thus removing an o#stacle to English e9pansionoverseas)• /,"8+/-// Ailliam Shakespeare wrote the #ulk of his plays' from Denry

$ to 5he 5empest)• /-88 5he East $n%ia Company was chartere% to promote tra%e with sia'

lea%ing eventually to the esta#lishment of the 4ritish Ba< in $n%ia)• /-81 Bo#ert Caw%rey pu#lishe% the Grst English %ictionary' 5a#le

lpha#eticall)• /-8= !amestown' irginia' was esta#lishe% as the Grst permanent English

settlement in merica)• /-// 5he uthori>e% or ?ing !ames ersion of the 4i#le was pro%uce% #y

a committee of scholars an% #ecame' with the Prayer 4ook an% the worksof Shakespeare' a ma<or in@uence on English literary style)

• /-/" 5he Grst frican slaves in North merica arrive% in irginia)• /-10+1. 5he Puritan Bevolution overthrew the monarchy an% esta#lishe%

a military %ictatorship' which laste% until the Bestoration of ?ing Charles$$ in /--8)

• /--8 5he Boyal Society was foun%e% as the Grst English organi>ation%evote% to the promotion of scientiGc knowle%ge an% research)

• /-=8 Du%sonHs 4ay Company was chartere% for promoting tra%e an%settlement in Cana%a)

• /-.. 5he ;lorious Bevolution was a #loo%less coup in which Parliamentinvite% Ailliam of Orange an% his wife' (ary T%aughter of the reigningEnglish king' to assume the English throne' resulting in theesta#lishment of ParliamentHs power over that of the monarchy)

• /=80 5he Grst %aily newspaper was pu#lishe% in Lon%on' resulting in thee9pan%ing power of the press to %isseminate information an% to formpu#lic opinion)

• /=/" 2aniel 2efoe pu#lishe% Bo#inson Crusoe' sometimes i%entiGe% asthe Grst mo%ern novel in English)

• /=,, Samuel !ohnson pu#lishe% his 2ictionary of the English Language)•

/==,+.* 5he merican Bevolution resulte% in the foun%ation of the Grstin%epen%ent nation of English speakers outsi%e the 4ritish $sles)• /=.. 5he English Grst settle% ustralia near mo%ern Sy%ney)



E!pns#on o* the Engl#sh Vo'b&lry 5he wor% stock of English was e9pan%e% greatly %uring the early (o%ern perio%in three ways) s literacy increase%' a conscious nee% was felt to improve an%

amplify the voca#ulary) s English speakers travele% a#roa%' they encountere%new things that they nee%e% new wor%s to talk a#out) n% as they travele%'they increasingly met speakers of other languages from whom they #orrowe%wor%s)

The Gret Vowel Sh#*t4y the early (o%ern English perio%' however' all the long vowels ha% shifte%&(i%%le English [' as in sweete Jsweet'H ha% alrea%y acuire% the value Ki that itcurrently has' an% the others were well on their way to acuiring the valuesthat they have in current English) 5he changes in the long vowels aresummari>e% in the following ta#le&

D#phthongs 5he (i%%le English %iphthongs ha% a ten%ency to monophthongi>e) :ore9ample' KaW in lawe an% KW in snow were monophthongi>e% to K an% Ko'respectively) 5he early Gfteenth7century merger of KV in nail with Ka& as inname has alrea%y #een mentione%d the su#seuent history of that %iphthong

was the same as that of the long vowel with which it merge%)



Erly D#'t#onr#es 5he Grst English %ictionaries appeare% in the early (o%ern English perio%) the

Grst work %esigne% e9pressly for listing an% %eGning English wor%s for English7speaking people was the schoolmaster Bo#ert Caw%reyHs 5a#le lpha#eticallT/-81 Tconteyning an% teaching the true writing' an% un%erstan%ing of har%usuall English wor%es' #orrowe% from the De#rew' ;reeke' Latine' or :rench)c)Q)$n /=*8' 4ailey Tan% others pro%uce% the 2ictionarium 4ritannicum' with a#out1.'888 entries) $n /=,, Samuel !ohnson pu#lishe% his great two7volume2ictionary of the English Language' which was #ase% on the 2ictionarium4ritannicum' though containing fewer entries than it)

-n#n%e'te" Gen#t#(e

$n early (o%ern English an unin@ecte% genitive occurre% in a num#er of specialcircumstances' especially for some nouns that were feminine in Ol% English an%occasionally for nouns en%ing in Ks or prece%ing wor%s #eginning with KsRfore9ample' for conscience sake an% for ;o% sake) few unin@ecte% genitives'thoughnot generally recogni>e% as such' survive to the present %ay in reference to theirgin (aryRfor e9ample' La%y 2ay Tthat is' Our La%yHs 2ay J:east of thennunciationH' La%y Chapel TOur La%yHs Chapel' an% la%y#ir% TOur La%yHs#ir%)

PBONOUNS$mportant changes happene% in the pronouns' which are the most highlyin@ecte% part of speech in present7%ay English' thus preserving the earliersynthetic character of our language in a small way)

Personl Prono&ns 5he early (o%ern English personal pronouns are shown in the accompanyingta#le&



:or further rea%ing&4ar#er) Early (o%ern English)Lass) 5he Cam#ri%ge Distory of the English Language) ol) *& /1=-+/==-)Aolfe) Linguistic Change an% the ;reat owel Shift in English)Lancashire) Early (o%ern English 2ictionaries 2ata#ase)

5he (o%ern English 6 /.887present

5he history of English since /.88 has #een a story of e9pansionRin geography'in speakers' an% in the purposes for which English is use%) ;eographically'English was sprea% aroun% the worl%' Grst #y 4ritish coloni>ation an% empire7#uil%ing' an% more recently #y merican activities in worl% a3airs) 4ra< ?achruhas propose% three circles of English& an inner circle of native speakers incountries where English is the primary language' an outer circle of secon%7language speakers in countries where English has wi%e use alongsi%e native

ocial languages' an% an e9pan%ing circle of foreign7language speakers incountries where English has no ocial stan%ing #ut is use% for ever7increasingspecial purposes)

SOME KEY EVENTS IN THE L,TE MODERN PERIOD:

• /.8* 5he Louisiana Purchase acuire% U)S) territory #eyon% the(ississippi Biver' ultimately resulting in westwar% e9pansion to thePaciGc Ocean)

• /.8, victory over the :rench at the #attle of 5rafalgar esta#lishe%

4ritish naval supremacy)• /.8- 5he 4ritish occupie% Cape Colony in South frica' thus preparingthe way for the arrival in /.08 of a large num#er of 4ritish settlers)



• /.0. Noah Ae#sterHs merican 2ictionary of the English Language waspu#lishe%)

• /.18 $n New qealan%' #y the 5reaty of Aaitangi' native (aori ce%e%sovereignty to the 4ritish crown)

• /.,= proposal at the Philological Society of Lon%on le% to work thatresulte% in the New English 2ictionary on Distorical Principles T/"0.'

reissue% as the O9for% English 2ictionary T/"**' 0n% e%ition /"."' nowrevise% online)

• /.,. 5he ;overnment of $n%ia ct transferre% power from the East $n%iaCompany to the crown' thus creating the 4ritish Ba< in $n%ia)

• /.-/+, 5he merican Civil Aar esta#lishe% the in%issolu#ility of theUnion an% a#olishe% slavery in merica)

• /.". 5he four7month Spanish7merican Aar ma%e the Unite% States aworl% power with overseas possessions an% thus a ma<or participant ininternational politics)

• /"8- 5he Grst pu#lic ra%io #roa%cast was aire%' lea%ing in /"08 to the

Grst merican commercial ra%io station in Pitts#urgh)• /"/1+/. Aorl% Aar $ create% an alliance #etween the Unite% States an%

the Unite% ?ing%om)• /"00 5he 4ritish 4roa%casting Company Tafter /"0=' Corporation was

esta#lishe% an% #ecame a ma<or conveyor of information in Englisharoun% the worl%)

• /"0= 5he Grst motion picture with spoken %ialog' 5he !a>> Singer' wasrelease%)

• /"*- 5he Grst high7%eGnition television service was esta#lishe% #y the44C' to #e followe% #y ca#le service in the early /",8s an% satelliteservice in the early /"-8s)

• /"*"+1, Aorl% Aar $$ further soli%iGe% the 4ritish7merican link)• /"1, 5he charter of the Unite% Nations was pro%uce% at San :rancisco'

lea%ing to the esta#lishment of UN hea%uarters in New ork City)• /"1= 4ritish $n%ia was %ivi%e% into $n%ia an% Pakistan' an% #oth were

given in%epen%ence)• /"-/ (erriam Ae#sterHs 5hir% New $nternational 2ictionary was

pu#lishe%)

The Nt#onl Vr#et#es o* Engl#sh

5he worl%Hs total num#er of English speakers may #e more than a #illion'although competence varies greatly an% e9act num#ers are elusive) 5he twoma<or national varieties of EnglishRin historical prece%ent' in num#er ofspeakers' an% in in@uence R are those of the Unite% ?ing%om an% the Unite%StatesR4ritish English an% merican English) Other countries in which Englishis the ma<or language with a si>a#le #o%y of speakers are ustralia' Cana%a'$n%ia' the $rish Bepu#lic' New qealan%' an% South fricaRthe inner circle ofEnglish)

Nt#onl D#.eren'es #n /or" )ho#'e 5here are many lists of euivalent 4ritish an% merican wor%s' #ut they mustnot #e taken too seriously) (any merican locutions are perfectly wellun%erstoo% an% use% in 4ritain) :or instance' automo#ile' sai% to #e themerican euivalent of 4ritish car or motor car' is practically a formal wor% in



merica' the or%inary term #eing card moreover' the suppose%ly mericanwor% occurs in the names of two English motoring organi>ations' the Boyalutomo#ile Clu# an% the utomo#ile ssociation) Similarly' many 4ritishlocutions are known an% freuently use% in mericaRfor instance' postman Tasin !ames () CainHs very merican novel 5he Postman lways Bings 5wice an%railway Tas in Bailway E9press an% the Southern Bailway' though it is certain

that mailman Tor to%ay letter carrier an% railroa% %o occur more freuently inmerica)

/or" $or+t#onAith compoun%ing' the esta#lishe% patterns continue%' pro%ucing many newcom#inations %ue to the increasing %eman% of new %esignations for newreferents) 5he following e9tremely selective e9amples are Grst %ocumente%from this perio%&

• N N& air miles' aircraft' #arman' #or%er7lan%' congressman' couchpotato' Gngerprint' frogman' home page' lifestyle' lipstick' mountain #ike'policeman' ri@e7range' soap opera' spee% camera' swor%7opera

• Ns N& #ailsman' clansman' oarsman' plainsman• %< N& #lack#oar%' har%ware' mo#ile home' software' tightrope• 7ing N& a%%ing machine' sewing machine' swimming pool• N& helpline' hushmoney' payloa%' push#oat' thinktank• N 7er& #a#y7sitter' cash7%ispenser' %og7sitter' house7sitter• N 7ing& roa%7pricing' %esktop pu#lishing• N 6& #ellhop' hair%o' <etlag' nightfall' shoe#lack' so%a <erk• N %<& air7sick' car7sick' class7conscious' colour7fast' %uty7free' kiss7

proof' nation7wi%e• %< %<& nglo7:rench' nglo7merican' ;erman7!ewish' phonetic7

semantic' Swe%ish7merican• N 7e%& air#orne' communist inGltrate%' factory packe%' government

owne%)

0r#t#sh n" ,+er#'n Spell#ng:inally' there is the matter of spelling' which looms larger in the consciousnessof those who are concerne% with national %i3erences than it %eserves to)Somewhat e9otic to merican eyes are cheue Tfor %rawing money from a#ank' cy%er' cypher' gaol' ker# Tof a street' py<amas' an% tyre Taroun% awheel) 4ut check' ci%er' cipher' <ail' cur#' pa<amas' an% tire also occur in

Englan% with varying freuency) Noah Ae#ster' through the in@uence of hisspelling #ook an% %ictionaries' wasresponsi#le for mericans settling upon 7or spellings for a group of wor%sspelle% in his %ay with either 7or or 7our& armoTur' #ehavioTur' coloTur'favoTur' @avoTur' har#oTur' la#oTur' neigh#oTur' an% the like) ll such wor%swere current in earlier 4ritish English without the u' though most 4ritons to%ayare pro#a#ly unaware of that factd Ae#ster was making no ra%ical change inEnglish spelling ha#its) :urthermore' the English ha% themselves struck the ufrom a great many wor%s earlier spelle% 7our' alternating with 7or& author'%octor' emperor' error' governor' horror' mirror' an% senator' among others)

/orl" Engl#shlthough merican an% 4ritish are the two ma<or national varieties of the



language' with the largest num#ers of speakers an% the greatest impactworl%wi%e' there are many other varieties of English use% aroun% the glo#e)

5o%ay English is use% as a Grst language Ta speakerHs native an% often onlylanguage' as a secon% language Tin a%%ition to a native language' #ut use%regularly for important matters' an% as a foreign language Tuse% for specialpurposes' with various %egrees of

@uency an% freuency) Other important Grst7language varieties of English arethose of ustralia' Cana%a' $relan%' New qealan%' an% South frica)

Ir#sh Engl#sh$rish English is an ol% national variety with close links to #oth 4ritain an%merica) $t has ha% an in@uence far greater than its num#er of speakers or thepolitical an% economic power of $relan%) 4ecause large num#ers of $rish menan% women emigrate% or were transporte% to the 4ritish colonies an% merica'their speech has left its imprint on other varieties of English aroun% the worl%)

5he in@uence of $rish English on that of Newfoun%lan% an% the Cari##ean' fore9ample' is clear) $n a%%ition' many of the common features of ustralian an%merican English may #e %ueto a share% in@uence from $relan%)

In"#n Engl#shEnglish' although a relative latecomer to $n%ia' is one of the su#continentHsmost important languages) $t is' after Din%i' the secon% most wi%ely spokenlanguage in $n%ia) 4ecause $n%ia inclu%es so many %i3erent languages' manyincomprehensi#le to other speakers in the country' an interlanguage is nee%e%)E3orts to promote Din%i as the sole national language have met strong

resistance' especially in the south' where the native languages are non7$n%o7European an% local pri%e resists northern Din%i #ut accepts foreign English) 5he entry of English into $n%ia can #e trace% to as early as the en% of the year/-88' when ueen Eli>a#eth $ grante% a charter to the East $n%ia Company ofLon%on merchants for a monopoly of tra%e in the Orient) (issionaries an%missionary schools followe% the merchants) $n the nineteenth century' the4ritish Ba< Tor government in $n%ia was forme% an% promote% Englishinstruction throughout the lan%) :or young $n%ians to make their way in life'they nee%e% to assimilate toEnglish culture' particularly the language' an% so an $n%ian %ialect of Englishcame into e9istence)

5he pronunciation of $n%ian English is greatly in@uence% #y local languages an%thus varies in %i3erent parts of the country)

:or further rea%ing&4urchGel%) 5he Cam#ri%ge Distory of the English Language) ol) ,& English in 4ritainan% Overseas)Bomaine) 5he Cam#ri%ge Distory of the English Language) ol) 1& /==-+/""=)

5ottie) n $ntro%uction to merican English) 5ru%gill) 5he 2ialects of Englan%)



4auer) n $ntro%uction to $nternational arieties of English)

E9amples an% comparison



Ol" Engl#sh:On angynne gesc[op ;o% heofonan an% eorjan) 0) S[o eorje$n Kthe #eginning create% ;o% heavens an% earth) 5he earth

ws sIjl\ce \%el an% Zmtig' an% [ostra wZron ofer jZrewas truly voi% an% empty' an% %arknesses were over the

nywelnysse #rX%nyssed an% ;o%es gXst ws gefero% ofer wteru)a#yssHs surfaced an% ;o%Hs spirit was #rought over Kthe water)

M#""le Engl#sh: 5wa lyves ar er at christen men lyfes& ane es calle% actyve lyfe'

5wo lives there are that Christian men live& one is calle% active life'

for it es mare #o%ili warked another' contemplatyve lyfe' for it es in marefor it is more #o%ily workd another' contemplative life' for it is in more

swetnes gastely) ctife lyfe es mykel owtewar% an% in mare travel'sweetness spiritually) ctive life is much outwar% an% in more travail'

an% in mare peryle for e temptacions at er in e worl%e)an% in more peril for the temptations that are in the worl%)

Conclusion&s you can see' English has un%ergone many transformations in or%er to get toits present form) Certain elements of language are preserve%' while othersagain completely change%)



4i#liography&• lgeo' !) T08/8 The Origins and Development of the English Language:

Sixth Edition) Aa%sworth& Aa%sworth Cengage Learning)• Dogg' 2enison T088- A History of the English Language) Cam#ri%ge&

Cam#ri%ge Unversity Press)• History of the English language.

https&66en)wikipe%ia)org6wiki6DistoryoftheEnglishlanguage Taccesse%2ecem#er 8,' 08/,)• Beoulf !otton "S #itellius A $# f. %&'r.(pg

https&66commons)wikime%ia)org6wiki6:ile&4eowulfCotton(Sitelliusf)/*0r)<pg Taccesse% 2ecem#er 8,' 08/,)

• Hundred )ears* +ar,-oan of Ar https&66historyma%eevery%ay)wor%press)com6page6,6 Taccesse%2ecem#er 8,' 08/,)

Documents

Origin of the English Language