Organizational Behaviour (COMM 151) Final Exam Review Shannon Bailey Chapter 1 / Lecture 1 & 2 Organizations – social inventions for accomplishing common goals through group effort Organizational behaviour – the attitudes and behaviours of individuals and groups in organizations. The field of OB is about understanding people and managing them to work effectively, is concerned with how organizations can survive and adapt to change, and with how to get people to practice effective teamwork Management – the art of getting things accomplished in organizations through others History of Organizational Behaviour

In early 1900s, rapid industrialization and factory work, movement toward efficiency

Scientific Management – Taylor’s system for using research to determine the optimum degree of specialization and standardization of work tasks Bureaucracy – Max Weber’s ideal type of organization that included a strict chain of command, detailed rules, high specialization, centralized power, and selection and promotion based on technical competence Classical Viewpoint/Scientific management/Taylorism:

1. high degree of specialization in jobs 2. routinized procedures 3. decision making power concentrated in upper management 4. promotion for conformity problems: boring, easy to lose sight of significance of work, can lead people to do the bare minimum, entry level employees have no means to influence upper management

In 1920s and 1930s, human relations were analyzed, they found that psychological and social factors influence the behaviour of workers

Hawthorne studies – research conducted at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric near Chicago in the 20s and 30s that illustrated how social and psychological processes affect productivity and work adjustment Human relations movement – a critique of classical management and bureaucracy that advocated management styles that were more participative and oriented toward employee needs

Today, Contingency approach, there is no one best way to manage – an appropriate management style depends on the demands of the situation

Formal Authority and

Status

Informational Roles

Monitor

Disseminator

Spokesperson

Interpersonal Roles

Figurehead

Leader

Liaison

Decisional Roles

Entrepreneur

Disturbance Handler

Resource allocator

Negotiator

Managerial Roles: Managerial Activities:

Routine communication – handling of paperwork, meetings Traditional management – planning, decision making & controlling Networking – interacting with people outside organization Human Resource Management – employee management

Managerial Agendas: Agenda setting – goals, plans Networking Agenda Implementation – using network to implement agendas

Talent Management – an organization’s processes for attracting, developing, retaining and utilizing people with the required skills to meet current and future business needs Corporate social responsibility (CSR) – an organization taking responsibility for the impact of its decisions and actions on its stakeholders Chapter 5 / Lecture 3 Motivation – the extent to which persistent effort is directed toward a goal Intrinsic motivation – motivation that stems from the direct relationship between the worker and the task; it is usually self applied Extrinsic motivation – motivation that stems from the work environment external to the task, it is usually applied by others -even if upper management thinks a motivation technique is working well in the short run, it may not be helpful (or may even be harmful) in the long run (linebacker terry tate commercial example) -money is a motivator but if you’re only 5 or 10 percent underpaid, the other perks are probably stronger motivators

Performance Chance Emotional

Intelligence

Task Understandi

ng

General Cognitive

ability Personality Motivation

Amount, Persistence,

and Direction of

Effort

Motivation techniques: Perks i.e. day care, gym facilities, monetary bonus Flexibility i.e. telecommuting, casual dress, flex hours Growth i.e. offer career management, invest in training

Self Determination theory – a theory of motivation that considers whether people’s motivation is autonomous or controlled Autonomous motivation – when people are self-motivated by intrinsic factors Controlled motivation – when people are motivated to obtain a desired consequence or extrinsic award Performance – the extent to which an organizational member contributes to achieving the objectives of the organization Factors Contributing to Job Performance General cognitive ability – a person’s basic information processing capacities and cognitive resources Emotional intelligence – the ability to understand and manage one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions

1. Perceiving emotions accurately in oneself and others 2. Using emotions to facilitate thinking 3. Understanding emotions, emotional language, and the signals conveyed by

emotions 4. Managing emotions so as to attain specific goals

Need theories – motivation theories that specify the kinds of needs people have and the conditions under which they will be motivated to satisfy these needs in a way that contributes to performance

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs – a five level hierarchical need theory of motivation that specifies that the lowest level unsatisfied need has the greatest motivating potential

1. Physiological needs – needs that must be satisfied for the person to survive I.e food, water, shelter

2. Safety needs – needs for security, stability, freedom from anxiety, and a structured and order environment. May include safe working conditions, fair rules and regulations, job security, pension plans, etc

3. Belongingness needs – needs for social interaction, affection, love, friendship i.e. opportunity to interact with others on the job, friendly and supportive supervision

4. Esteem needs – needs for feelings of adequacy, competence, independence, strength, and confidence, and the appreciation and recognition of these characteristics by others i.e. the opportunity to master tasks leading to feelings of achievement and responsibility, awards, promotions, professional recognition

5. Self-actualization needs – involve the desire to develop one’s true potential as an individual to the fullest extent and to express one’s skills, talent, and emotions in a manner that is most personally fulfilling i.e. absorbing jobs with the potential for creativity and growth as well as a relaxation of structure to permit self development and personal progression

Alderfer’s ERG theory – a three-level hierarchical need theory of motivation that allows for movement up and down the hierarchy (a lower-level need mustn’t be satisfied to fulfill a higher level need). ERG theory assumes that if the higher level needs are unsatisfied, individuals will increase their desire for the gratification of lower level needs.

1. Existence needs – needs that are satisfied by some material substance or condition. Correspond to Maslow’s physiological needs and to those safety needs that are satisfied by material conditions rather than interpersonal relations. i.e. shelter, food, pay, safe working conditions

2. Relatedness needs – needs that are satisfied by open communication and the exchange of thoughts and feelings with other organizational members. They correspond to Maslow’s belongingness needs and to those esteem needs that involve feedback from others. However, Alderfer stresses that relatedness needs are satisfied by open, accurate, honest interaction rather than by uncritical pleasantness

3. Growth needs – the needs satisfied by strong personal involvement in the work setting, full utilization of one’s skills and abilities and the development of new skills and abilities. This corresponds to Maslow’s self actualization needs and the aspects of esteem needs that concern achievement and responsibility

McClelland’s Theory of Needs – a non hierarchical need theory of motivation that outlines the conditions under which certain needs result in particular patterns of motivation

Need for achievement – a strong desire to perform challenging tasks well. Individuals who are high in need for achievement will have a preference in which personal responsibility can be taken for outcomes, a tendency to set moderately difficult goals that provide for calculated risks, and a desire for performance feedback Need for affiliation – a strong desire to establish and maintain friendly, compatible interpersonal relationships Need for power – a strong desire to influence others, making a significant impact or impression

Process theories – motivation theories that specify the details of how motivation occurs Expectancy Theory – a process theory that states that motivation is determined by the outcomes that people expect to occur as a result of their actions on the job Instrumentality – the probability that a particular first level outcome will be followed by a particular second level outcome Valence – the expected value of work outcomes; the extent to which they are attractive or unattractive -the valence of a first level outcome depends on the extent to which it leads to favourable second level outcomes Expectancy – the probability that a particular first level outcome can be achieved Force – the effort directed toward first level outcome Force = first level valence x expectancy E = expectancy, V = Valence, I = instrumentality

Expectancy theory says:

People will be motivated to perform in those work activities that they find attractive and that they feel they can accomplish

The attractiveness of various work activities depends on the extent to which they lead to favourable personal consequences

E

E

I I

I

I

I

I

I

I

Equity Theory - a process theory that states that motivation stems from a comparison of the inputs one invests in a job an the outcomes one receives in comparison with the inputs and outcomes of another person or group. Fairness matters to us: individuals are motivated to maintain an equitable exchange relationship When inequity is present, people will devote considerable energy to reducing inequity by:

Perceptually distorting one’s own inputs or outcomes Perceptually distorting the inputs/outcomes of the comparison person or

group Choose another comparison person or group Alter one’s inputs or outcomes Leave the exchange relationship

For example, if your performance is very high with an $85000 salary, and your coworker’s performance is high with a $95000 salary: You will feel cheated – you may ask for a raise, wait & hope mgmt. notices, or resign, but most likely you will just decrease your performance Your coworker might feel guilty, lucky, or happy – he/she may increase performance, but most likely he/she will come up with reasons why they are paid more – self serving bias Goal – the object or aim of an action Goal setting theory – a process theory that states that goals are motivational when they are specific, challenging, and when organizational members are committed to them and feedback about progress toward goal attainment is provided -goals are most effective when workers are actively involved in setting them – the worker has a sense of ownership and ensures the goal is realistic -if you make a goal public, you become publicly accountable – good motivator Goal orientation – an individual’s goal preferences in achievement situations Learning goal orientation – a preference to learn new things and develop competence in an activity by acquiring new skills and mastering new situations Performance goal orientation – a preference to obtain favourable judgments about the outcome of one’s performance Performance-avoid goal orientation – a preference to avoid negative judgments about the outcome of one’s performance -a performance prove orientation is not related to learning or performance outcomes -a learning goal orientation is most effective for learning and performance outcomes, while a performance avoid goal orientation is detrimental for learning and performance Distal goal – long term or end goals Proximal goal – short term or sub-goals. Proximal goals involve breaking down a distal goal into smaller, more attainable sub goals. They provide clear markers of progress toward a distal goal. Chapter 6 / Lecture 4

Piece-rate – a pay system in which individual workers are paid a certain sum of money for each unit of production completed Benefits – increased productivity and decreased turnover Potential Problems – lowered quality, differential opportunity (might be less opportunity to produce a lot for fault of equipment or resources at different factories), reduced cooperation, incompatible job design, restriction of productivity) Wage incentive plans – various systems that link pay to performance on production jobs -wage incentives will increase productivity, but can cause lowered quality and reduced cooperation -also, a threat to the establishment of wage incentives exists when workers have different opportunities to produce at a high level, or the way the job is designed is incompatible with wage incentives (i.e on an assembly line, difficult to identify and reward individual contributions to productivity) Restriction of productivity – the artificial limitation of work output that can occur under wage incentive plans. This happens if workers come to an informal agreement about what constitutes a fair day’s work. This happens because employees may fear that increased productivity may result in reductions in the workforce or that if employees produce at an exceptionally high level, employer may reduce the rate of payment Merit pay plans – systems that attempt to link pay to performance on white-collar jobs The problems with merit pay plans are: Low discrimination – managers might be unwilling or unable to discriminate between good and bad performers Small increases - merit increases may be simply too small to be good motivators Pay secrecy – even if merit pay is administered fairly, is contingent on performance, and is generous, employees may remain ignorant of these facts as they have no way of comparing their own merit treatment with that of others. Employees are inclined to ‘invent’ salaries of other members: they underestimate their bosses pay, overestimate their peers’ pay, and overestimate their subordinates pay. These tendencies reduce satisfaction with pay, damage perceptions of the linkage between performance and rewards, and reduce the valence of promotion to a higher level of management. Lump sum bonus – merit pay that is awarded in a single payment and not built into base pay Profit sharing – the return of some company profit to employees in the form of a cash bonus or a retirement supplement. However, difficult to see one employee’s impact on a company’s profit, so likely not too motivational. Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs) – incentive plans that allow employees to own a set amount of a company’s shares and provide employees with a stake in the company’s future earnings and success Gain sharing – a group pay incentive plan based on productivity or performance improvements over which the workforce has some control

High Depth, Low Breadth

Quality Control

Equipment Monitoring

High Scope

Manager

Professor

Low Scope

Traditional assembly line

job

High Breadth, low depth

Assembly line utility worker

Skill based pay – a system in which people are paid according to the number of job skills they have acquired

Pay Plan Description Advantages Disadvantages Profit Sharing

Employees receive a cash bonus based on organization profits

-employees have a sense of ownership -aligns employee goals with organization goals -only pays when the organization makes a profit

-many factors beyond the control of employees can affect profits -it is difficult for employees to see the impact of their actions on profits

Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs)

Employees can own a set amount of the organization’s shares

-creates a sense of legal and psychological ownership for employees -aligns employee goals and interests with those of the organization

-many factors influence the value of a company’s shares, regardless of employees’ effort and performance -difficult for employees to see connection between stock price and their effort -motivational potential lost in a weak economy (value of stocks down)

Gainsharing When measured costs decrease, employees receive a bonus based on a predetermined formula

-aligns organization and employee goals -encourages teamwork and cooperative behaviour

-bonuses might be paid even when the organization does not make a profit -employees might neglect objectives that are not included in the formula

Skill-based pay

Employees are paid according to the number of job skills they acquire

-encourages employees to learn new skills -greater flexibility in task assgnments -provides employees with a broader picture of the work process

-increases cost of training and labour costs (if employees have more skills, will demand more money)

Job scope – the breadth and depth of a job Breadth – the number of different activities performed in a job Depth – the degree of discretion or control a worker has over how tasks are performed

-high scope jobs should provide more intrinsic motivation than low scope jobs. People can fulfill higher order needs by the opportunity to perform high scope jobs. -you can increase the scope of a job by offering stretch assignments (challenging ones) or job rotation Job rotation – rotating employees to different tasks and jobs in an organization Core job characteristics: STAFT

Skill variety – the opportunity to do a variety of job activities using various skills and talents

o High variety – owner/operator of a garage does electrical repair, rebuilds engines, body work, and customer interaction

o Low variety – a body shop worker spray paints 8 hours a day Autonomy – the freedom to schedule one’s own work activities and decide

work procedures o High autonomy – a telephone installer who schedules his own work

for the day, makes unsupervised visits, and decides on the most effective techniques to use

o Low autonomy – a telephone operator who must handle calls according to a routine, highly specified procedure

Task significance – the impact that a job has on other people o High significance – nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit o Low significance – sweeping hospital floors

Task identity – The extent to which a job involves doing a complete piece of work, from beginning to end

o High identity – a cabinet maker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds the object, and finishes it to perfection

o Low identity – a worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe solely to make table legs

Feedback – Information about the effectiveness of one’s work performance o High feedback – an electronics factory worker who assembles a radio

and then tests it to determine if it operates properly o Low feedback – an electronics factory worker who assembles a radio

and then routes it to a quality control inspector Motivating potential score = S + T + T x A x F 3 Growth need strength – the extent to which people desire to achieve higher order need satisfaction by performing their jobs. This may be why jobs high in motivating potential do not always lead to favourable outcomes for every individual Job enrichment – the design of jobs to enhance intrinsic motivation, quality of working life, and job involvement. Typically involves increasing the motivation potential of jobs via the arrangement of their core characteristics. Job enrichment schemes:

Combining tasks – increases variety and may contribute to task identity Establishing external client relationships – increase identity and significance

of the job, as well as feedback Establishing internal client relationships – see above Reducing supervision or reliance on others – increases autonomy Forming work teams – increases variety and identity Making feedback more direct – increases feedback

-job enrichment can create problems if there is a poor diagnosis, a lack of workers’ desire/skill, a demand for rewards, and union or supervisory resistance Job involvement – a cognitive state of psychological identification with one’s job and the importance of work to one’s total self image Job enlargement – increasing job breadth by giving employees more tasks at the same level to perform but leaving other core characteristics unchanged (workers given more boring, fragmented, routine tasks – not motivating) Work design characteristics – attributes of the task, job, and social and organizational environment

Task characteristics – how the work itself is accomplished and the range and nature of tasks associated with a particular job (involves autonomy, task variety, significance, identity, and feedback)

Knowledge characteristics – the kinds of knowledge, skill, and ability demands that are placed on an individual as a function of what is done on the job (includes job complexity, as well as the information processing, problem solving, skill variety, and specialization required by the job)

Social characteristics – the interpersonal and social aspects of work (social support, interdependence, interaction outside organization required by job, and feedback from others)

Contextual characteristics – the context within which work is performed including the physical and environmental contexts (ergonomics, physical demands, work conditions, equipment use)

Management by Objectives (MBO) – an elaborate, systematic, ongoing program designed to facilitate goal establishment, goal accomplishment, and employee development. Manager will meet with workers to agree on objectives, there are periodic meetings, and an appraisal meeting is held to evaluate the success/failure with regards to meeting the objectives -alternative working schedules are also a motivator: Flex time – an alternative work schedule in which arrival and departure times are flexible Compressed workweek – employees work fewer than the normal 5 days a week but still put in a normal number of hours per week Job sharing – two part time employees divide the work of a full time job Work sharing – reducing the number of hours employees work to avoid layoffs when there is a reduction in normal business activity Telecommuting – a system by which employees are able to work at home but stay in touch with their offices through the use of communications technology Task performance – how well you do on the activities that are assigned to you

Amount/Persistence/Direction of Effort

Motivation

Personality

General Cognitive Ability

Task understanding

Emotional Intelligence

Chance

Performance

Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) – activities that are not a part of your formal job description but nonetheless help the organization to succeed Counterproductive work behaviour – opposite of OCB, activities that harm the organization and are willful. For example, showing up late, spreading rumors about coworkers -when judging job performance, there are three types of managers: those for whom task performance dominates, those for whom counterproductive performance dominates, and those for whom task and counterproductive performance are weighed equally -notice that OCB does not influence the way a manager rates an employee’s level of job performance -the strongest job performers are individuals who score high on IQ and EI (emotional intelligence) tests, and conscientious individuals -people who score high on EI tests are strong performers because they are aware of their strengths and weaknesses, they deal with stress better, they’re good and managing your and other’s emotions (and it helps to be well-liked) -extraversion and agreeableness are also related to job performance, but less so than conscientiousness Chapter 4 / Lecture 5 Values – a broad tendency to prefer certain states of affairs over others i.e. different generations (X vs Y value different things, different cultures value different things) Hofstede’s Study – Four basic dimensions along which work related values differ across cultures:

Power Distance – the extent to which an unequal distribution of power is accepted by society members. In small power distance countries, inequality is minimized, superiors are accessible and power differences are downplayed; they include Austria, Denmark, and New Zealand

Uncertainty Avoidance – the extent to which people are uncomfortable with uncertain and ambiguous situations. Strong uncertainty avoidance

cultures stress rules and regulations, hard work, conformity and security, and include Japan, Greece and Portugal. Weak uncertainty avoidance cultures are less concerned with rules and risk taking is valued, including Singapore, Sweden.

Masculinity/Femininity – more masculine cultures clearly differentiate gender roles, support the dominance of men, and stress economic performance. Feminine cultures accept fluid gender roles, stress sexual equality and quality of life. Japan is the most masculine, and Scandinavian countries are the most feminine

Individualism vs. Collectivism – individualistic societies stress independence, individual initiative, and privacy. Collective cultures favour interdependence and loyalty to family or clan. USA and Australia are individualistic, where Columbia and Pakistan are collective

Long term vs. Short term orientation – culture with a long term orientation stress persistence, perseverence, thrift, and close attention to status differences while cultures with a short term orientation stress personal steadiness and stability, face saving, and social niceties. China and Japan are more long term while US and Nigeria are more short term.

-an appreciation of cross cultural differences in values is essential to understanding the needs and tastes of customers or clients around the world, as well as to translate management practices to other cultures Attitude – a fairly stable evaluative tendency to respond consistently to some specific object, situation, person, or category of people. Attitudes influence behaviour.

Belief + Value Attitude Behaviour Job satisfaction – a collection of attitudes that workers have about their jobs

What determines job satisfaction? Discrepancy Fairness Disposition (born with it) Mood and Emotion Career Opportunities

The key contributors, however, are: Mentally challenging work Adequate Compensation Job Performance (especially when pay is tied to performance) Satisfying Social Relationships Personality Traits

-when measuring job satisfaction, you must take into account multiple items because there are multiple facets to satisfaction. When measuring, dilute carelessness by including many questions on a survey What does job satisfaction predict?

1. Weak relation with task performance – so many things contribute to task performance (i.e. EI, IQ etc) so just not enough to make a strong correlation

2. Moderate relation with customer satisfaction and turnover intentions

3. Strong relation with organizational citizenship behaviour Discrepancy theory – a theory that job satisfaction stems from the discrepancy between the job outcomes wanted and the job outcomes that are perceived to be obtain Job outcome perceived to be obtained > job outcome desired = high satisfaction Distributive fairness – fairness that occurs when people receive the outcomes they think that they deserve from their jobs Equity theory – a theory that job satisfaction stems from a comparison of the inputs ones invests in a job and the outcomes one receives in comparison with the inputs and outcomes of another person or group My outcomes = Other’s outcomes My inputs Other’s inputs Procedural fairness – fairness that occurs when the process used to determine work outcomes is seen as reasonable. Rather than the actual distribution of resources or rewards, it is concerned with how these outcomes are allocated and decided. The following factors contribute to perceptions of procedural fairness: (the allocator)

Follows consistent procedures over time and across people Uses accurate information and appears unbiased Allows two way communication during the allocation process Welcomes appeals of the procedure or allocation

Interactional fairness – fairness that occurs when people feel they have received respectful and informative communication about an outcome Emotions – intense, often short lived feelings caused by a particular event Mood – less intense, longer lived and more diffuse feelings Emotional contagion – tendency for moods and emotions to spread between people or throughout a group Emotional regulation (emotional labour) – requirement for people to conform to certain display rules in their job behaviour in spite of their true mood or emotions. The frequent need to suppress negative emotions takes a toll on job satisfaction and increases stress. -stress negatively impacts your health: recall example from class with nuns who wrote autobiographies; those who used positive emotions lived on average 10 years longer than those with the least positive emotion words Consequences of High Job Satisfaction:

Low absence from work Low turnover rates High performance High organizational citizenship behaviour High customer satisfaction and profit (employee job satisfaction translates

into customer satisfaction due to moods, less turnover, etc) Organizational commitment – an attitude that reflects the strength of the linkage between an employee and an organization

Affective commitment – commitment based on identification and involvement with an organization. People with high affective commitment stay with an organization because they want to. Continuance commitment – commitment based on the costs that would be incurred in leaving an organization. People with high continuance commitment stay with an organization because they have to. Normative commitment – commitment based on ideology or a feeling of obligation to an organization. People with high normative commitment stay with an organization because they think that they should do so. -continuance commitment can negatively affect performance -changes in the workplace (i.e. change in workforce size, change in managerial style, etc) are having an impact on the nature of employee commitment and employee-employer relationships

Chapter 13 (437-458) / Lecture 6 Stressors – environmental events or conditions that have the potential to induce stress Stress – a psychological reaction to the demands inherent in a stressor that has the potential to make a person feel tense or anxious. Stress is not intrinsically bad, and moderate levels of stress can even be a motivator. But when stress leads to high levels of anxiety and tension, it is not good. Stress reactions – the behavioural, psychological, and physiological consequences of stress Locus of control – a set of beliefs about whether one’s behaviour is controlled mainly by internal or external forces Internals are more likely to confront stressors directly because they assume that this response will make a difference Externals are anxious but do not feel that they are masters of their own fate – they are more prone to simple anxiety reduction strategies that only work in the short run Type A Behaviour Pattern – a personality pattern that includes aggressiveness, ambitiousness, competitiveness, hostility, impatience, and a sense of time urgency. These people seem to either encounter more stressful situations than type B people do, or perceive themselves as doing so Negative Affectivity – the propensity to view the world, including oneself and other people, in a negative light. Those who are high in negative affectivity re more susceptible to stress, and this is probably because of a) a predisposition to perceive stressors in the workplace b) hypersensitivity to existing stressors c) a tendency to gravitate to stressful jobs d) a tendency to provoke stress through their negativity e) the use of passive, indirect coping styles that avoid the real sources of stress Executive and Managerial Stressors: Role overload – the requirement for too many tasks to be performed in too short a time period

Heavy Responsibility – the work can have extremely important consequences for the organization and its members, meaning very high pressure Operative Level Stressors: (operatives are individuals who occupy non professional and non managerial positions in organizations) Poor Physical Working Conditions – employees may face excessive heat, cold, noise, pollution, and the chance of accidents Poor Job Design – when job scope is either too low or too high it can be a stressor. Monotony and boredom can prove extremely frustrating to people who feel capable of handling more tasks Boundary Role Stressors: (boundary roles are positions in which organizational members are required to interact with members of other organizations or with the public) Role Conflict – an individual working with clients have to make both the client and the company happy, for example a sales rep has to sell while protecting another function from unreasonable demands that could result in a broken contract Burnout – a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and reduced self efficacy. Often results when an individual works with people who require special attention or are experiencing severe problems i.e. social workers, teachers, nurses etc. Burnout seems to be most common among people who entered their jobs with especially high ideals, their expectations of being able to change the world are frustrated when they experience a ‘reality shock’ Work engagement – a positive work related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption Job demands-resources model – a model that specifies how job demands cause burnout and job resources cause engagement

Demands are physical, psychological, social or organizational features of a job that require sustained physical or psychological effort that can in turn result is physiological or psychological costs (i.e. work overload, time pressure etc.

Resources are features of a job that are functional in that they help achieve work goals, reduce job demands, and stimulate personal growth, learning, and development (i.e. pay, team climate, task significance)

High job resources foster work engagement, while high job demands exhaust employees physically and mentally an lead to burnout. Resources can buffer the negative impacts of demands on well-being

Some General Stressors: Interpersonal Conflict

Bullying – repeated negative behaviour directed toward one or more individuals of lower power or status that creates a hostile work environment

Work-family conflict Job insecurity and change Role ambiguity Sexual harassment

Behavioural Reactions to Stress: Problem solving – problem solving is directed toward terminating the stressor or reducing its potency, not simply making the person feel better in the short run i.e. Delegation, time management, talking it out, asking for help, searching for alternative Seeking social support – people with stronger social networks exhibit better psychological and physical wellbeing, and when people encounter stressful events, those with good social networks are likely to cope more positively Performance changes – some stressors can damage performance (i.e. role ambiguity, interpersonal conflict), while others may increase or decrease performance, since they add challenge & have motivating potential (i.e. heavy workload and responsibility) Withdrawal – in organizations, withdrawal takes the form of absence and turnover Use of addictive substances – the least satisfactory behavioural responses to stress for both the individual and the organization. They fail to terminate stress episodes, and may even worsen or cause additional stress Psychological Reactions to Stress: Defense Mechanisms – psychological attempts to reduce the anxiety associated with stress. Common defense mechanisms include:

All Employees

-job insecurity and change

-role ambiguity

-interpersonal conflict

-work family conflict

-sexual harassment

-bullying

Boundary Roles

-role conflict

-emotional labour

Execs and Managers

-heavy, continuing workload

-heavy responsibility

Operative Roles

-poor physical conditions

-poor job design

Rationalization – attributing socially acceptable reasons or motives to one’s actions so that they will appear reasonable and sensible, at least to oneself Projection – attributing one’s own undesirable ideas and motives to others so that they seem less negative Displacement – directing feelings of anger at a ‘safe’ target rather than expressing them where they may be punished Reaction formation – expressing oneself in a manner that is directly opposite to the way one truly feels, rather than risking negative reactions to one’s true position Compensation – applying one’s skills to a particular area to make up for a failure in another area -the occasional use of defense mechanisms as a short term anxiety reducer probably benefits both the individual and the organization, but when their use becomes a chronic reaction to stress, the problem remains unresolved, and the stress may increase with the knowledge that the defense has been essentially ineffective Physiological Reactions to stress: -Work stress is associated with elevated levels of blood pressure, cholesterol, and pulse. Also, it is associated with the onset of some diseases due to its ill effects on the immune system. Managing Stress

Focusing on the BLUE means antecedent focused emotion regulation strategies – long term strategies that focus on solutions. They can be applied at time of event or at time of appraisal of situation so there is a less negative emotional impact Focusing on the RED means response focused emotion regulation strategies – deals with symptoms of the situation and doesn’t solve it

Event Appraisal Emotion

Physiology

Facial Expression

Action Tendencies

Cognitive Tendencies

Subjective Feeling

-people who use antecedent focused emotion regulation strategies rather than response focused often end up more cheerful and calm (according to study of teachers we looked at in lecture) Chapter 2 / Lecture 7 & 8 Personality – the relatively stable set of psychological characteristics that influences the way an individual interacts with his or her environment Dispositional approach – individuals possess stable traits or characteristics that influence their attitudes and behaviours Situational approach – factors in the work environment, such as rewards and punishments, influence people’s feelings, attitudes, and behaviour Interactionist approach – OB is a function of both dispositions and the situation Five Factor Model ACONE Extraversion – the extent to which a person is outgoing versus shy. Persons who score high on extraversion tend to be sociable, outgoing, energetic, joyful and assertive. Extraversion is especially important for jobs that require a lot of interpersonal interaction, such as sales and management Emotional stability / Neuroticism – the degree to which a person has appropriate emotional control. People with high emotional stability (low neuroticism) are self confident and have high self esteem while those with low emotional stability (high neuroticism) tend toward self doubt and depression. They tend to be anxious, hostile, impulsive, depressed, insecure, and more prone to stress. Agreeableness – the extent to which a person is friendly and approachable. Less approachable people tend to be more cold and argumentative, uncooperative, intolerant etc. Agreeableness is most likely to contribute to job performance in jobs that require interaction and involve helping, cooperating, and nurturing others, as well as teamwork Conscientiousness – the degree to which a person is responsible and achievement oriented. More conscientious people are dependable and positively motivated, also orderly, self disciplined, and diligent. Persons who are high in conscientiousness are likely to perform well on most jobs given their tendency towards hard work and achievement Openness to experience – the extent to which a person thinks flexibly and is receptive to new ideas. More open people tend toward creativity and innovation, while less open people favour the status quo. People who are high in openness to experience are likely to do well in jobs that involve learning and creativity -the big five are highly related to motivation, neuroticism and conscientiousness being the most related -for job satisfaction, neuroticism > conscientiousness > extraversion > agreeableness -openness to experience is not related to job satisfaction -the traits are independent of one another Strong situation – real social pressures, clear expectations behave a certain way. Personality traits often do not shine through I.e. very formal networking dinner Weak situation – no pressure, personality predicts behaviour

Self monitoring – the extent to which people observe and regulate how they appear and behave in social settings and relationships -high self monitors tend to gravitate towards jobs that require a degree f role playing and the exercise of their self presentation skills. Self monitors tend to be more involved in their jobs, to perform at a higher level, and to be more likely to emerge as leaders; however, high self monitors are also likely to experience more role stress and show less commitment to their organization Self esteem – the degree to which a person has a positive self-evaluation -people with low self esteem are more susceptible to external influence, good at behavioural modeling, and respond poorly to negative feedback -when giving negative feedback to someone with low self esteem, make clear if there is an external factor that has negatively affected performance so that they don’t blame themselves (focus on the behaviour, not the person) -high self esteem is positively related to job performance Behavioural plasticity theory – people with low self esteem tend to be more susceptible to external and social influences than those who have high self esteem. This occurs because, being unsure of their own views and behaviour, they are more likely to look to others for information and confirmation, and seek social approval from others -note: with regards to locus of control (previously defined), uncertainty is a stressor, so people with high internal locus of control manage stress better. They also believe it is within their power to change their circumstances Positive affectivity – propensity to view the world, including oneself and other people, in a positive light Negative affectivity – propensity to view the world, including oneself and other people, in a negative light -those with high PA report higher job satisfaction and job performance, while those high on NA report lower job satisfaction and performance Proactive behaviour – taking initiative to improve current circumstances or creating new ones Proactive personality – a stable personal disposition that reflects a tendency to take personal initiative across a range of activities and situations and to effect positive change in one’s environment General self efficacy – a general trait that refers to an individual’s belief in his or her ability to perform successfully in a variety of challenging situations. It is a motivational trait rather than an affective trait. An individual’s GSE is believed to develop over the life span as repeated successes and failures are experiences across a variety of tasks and decisions. Core self evaluation – a broad personality concept that consists of more specific traits that reflect the evaluations people hold about themselves and their self worth. Includes self esteem, general self efficacy, locus of control, and neuroticism/emotional stability Learning – a relatively permanent change in behavioural potential that occurs due to practice or experience Practical skills – job specific skills, knowledge, and technical competence

Intrapersonal skills – skills such as problem solving, critical thinking, learning about alternative work processes, and risk taking Interpersonal skills – interactive skills such as communicating, teamwork, and conflict resolution Cultural awareness – learning the social norms of organizations and understanding company goals, business operations, and company expectations and priorities Operant learning – learning by which the subject learns to operate on the environment to achieve certain consequences i.e. a salesperson learns effective sales techniques to achieve commissions and avoid criticism from the manager Reinforcement – the process by which stimuli strengthen behaviours Positive reinforcement – the application or addition of a stimulus that increases or maintains the probability of some behaviour i.e. an analyst tends to read a particular et of financial newspapers regularly; he developed this habit because a series of successful business decisions resulted from reading those papers Negative reinforcement – the removal of a negative stimulus that in turn increases or maintains the probability of some behaviour. i.e. PepsiCos smoking cessation program – if employees smoke and do not join the program, they must pay a $600 benefits surcharge. The benefits surcharge operates as a negative reinforcer to the extent that it increases the probability that employees will participate in the program. Also, if employers nag their employees unless they work hard -organizations often confuse rewards with reinforcers; they give rewards not contingent on behaviour even though they may have strong potential as a reinforcer -organizations sometimes also neglect diversity in preferences for reinforcers (i.e. give a workaholic time off work as a reinforcer) or neglect important sources of reinforcement (i.e. performance feedback, social recognition) -to obtain fast acquisition of some response, continuous and immediate reinforcement must be used (reinforcer applied every time behaviour of interest exists) -behaviour will be persistent when it is learned under the conditions of partial and delayed reinforcement (it will persist under reduced or terminated reinforcement) Performance feedback – providing quantitative or qualitative information on past performance for the purpose of changing or maintaining performance in specific ways. Performance feedback is most effective when it is a) conveyed in a positive manner b) delivered immediately after the performance is observed c) represented visually, such as in a graph and d) specific to the behaviour that is being targeted for feedback Social recognition – informal acknowledgement, attention, praise, approval, or genuine appreciation for work well done from one individual or group to another Extinction – the gradual dissipation of behaviour following the termination of reinforcement i.e. man who cracks jokes at meetings because coworkers laughed, VP tells coworkers not to laugh next time, man stops being a jokester Punishment – the application of an aversive stimulus following some behaviour designed to decrease the probability of that behaviour i.e. a boss criticizes her assistant after seeing her on the office phone for personal calls -punishment will only temporarily suppress the unwanted response unless you provide an acceptable alternative for the punished response

-punishment also has the tendency to provoke a strong reaction on the part of the punished individual -notice the difference between punishment and negative reinforcement: in negative reinforcement a nasty stimulus is removed following some behaviour, increasing the probability of that behaviour; in punishment a nasty stimulus is applied after some behaviour, decreasing the probability of that behaviour Social Cognitive Theory – human behaviour can be best explained through a system of triadic reciprocal causation, in which personal factors and environmental factors work together and interact to influence people’s behaviour. In addition, people’s behaviour also influences personal factors and the environment. SCT consists of:

Observational learning – the process of observing and imitating the behaviour of others

Self efficacy – beliefs people have about their ability to successfully perform a specific task (unlike the personality trait GSE, it is a task specific cognitive appraisal of one’s ability to perform a specific task). Self efficiacy is influences by one’s experiences and success in performing the task, observation of others performing the task, verbal persuasion and social influence, and one’s emotional or physiological state

Self regulation – the use of learning principles to regulate one’s own behaviour. The basic process involves observing one’s own behaviour, comparing with a standard, and rewarding oneself if the behaviour meets the standard (self reinforcement). When there exists a discrepancy between one’s goals and performance, individuals are motivated to modify their behaviour in the pursuit of goal attainment (discrepancy reduction). When individual’s attain their goals, they are likely to set even higher and more challenging goals, known as discrepancy production.

Organizational behaviour modification – the systematic use of learning principles to influence organizational behaviour Employee recognition problems – formal organizational problems that publicly recognize and reward employees for specific behaviours. To be effective, a formal employee recognition program must specify a) how a person will be recognized b) the type of behaviour being encouraged c) the manner of the public acknowledgment and d) a token or icon of the event for the recipient Training – planned organizational activities that are designed to facilitate knowledge and skill acquisition to change behaviour and improve performance Behaviour modeling training (BMT) – one of the most widely used and effective methods of training, involving five steps based on the observational learning component of social cognitive theory

1. Describe to trainees a set of well defined behaviours/skills to be learned 2. Provide model(s) displaying the effective use of those behaviours 3. Provide opportunities for trainees to practice using the behaviours 4. Provide feedback and social reinforcement to trainees following practice 5. Take steps to maximize the transfer of those behaviours to the job

Career development – an ongoing process in which individuals progress through a series of stages that consist of a unique set of issues, themes, and tasks Can stable personality traits change? Yes! For example, openness to experience – as you get older, you settle down, may have a family, and may become less adventurous -conscientiousness dramatically increases as you age – you get more responsibilities -agreeableness tends to gradually rise as you age, and extraversion is pretty stable Does your personality limit you? For most criteria, more than 50% depends on skills and abilities that you can learn regardless of personality traits. In addition, with effort you may be able to change personality -personality captures how people behave across time –> typical behaviour -abilities may or may not be reflected in a person’s typical behaviour –> how well a person can perform a particular task ability x motivation typical performance Cognitive intelligence – abilities that have to do with thinking; verbal, quantitative, reasoning ability. It is the single best predictor of job performance of all abilities. The timed Wonderlic personnel test measures cognitive intelligence. Crystallized intelligence – body of knowledge with which you walk around, stuff you’ve learned through past education Fluid intelligence – a person’s ability to detect relationships, independent of past experience or instruction with those relationships. There is a strong genetic component and usually is tested by pattern progression recognition. Myths about emotions:

Emotions impede rational thinking It is impossible to make good decisions when we feel emotions

Reality of emotions: Emotions are useful/functional i.e. when a car is about to hit you, your

emotion of fear will make you jump out of the way Emotional intelligence includes the following abilities:

Identifying emotions Using emotions to guide thinking Understanding why emotions happen Regulating emotion in one self and others

-EI is positively related to task performance Chapter 11 / Lecture 9 & 10 Decision Making – the process of developing a commitment to some course of action Problem – a perceived gap between an existing state and a desired state Well-structured problem – a problem for which the existing state is clear, the desired state is clear, and how to get from one state to the other is fairly obvious Program – a standardized way of solving a problem i.e. rules, routines, standard operating procedures, rule of thumb

Ill structured problem – a problem for which the existing and desired states are unclear and the method of getting to the desired state is unknown Perfect rationality – a decision strategy that is completely informed, perfectly logical, and oriented toward economic gain. The ‘Economic Person’ making the decision can:

Gather info about problems and solutions without cost and is therefore completely informed

Be perfectly logical – if solution A is preferred over solution B, and B is preferred over C, then A is necessarily preferable to C

Use only one criterion for decision making: economic gain Bounded rationality – a decision strategy that relies on limited information and that reflects time constraints and political considerations -people use heuristic info processing, do not have complete information, are not perfectly logical, and use many criterion Decision Making Heuristics:

Availability heuristic – people make decisions based on what is easily accessible in their minds (vivid information, like info about plane crashes, and information that is common, like words ending in –ING)

Representativeness heuristic – when making a judgement about an individual or event, people look for characteristics the individual or event may have in common with previously formed thoughts. Judgments about people are often based on previously formed stereotypes, and judgements of events are often based on previously formed thoughts on these events that preclude attention to sample size. i.e. probability woman is a bank teller vs. probability woman is a feminist bank teller

Framing heuristic – people make different decisions on the same problem depending on the way the problem is frame

o when people view a problem as a choice between losses, they tend to make risky decisions, rolling the dice in the face of a sure loss

o when people view the alternatives as a choice between gains, they tend to make conservative decisions, protecting the sure win

Anchoring and adjustment heuristic – when people make decisions, they use anchors to bein their decision process and fail to sufficiently adjust

The power of default – a number of decisions are made for us i.e. organ donation, opt in vs. opt out programs recall TED talk Contrast effect – some information helps people to amek a decisions about what they want by raising awareness of what they do not want (and the opposite can be true) i.e. all expenses weekends in Paris vs. Rome, add 3rd option: Rome with coffee (predictable irrationality) Cognitive Biases – tendencies to acquire and process information in an error prone way Bounded rationality can lead to difficulties in problem identification:

Perceptual defence – our perceptual system may act to defend the perceiver against unpleasant perceptions

Problem defined in terms of functional specialty – decision makers may view a problem as being in the domain of their own specialty even when some other perspective might be warranted

Problem define in terms of solution – jumping to conclusions effectively short cuts the rational decision making process

Problem diagnosed in terms of symptoms – a concentration on surface symptoms will provide few clues about an adequate solution

Confirmation bias – the tendency to seek out information that conforms to one’s own definition or solution to a problem Information overload – the reception of more information than is necessary to make effective decisions. Can lead to errors, omissions, delays, and cutting corners. In addition, decision makers facing overload often attempt to use all the info at hand, then get confused and permit low quality information or irrelevant information to influence their decisions Maximization – the choice of the decision alternative with the greatest expected value Satisficing – establishing and adequate level of acceptability for a solution to a problem and then screening solutions until one that exceeds this level is found Sunk costs – permanent losses of resources incurred as the result of a decision. The justification of fault decisions is best seen in the irrational treatment of sunk costs: since they have been lost due to a past decision, they should not enter into future decisions Escalation of commitment – the tendency to invest additional resources in an apparently failing course of action, in which the escalation involves devoting more and more resources to actions implied by the decision. Why would people do this? They want to ‘prove’ their decision was right all along, and a social norm that favours consistent behaviour exists. Changing one’s mind and reversing previous decisions may be seen as a sign of weakness How to fix: Change the frame (“what do I stand to gain” – you’re now risk averse). Set proximal goals. Make sure there’s emphasis on the decision making process Hindsight – the tendency to review the decision making process to find what was done right or wrong, reflects cognitive bias. i.e. a money manager who consciously makes a very risky investment that turns out to be very successful might revise her memory to assume that the decision was a sure thing.. the next time, the now confident investor might not be as lucky. Another form of faulty hindsight is the tendency to take personal responsibility for successful decision outcomes and to deny responsibility for unsuccessful outcomes Mood & Emotions’ effect on decision making:

People in a positive mood tend to remember positive info, vice versa for negative moods

People in a positive mood will evaluate objects, people, and events more positively, vice versa

People in a good mood tend to overestimate the likelihood that good events will occur and underestimate the occurrence of bad events, vice versa

People in a good mood adopt simplified, shortcut making decision strategies, more likely violating the rational model. People in a negative mood are prone to approach decisions in a more deliberate, systematic way

Positive mood promotes more creative, intuitive decision making Stage Perfect Rationality Bounded Rationality Problem Identification Easy, accurate

perception of gaps that constitute problems

Perceptual defence; jump to solutions; attention to symptoms rather than problems; mood affects memory

Information Search Free, fast, right amount of information obtained

Slow, costly, reliance on flawed memory; obtain too little or too much

Development of Alternative Solutions

Can conceive of all Not all known

Evaluation of alternative solutions

Ultimate value of each known; probability of each known; only criterion is economic gain

Potential ignorance of or miscalculation of values & probabilities; criteria include political factors; affected by mood

Solution Choice Maximizes Satisfices Solution Implementation

Considered in evaluation of alternatives

May be difficult owing to reliance on others

Solution Evaluation Objective, according to previous steps

May involve justification, escalation to recover sunk costs, faulty hindsight

Summary of cognitive Biases in decision making: Decision makers tend to…

Be overconfident about the decisions that they make Seek out info that confirms their own problem definition and solutions

(confirmation bias) Remember and incorporate vivid, recent events into their decisions Fail to incorporate known existing data about the likelihood of events into

their decisions Ignore sample sizes when evaluating samples of info Overestimate the odds of complex chains of events occurring Not adjust estimates enough from some initial estimate that serves as an

anchor as they acquire more information (anchoring effect) Have difficulty ignoring sunk costs when making subsequent decisions Overestimate their ability to have predicted events after-the-fact, take

responsibility for successful decision outcomes, and deny responsibility for unsuccessful outcomes (hindsight)

Decision making paradox – most of the time, people make good decisions. Even so, it is impossible to make optimal decisions all of the time, and mistakes can be costly. So, it is important to know the flaws of the decision making system, and to correct for the flaws when the stakes are high.

Chapter 11 – Group Decision Making Why use groups?

Decision quality – groups are more vigilant than individuals, generate more ideas, and evaluate ideas better

Decision acceptance and commitment – a decision made in groups will be more acceptable to those involve (people wish to be involved in decisions that will affect them). People will better understand a decision in which they participated and will be more committed to a decision in which they invested personal time and energy

Diffusion of responsibility – there exists the ability of group members to share the burden of the negative consequences of a poor decision

Groups should perform better than individuals when:

The group members differ in relevant skills and abilities, as long as they do not differ so much that conflict occurs

Some division of labour can occur

Memory for facts is an important issue

Individual judgments can be combine by weighting them to reflect the expertise of the various members

Disadvantages of Group Decision Making:

Time – the speed of arriving at a solution to a problem decreases as group size increases

Conflict – decision quality could take a back seat to political wrangling and infighting

Domination – advantages of group decision making won’t be realized if meetings are dominated by a single individual or a small coalition

Groupthink – groupthink is the capacity for group pressure to damage the mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment of decision making groups. Groupthink arises from structural and procedural flaws, cohesiveness, and provocative situational context, leading to a concurrence seeking tendency and the groupthink. Groupthink occurs when group pressures lead to reduced mental efficiency, poor testing of reality, and lax moral judgment; unanimous acceptance of decisions is stressed over quality of decisions Symptoms of Groupthink:

o Illusion of invulnerability – members are overconfident and willing to assume great risks, ignoring obvious danger signals

o Rationalization – problems and counterarguments that members cannot ignore are ‘rationalized away’ (seemingly logical but improbable excuses are given)

o Illusion of morality – the decisions the group adopts are not only perceived as sensible, they are also perceived as morally correct

o Stereotypes of outsiders – the group constructs unfavourable stereotypes

of those outside the group who are the targets of their decisions o Pressure for conformity – members pressure each other to fall in line and

conform with the group’s views o Self-censorship – members convince themselves to avoid voicing opinions

contrary to the group o Illusion of unanimity – members perceive that unanimous support exists

for their chosen course of action o Mindguards – some group members may adopt the role of ‘protecting’

the group from information that goes against its decisions How to avoid groupthink:

Assign someone to the role of devil’s advocate

Bring in outsides (people who don’t work at the company, have no vested interested)

Avoid being too directive – don’t shortcut the decision making process

Generate comprehensive alternatives

Search for information to determine quality

Examine the pros and cons of the alternatives

Examine the costs, benefits, and risks of the preferred choice

Monitor the results and react in the event that known risks become a reality -the more you like someone, the more you feel comfortable criticizing them, which can decrease groupthink -often, people seek to agree with those who are more senior than them because they may control their salary or promotions, regardless of their position with the decision Risky shift – the tendency for groups to make riskier decisions than the average risk initially advocated by their individual members Conservative shift – the tendency for groups to make less risky decisions than the average risk initially advocated by their individual members -when group members are somewhat conservative before the interaction, they tend to exhibit a conservative shift when they discuss the problem -when group members are somewhat risky initially, they exhibit a risky shift after discussion -therefore group discussion seems to polarize or exaggerate the initial position of the group Why do risky and conservative shifts occur when groups make decisions?

1. Group discussion generates ideas and arguments that individual members have not yet considered. The info naturally favours the members’ initial tendency toward risk or conservatism. Since discussion provides ‘more’ and ‘better’ reasons for the initial tendency, the tendency ends up being exaggerated

2. Group members try to present themselves as basically similar to other members but ‘even better’. Thus, they try to one-up others in discussion by adopting a slightly more extreme version of the groups initial state

Ways to improve decision making in organizations:

Train a discussion leader – ensure no autocratic behaviour ensues

Stimulate and manage conflict – full blown conflict isn’t conducive to good decision making, but neither is complete lack thereof i.e. Devil’s advocate – a person appointed to identify and challenge the weaknesses of a proposed plan or strategy in an objective, unemotional manner

Traditional and electronic brainstorming – if a large number of ideas is generated, the chance of obtaining a truly creative solution is increased Brainstorming – an attempt to increase the number of creative solution alternatives to problems by focusing on idea generation rather than evaluation Electronic brainstorming – the use of computer mediated technology to improve traditional brainstorming practices -face to face interaction can actually reduce individual brainstorming performance because of inhibition, domination, or physical limitations on multiple people brainstorming at once; over the size of 2 members, groups perform better in brainstorming in quality and quantity of ideas when using electronic brainstorming

Nominal group technique – carefully separating the generation of ideas from their evaluation. Ideas are generated nominally (without interaction) to prevent inhibition and conformity. Evaluation permits interaction and discussion, but occurs in a fairly structured manner to be sure that each idea gets adequate attention. The main disadvantage is that it takes a lot of time, which is addressed by the Delphi Technique Nominal group technique – a structured group decision making technique in which ideas are generated without group interaction and then systematically evaluated by the group

The Delphi Technique – A method of pooling a large number of expert judgments by using a series of increasingly refined questionnaires. Relies solely on a nominal group – no face to face interaction

-in class, recall the carter racing exercise – the data shows the relationship between gasket failures and air temperatures, and you are to decide whether or not to race. Often groups choose to race, but this is actually very similar to choosing to launch the challenger (the spacecraft that experienced an O-ring failure accident). Shows the affect on group dynamic impacts on decision making – the decision was made on inconclusive data, and rushed due to time constraints and other pressures Chapter 13 – Conflict and Stress (424-437) Interpersonal conflict – the process that occurs when one person, group, or organizational subunit frustrates the goal attainment of another Causes of organizational conflict:

Group identification and intergroup bias – even without interaction or cohesion, people have a tendency to develop a more positive view of their own ‘in group’ and a less positive view of the ‘out group’ of which they are not a member

Interdependence – when individuals or subunits are mutually dependent on each other to accomplish their own goals, the potential for conflict exists. Interdependence implies that each party has some power over the other, making

it relatively easy for one side or the other to abuse its power and create antagonism

Differences in power, status, and culture: o Power – if dependence is not mutual but one way, the potential for

conflict increases o Status – status differences provide little impetus for conflict when people

of lower status are dependent on those of higher status. But when people who have lower status are in control of the tasks of higher status, conflict may occur i.e. when servers have to give orders to higher status chefs, or junior staff have more IT knowledge than their bosses

o Culture – when two or more very different cultures develop in an organization, the clash in beliefs and values can result in overt conflict i.e. when one organization hires professionals from several different companies with their own strong cultures

Ambiguity – ambiguous goals, jurisdictions, or performance criteria can lead to conflict. Under such ambiguity, the formal and informal rules that govern interaction break down. It might also be difficult to assign responsibility for good and bad outcomes when it is hard to see who was responsible for what

Scarce resources – limited budget, secretarial support, or lab space can contribute to conflict. I.e. two scientists who do not get along very well may be able to put up a peaceful front until a reduction in lab space provokes each to protect her or her domain

Relationship conflict – interpersonal tensions among individuals that have to do with their relationship per se, not the task at hand i.e. ‘personality clashes’ Task conflict – disagreements about the nature of the work to be done i.e. differences of opinion about goals or technical matters Process conflict – disagreements about how work should be organized and accomplished i.e. disagreements about responsibility, authority, resource allocation, and who should do what -not all conflict is detrimental as it can help to provide a variety of perspectives, but it often can be detrimental to team member satisfaction and performance -when conflict begins, the following events often transpire:

‘Winning’ the conflict becomes more important than developing a good solution to the problem at hand

The parties begin to conceal information from each other or to pass on distorted information

Each side becomes more cohesive. Deviants who speak of conciliation are punished, and strict conformity is expected

Contact with the opposite party is discouraged except under formalized, restricted, conditions

While the opposite party is negatively stereotyped, the image of one’s own position is boosted

On each side, more aggressive people who are skilled at engaging in conflict may

emerge as leaders Ways to manage conflict include avoiding, accommodating, competing, compromise, and collaboration Avoiding – a conflict management style characterized by low assertiveness of one’s own interests and low cooperation with the other party. Can provide short term stress reduction, it does not really change the situation Accommodating – a conflict management style in which one cooperates with the other party while not asserting one’s own interests. If people see accommodation as a sign of weakness, it does not bode well for future interactions. However, it can be an effective reaction if you are wrong, the issue is more important to the other party, or you want to build good will Competing – a conflict management style that maximizes assertiveness and minimizes cooperation. This style holds promise when you have a lot of power, you are sure of your facts, the situation is truly win-lose, or you will not have to interact with the party in the future Compromise – a conflict management style that combines intermediate levels of assertiveness and cooperation. Does not always result in the most creative result, and is not useful for resolving conflicts that stem from power asymmetry. However, it is a sensible reaction to conflict stemming from scarce resources Collaborating – a conflict management style that maximizes both assertiveness and cooperation, in the hope of finding an integrative agreement that fully satisfies the interests of both parties. It probably works best when the conflict is not intense and when each party has information that is useful to the other Negotiation – a decision making process among interdependent parties who do not share identical preferences Distributive negotiation – win-lose negotiation in which a fixed amount of assets is divided between parties. Essentially a single issue negotiating (i.e. negotiating the price of a used car, each dollar you save is a dollar out of seller’s pocket, vice versa) -distributive negotiation tactics include threats and promises, firmness versus concessions, and verbal persuasion -threats will only work if you have a lot of power; if more subtle and civilized, people will be more receptive but still no one likes to be threatened -if you are too firm, the opposite party will be firm back, leaving you in a deadlock -persuasive arguments will be effective if you are an expert, are likeable, and/or are unbiased. The persuasive argment should have technical merits, state how the other

party stands to benefit, and appeal to fairness

Integrative negotiation – win-win negotiation that assumes that mutual problem solving can enlarge the assets to be divided between parties -integrative negotiation tactics include copious information exchange, framing differences as opportunities, cutting costs, increasing resources, and introducing superordinate goals -creating value -begin by sharing unimportant information (DO NOT share your reservation point). Cut costs for your opponent to say yes, and consider multiple issues simultaneously to make package deals i.e. when you’re buying a new car, you’re not just negotiating price but also warranty, services, model, options, colour etc. Superordinate goals – attractive outcomes that can be achieved only by collaboration Conventional arbitration – the arbitrator an choose any outcome, such as splitting the difference between the two parties Final offer arbitration – each party makes a final offer, and the arbitrator chooses between them. This one was devised to motivate the two parties to make sensible offers that have a chance of being upheld Conflict stimulation – a strategy of increasing conflict to motivate change. Should be used if:

There are signs that a ‘friendly rut’ exists – peaceful relationships take precedence over organizational goals

Parties that should be interacting closely have chosen to withdraw from each other to avoid overt conflict

Conflict is suppressed or downplayed by denying differences, ignoring controversy,

Party’s target

Other’s target Other’s resistance point

Party’s resistance point

Degree of Satisfaction of the other’s concerns

Degree of Satisfaction of the party’s concerns

Party’s Aspiration range

Other’s Aspiration range

and exaggerating points of agreement -Organizational conflict can promote necessary organizational change, since in order for organizations to survive, they must adapt to their environments In order to effectively negotiate (maximize total value and claim more than opponent), you must prepare. Preparation includes self-assessment, other party assessment, and situational assessment

1. Self assessment – What is my target? What is my BATNA (best alternative to a negotiated agreement)? i.e. if you have several offers, your BATNA to a negotiated agreement with McKinsey is a job with Boston Consulting Group – you may want to try to assertively negotiate a high wage. If your only other option to McKinsey is working at Tim Hortons, you’re in a much weaker bargaining position Social proof phenomenon – if it becomes public that you have many offers on the table, it is likely you will receive many more offers as other companies (in this case) follow suit

What is my reservation point? Reservation point – the lowest value you would accept before walking away from a negotiation. There is a positive relationship between your BATNA and your reservation point. If you don’t know this point going into a negotiation, you will be pushed down and look weak.

2. Opponent Assessment – Who is my opponent? What is my opponent’s position, and what are my opponent’s interests? Your opponent’s position is what they say they want, while their interests are what they actually want; these may or may not be the same What is my opponent’s BATNA?

3. Situation Assessment – Is the negotiation a one-off or part of an ongoing relationship? Is an agreement required? If it’s a one-off, you can get away with being devious. The tone will change, however, with a long standing customer as goals may change (i.e. establish a relationship rather than ‘win’ negotiation) If you have multiple offers, an agreement is not required so you are in a better bargaining position

-when the negotiation slows and loses traction, you may be at the reservation point Chapter 7 – Groups and Teamwork Group – two or more people interacting interdependently to achieve a common goal

Formal work groups – groups that are established by organizations to facilitate the achievement of organizational goals i.e. production manager and 6 shift supervisors Task forces – temporary groups that meet to achieve particular goals or to solve particular problems, such as suggesting productivity improvements Informal groups – groups that emerge naturally in response to the common interests of organizational members. Can either help or hurt an organization Stages of Group Development

1. Forming – group members orient themselves, get to know others, purpose of group

2. Storming – conflict often emerges, and confrontation and criticism occur as members determine whether they will go along with the way the group is developing. Sorting out roles and responsibilities are often at issue here

3. Norming – members resolve the issues that provoked the storming and develop social consensus, often requiring compromise. Interdependence is recognized, norms are agreed to, and the group becomes more cohesive. Information & opinions flow freely

4. Performing – with the social structure sorted out, the group devotes its energies toward task accomplishment. Themes of this stage include achievement (measurable progress), creativity, and mutual assistance

5. Adjourning – some groups (i.e. task forces and design project teams) have a definite life span and disperse after achieving their goals. Rites and rituals that affirm the group’s previous successful development are common

-some organizational settings are so structured that storming and norming are unnecessary for even strangers to coalesce into a team i.e. commercial airline cockpit crews Punctuated Equilibrium model – a model of group development that describes how groups with deadlines are affected by their first meetings and crucial midpoint transitions (was developed using student groups). Especially applicable for groups with a problem solving task and a deadline to solve it

1. Phase 1 – begins with the first meeting and continues until the midpoint in the group’s existence. The very first meeting is very critical for setting the agenda for what will happen in the remainder of the phase. Assumptions, approaches, and precedents that members develop in the first meeting end up dominating the first half of the group’s life. Although it gathers information and holds meetings, the group makes little visible process toward the goal

2. Midpoint Transition – the midpoint transition occurs at almost exactly the halfway point in time toward the group’s deadline. The transition marks a change in the group’s approach, and how the group manages the change is critical for the group to show progress. All approaches, assumptions, and precedents are back open for negotiation. The transition may consolidate any previously acquired information or even mark a completely new approach, but it crystallizes the group’s activities for phase 2 just like the first meeting did for Phase 1

3. Phase 2 – the decisions and approaches adopted at the midpoint get played out. It concludes with a final meeting that reveals a burst of activity before the

deadline and a concern for how outsiders will evaluate the product Advice offered by the punctuated equilibrium model:

Prepare carefully for the first meeting, as it will strongly determine what happens in the rest of phase 1

As long as people are working, do not look for radical progress in phase 1

Manage the midpoint transition carefully. Evaluate strengths & weaknesses of the ideas generated in phase 1, clarify questions with whoever is commissioning your work, and recognize that a fundamental change in approach must occur here for progress to occur. Essential issues are not likely to ‘work themselves out’ during phase 2

Be sure that adequate resources are available to actually execute the phase 2 plan

Resist deadline changes as these could damage the midpoint transitions Group size & satisfaction…an increase in group size can decrease satisfaction, as opportunities for friendship increase but the chance to work on and develop these opportunities might decrease owing to the sheer time and energy required. In addition, incorporating more members with different viewpoints, larger groups might prompt conflict and dissension. Also, the time available for each member to participate verbally will decrease, and people may be more inhibited to do so. Finally, members of larger groups identify less easily with the success and accomplishments of the group (harder to see your own contributions) Group size and performance… depends on how performance is defined. For additive tasks, the potential performance increases with group size. For disjunctive tasks, the potential performance also increases with group size because as group size increases, the probability that the group includes a superior performer is greater. For conjunctive tasks, the potential and actual performance would decrease as group size increases because the probability of including a weak link in the group goes up. Additive tasks – tasks in which group performance is dependent on the sum of the performance of individual group members i.e. building a house, we can estimate the potential speed of construction by adding the efforts of individual carpenters

Disjunctive tasks – tasks in which group performance is dependent on the performance of the best member i.e. if a research team is looking for a single error in a complicated computer program Conjunctive tasks – tasks in which group performance is limited by the performance of a single group member i.e. an assembly line operation Process Losses – group performance difficulties stemming from the problems of motivating and coordinating larger groups. Even with good intentions, problems of communication and decision making increase with size – imagine 50 carpenters trying to build a house. Thus, actual performance = potential performance – process losses Therefore, both potential performance and process losses increase with group size for additive and disjunctive tasks, meaning that total average productivity increases with size up to a point and then drops off. This means that the average actual productivity per group member decreases as each one is added – diminishing marginal returns. Group diversity and effectiveness… more diverse groups have a more difficult time communicating effectively and becoming cohesive, meaning that they will take longer to do their forming, storming, and norming. Once they develop, however, more and less diverse groups are equally cohesive and productive. Diverse groups sometimes perform better when their task requires cognitive, creativity demanding tasks and problem solving rather than more routine work because members consider a broader array of ideas Norms – collective expectations that members of social units have regarding the behaviour of each other. Groups have an extraordinary range of rewards and punishments available to induce conformity to norms – sometimes people will comply with norms that go against their privately held attitudes and opinions i.e. couples often get married with religious services even if they aren’t religious -typical norms include dress norms, reward allocation norms (equity – reward according to inputs like effort, equality – reward everyone equally, reciprocity – reward people the way they reward you, and social responsibility – reward those who truly need the reward), performance norms (what an appropriate level of performance is) Roles – positions in a group that have a set of expected behaviours attached to them. Represent ‘packages’ of norms that apply to particular group members. Assigned roles are formally prescribed by an organization as a means of dividing labour and responsibility to facilitate task achievement. Emergent roles are roles that develop naturally to meet the social-emotional needs of group members or to assist in formal job accomplishment i.e. someone emerges as the class clown or the newcomer helper Role ambiguity – lack of clarity of job goals or methods. Ambiguity could be characterized by confusion about how performance is evaluated, how good performance can be achieved, or what the limits of one’s authority and responsibility are. A variety of elements can lead to ambiguity:

Organizational factors – some roles seem inherently ambiguous because of their function in the organization I.e. middle management roles might fail to provide the ‘big picture’ that upper management roles do

The role sender – role senders (like the managers) might have unclear expectations of a focal sender, or might not send his/her expectations clearly i.e. weak orientation session, vague performance reviews, inconsistent feedback & discipline

The focal person – role expectations that are clearly developed and sent might not be fully digested by the focal person (the employee). Ambiguity tends to decrease as the time in the job role increases

-role ambiguity can lead to job stress, dissatisfaction, reduced organizational commitment, lowered performance, and intentions to quit Role conflict – a condition of being faced with incompatible role expectations. Role expectations might be completely clear (not role ambiguity) but mutually exclusive, cannot be filled simultaneously, or do not suit the role occupant Intrasender role conflict – a single role sender provides incompatible role expectations to a role occupant i.e. a manager might tell an employee to take it easy and not work so hard, while delivering a batch of reports that require immediate attention (could also provoke ambiguity) Intersender role conflict – two or more role senders provide a role occupant with incompatible expectations i.e. a first level manager is pressured from above to get the work out and keep the troops in line, but from below to behave in a considerate and friendly manner Interrole conflict – several roles held by a role occupant involve incompatible expectations i.e. a person ho is had of a product development task force and a market research group has competing demands for his/her time Person-role conflict – role demands call for behaviour that is incompatible with the personality or skills of a role occupant i.e. if an organization demands role behaviour that the occupant considers unethical Status – the rank, social position, or prestige accorded to group members -the formal status system represents management’s attempt to publicly identify those people who have higher status than others. It is so obvious because this identification is implemented by the application of status symbols that are tangible indicators of status, like titles, particular working relationships, pay packages, wok schedules, etc. -informal status systems are often linked to factors other than job performance, such as gender or race -most people like to communicate with others at their own status or higher rather than with people who are below them; this should mean that communication moves up the status hierarchy, but if the status differences are large, people can be inhibited from communicating upward Group cohesiveness – the degree to which a group is especially attractive to its members, influenced by:

Threat and competition – external threat to the survival of the group increases cohesiveness in a wide variety of situations i.e. a board of directors quickly forms a united front in the face of a takeover bid. This likely happens because groups feel a need to improve communication and coordination so that they can better cope with the situation at hand. Under extreme threat or unbalanced

competition, increased cohesiveness will serve little purpose

Success – a group becomes more attractive to its members when it has successfully accomplished some important goal, such as defending itself against threat or winning a prize. By the same token, cohesiveness will decrease after failure, although there may be ‘misery loves company’ exceptions

Member diversity – groups that are diverse in terms of gender, age, and race can have a harder time becoming cohesive than more homogenous groups. However, if a group is in agreement about how to accomplish some particular task, its success in performing the task will often outweigh surface dissimilarity in determining cohesiveness

Size – other things being equal, bigger groups should have a more difficult time becoming and staying cohesive. Larger groups often divide into subgroups, which is also contrary to the cohesiveness of the larger group

Toughness of initiation – groups that are difficult to get into should be more attractive than those that are easy to join

Consequences of Cohesiveness

More participation & communication in group activities – members wish to remain in the group and like being with each other, so absence and turnover will be lower than in less cohesive groups

More conformity – members of cohesive groups are especially motivated to engage in activities that will keep the group cohesiveness, and will apply pressure to deviants to get them to comply with group norms

More success – cohesiveness are effective at goal accomplishment because of the high degree of participation and communication coupled with active conformity to group norms and commitment

-it must be emphasized that cohesive groups are effective at goal accomplishment, but they are affective at accomplishing their own goals. If these goals correspond with those of the organization, cohesiveness would have substantial benefits, but if not, organizational effectiveness could be threatened -in highly cohesive groups, the productivity of individual group members tends to be fairly similar to that of other members, while there is more variation in productivity in less cohesive groups -highly cohesive groups tend to be either more or less productive than less cohesive groups, depending on a number of variables -cohesiveness is more important when the task requires more interdependence i.e. football versus golf teams Social loafing – the tendency to withhold physical or intellectual effort when performing a group task. They would work harder if they were alone rather than part of the group. If you think the other group members are smart, motivated, you may throttle back. It is more prevalent in individualistic cultures as less thought is given to the groups’ well being.

Free rider effect – people lower their effort to get a free ride at the expense of their fellow group members Sucker effect – people lower their effort because of the feeling that others are free riding, that is, they are trying to restore equity in the group Ways to counteract social loafing:

Make individual performance more visible – keeping group small is a way

Make sure that the work is interesting – will stimulate intrinsic motivation

Increase feelings of indispensability – provide group members with unique inputs

Increase performance feedback

Reward group performance Collective efficacy – shared beliefs that a team can successfully perform a given task. Self efficacy doesn’t necessarily translate into collective efficacy i.e. 5 skilled musicians don’t necessarily result in a good band Self-managed work teams (SMWTs) – work groups that have the opportunity to o challenging work under reduced supervision. Critical to the success of a SMWT is the nature of the task, the composition of the group, and the various support mechansims in place. If these are met, coordination should be improved, social loading discouraged, and collective efficacy fostered Tasks should have the qualities of enriched jobs: teams should see the task as significant, they should perform it from beginning to end, and they should use a variety of skills. The team needs to have something useful to self manage, and it is fairly complex tasks that capitalize on the diverse knowledge and skills of a group. The composition should be stable (no frequent rotation of members in and out of the group, as it requires considerable interaction and high cohesiveness. It should be as small as is feasible to keep coordination problems and social loafing to a minimum. The group members should have a high level of expertise about the task at hand (at least as a whole when all expertise is combined) and a certain standard of social skills. Lastly, a team should have members who are diverse: similar enough to work well together and diverse enough to bring a variety of perspectives and skills to the task at hand Support factors should include training (technical, social, language or business), rewards (tie to team accomplishment rather than individual while still providing individual performance feedback), and management (to mediate relations between teams and by dealing with union concerns, also encouraging independence, which increases effectiveness)

Cross functional teams – work groups that bring people with different functional specialties together to better invent, design, or deliver a product or service. Especially useful for new product development; rather than moving ideas through different departments to design different aspects (which would create conflict, decrease speediness, and foster complexity), cross functional teams will bring members from different departments to work together -cross functional teams need to include all relevant specialties, set superordinate goals, be able to meet (physically close), have autonomy from the larger organization, follow basic rules and procedures, and have a strong leader with good people skills Shared mental models – team members share identical information about how they should interact and what their task is. Difficult to instill in cross functional teams because of divergent backgrounds of team members, but very important Virtual teams – work groups that use technology to communicate and collaborate across time, space, and organizational boundaries. Can be asynchronous (I.e. fax, voicemail, email), which allows team members to reflect before responding, or synchronous (i.e. chat, groupware) allowing members to communicate in real time -the advantages of virtual teams are:

Around the clock work – taking advantage of time change, workflow can be continuous

Reduced travel time and cost – no costs associated with face to face meetings

Larger talent pool – companies don’t have to only higher in limited geographic location

-the challenges of virtual teams are:

Trust – difficult to develop trust between virtual team members, as it is typically established through physical contact and socialization

Group Processes

-effort

-knowlede and skill application

-performance strategies

Task

-challenge

-complexity

-interdependence

Group Composition

-stability

-size

-expertise

-diversity Managerial support

(training, rewards, encouragement of

independence)

Group Effectiveness (acceptability of output,

members' needs met, continuity of group)

Miscommunication – loss of face to face could harm non-verbal cues to communicate meaning and feeling in a message

Isolation – people have needs for companionship, but casual interactions aren’t possible for virtual teams

High costs – cutting edge technology can be expensive, and technology maintenance is pricey

Management issues – how can you assess individual performance, monitor diligence, and ensure fairness in treatment when your team is dispersed around the globe and not easily visible?

-when developing virtual teams, it is important to find people with good interpersonal skills, not just technical expertise, and invest in training these people. Encourage them to get to know each other through informal communication, and set goals and ground rules, and provide feedback to keep team members informed of progress and the big picture Group Decision Making

Advantages Disadvantages

-pooling of resources -sharing of expertise and experience -increased support for the decision -increased motivation with respect to following through with the decision

-slow -costly -likelihood of group conflict (interpersonal) -pressure to conform to group norms -pressure to conform to leader

-group memberships have important effects on our well-being, our behaviour, and our performance i.e. the Arizona football team: the identities with the players are intertwined with the students. If the football team won, it’s ‘we’, whereas if they lost, it’s ‘they’ – you distance yourself from the team. Their wins feel like your wins, and their losses feel like your losses basking in reflected glory – feelings about the self are influenced by group affiliation Class – Robber’s Cave example -22 caucasian boys in 5th grade with similar demographics are randomly assigned to two groups, lived in separate cabins and developed attachments to their respective groups through group activities. Then they were pitted against each other in a 4 day series of competition. The result was verbal prejudice, a flag was set on fire, and the rattlers broke into the Eagles camp, stole their belongings and trashed the place. There are even broader implications when the difference in groups is based along racial lines, national lines, religious lines etc. you think that your group is morally superior to the other group, which makes it easier to ‘pull the trigger’. In-group favoritism – the tendency to view your own group and its members positively and other groups and their members negatively Out-group homogeneity – the tendency to perceive members of other groups as very similar to each other

-these satisfy the need for belongingness – Maslow’s hierarchy 2nd class example –the Asch experiment – participants are asked which line matches the length of one of the lines, the answer should be very obvious. Only one of the people is an actual research participant, the rest are actors (but he isn’t aware). All of the actors will choose the obviously incorrect answer, and often the research participants would go against their own opinions to side with the majority – think in the context of world war 2. When one of the actors agree with you, conformity was decreased as there was now social support: even if you’re wrong, you’re not wrong alone. In that context there is higher self confidence and less self doubt. -conformity is lowest in individualistic (vs. collectivistic) cultures

3rd Class Example – Group membership & performance – there are 2 competing sterotypes: Asians are good at math and females are bad at math. A group of Asian American women are asked questions to be made subconsciously aware of each identity salient (female identity salient, Asian identity salient, and no-identity salient. All participants going in have the same level of quantitative ability. The ones who were made aware of the Asian salient performed better on the math competition test, the female identity salient performed worse, and no identity salient was in the middle. Stereotype threat – individuals perform more poorly on a task when a relevant negative stereotype is salient. This is because stereotype threat reduces one’s ability to temporarily store information in memory and to suppress irrelevant information. You don’t want to be the one to confirm the stereotype, which causes anxiety and in turn Impacts performance, even if you don’t believe it. If the stereotype is positive, gives confidence and is called stereotype lift. The only way to combat stereotype threat is to be aware of it 4th class Example – Bad Apples – 3 undergrads and one actor who acts as one of the three types of ‘bad apples’ (attack/insulting others, depressive pessimist, slacker). The groups with the actor performed worse as the bad apple behaviour dramatically affected the way that the group communicated with each other. The team members would begin to imitate the bad apple’s behaviour, not just in response to the actor but to each other -therefore the best predictor of group performance is not necessarily the performance of the best performer, but more like the average performer Chapter 8 Social Influence, Socialization, and Culture Information Dependence – reliance on others for information about how to think, feel, and act. Gives others the opportunity to influence our thoughts, feelings, and actions via the signals they send to us Effect dependence – reliance on others due to their capacity to provide rewards and punishment. Motives for social conformity:

1. Compliance – conformity to a social norm prompted by the desire to acquire rewards or avoid punishment i.e. convicts conforming to formal prison norms, young children behaving themselves

2. Identification – conformity to a social norm prompted by perceptions that those who promote the norm are attractive or similar to oneself i.e. a newly promoted exec might try to dress and act like her admired, successful boss

3. Internalization – conformity to a social norm prompted by true acceptance of the beliefs, values, and attitudes that underlie the norm i.e. a priest conforming to norms of religion, army officer because he believes in its values

Socialization – the process by which people learn the attitudes, knowledge, and behaviours that are necessary to function in a group or organization

Person-job fit – the match between an employee’s personal values and the values of an organization Person-organization fit – the match between an employee’s personal values and the values of an organization Organizational identification – the extent to which an individual defines him or herself in terms of the organization and what it is perceived to represent; reflects an individual’s learning and acceptance of an organization’s culture Stages of Socialization – in a sense, the first two stages represent hurdles for achieving passage into the third stage

1. Anticipatory socialization – before a person becomes a member of a particular organization, there might be skill/attitude acquisition (going to college), or informal working in summer jobs or even watching the portrayal of organizational life in TV shows. Not all anticipatory socialization is accurate and useful for the new member

2. Encounter – the new recruit, armed with some expectations about organizational life, encounters the day to day reality of this life. May include

Socialization Methods

Realistic Job previews

Employee Orientation Programs

Socialization Tactics

Mentoring

Proactive Tactics

Proximal Socialization Outcomes

Learning

Task Mastery

Social Integration

Role conflict

Role ambiguity

Person-job Fit

Person-organization Fit

Distal Socialization Ouctomes

Job satisfaction

Organizational commitment

Organizational citizenship behaviour

Job performance

Stress

Turnover

orientation programs and rotation through various parts of the organization. Informal aspects include getting to know and understanding the style/personality of one’s boss & coworkers. If successful, the recruit will have complied with critical organizational norms and should begin to identify with experienced organizational members

3. Role management – the new member’s attention shifts to the fine tuning and actively managing his/her role in the organization. May attempt to modify own role, balance organizational role with non work roles, etc.

-if someone enters an organization with high expectations (that are often unrealistically high or inaccurate) they may end up disappointed; research shows that newcomers who have higher met expectations have higher job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job performance, job survival and lower intentions to leave Psychological contract – beliefs held by employees regarding the reciprocal obligations and promises between them and their organization. i.e. an employee might expect to receive bonuses and promotions in return for hard work and loyalty Psychological contract breach – employee perceptions that his or her organization failed to fulfill one or more of its promises or obligations of the psychological contract. Leads to affective reactions (higher feelings of contract violation and mistrust toward management), work attitudes (lower job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and higher turnover intentions) and work behaviours (lower organizational citizenship behaviour and job performance) Realistic job previews – the provision of a balanced, realistic picture of the positive and negative aspects of a job to the applicant. Provides ‘corrective’ action to expectations at the anticipatory socialization stage. Ensure that people who have low P-J and P-O fit perceptions to withdraw from the application process, called self selection

Traditional Procedures Realistic Procedures

Set initial Job Expectations too high Set job expectations realistically

Job is typically viewed as attractive Job may or may not be attractive, depending on individual’s needs

High rate of job offer acceptance Some accept, some reject job offer

Work experience disconfirms expectations Work experience confirms expectations

Dissatisfaction and realization that job not matched to needs

Satisfaction; needs matched to job

Low job survival, dissatisfaction, frequent thoughts of quitting

High job survival, satisfaction, infrequent thoughts of quitting

Employee orientation programs – programs designed to introduce new employees to their job, the people they will be working with, and the organization i.e. ‘ROPES’ – Realistic Orientation Program for Entry Stress, teaches newcomers how to use cognitive and behavioural coping techniques to manage workplace stressor in addition to providing realistic information. Proven to increase organizational commitment and have more knowledgeable employees in terms of the organizations goals, values, history etc. Also, decreased turnover

Socialization tactics – the manner in which organizations structure the early work experiences of newcomers and individuals who are in transition from one role to another

Collective vs. Individual Tactics – when using the collective tactic, a number of new members are socialized as a group, going through the same experiences and facing the same challenges i.e. army boot camps, fraternity pledge, flight attendant training. The Individual tactic consist of socialization experiences that are tailor made for each new member i.e. simple on the job training and apprenticeship to develop skilled craftspeople Formal vs. Informal Tactics – formal tactics involve segregating newcomers from regular organizational members and providing them with formal learning experiences during the period of socialization. Informal tactics do not distinguish a newcomer from more experienced members and rely on more informal and on the job learning Sequential vs. random tactics – have to do with whether there is a clear sequence of steps or stages during the socialization process. There is a fixed sequence of steps leading to the assumption of the role with a sequential tactic, while there is an ambiguous or changing sequence with random tactics Fixed versus Variable tactics – if socialization is fixed, there is a time table for the newcomer’s assumption of the role. If the tactic is variable, then there is no time frame to indicate when the socialization process ends and the newcomer assumes his or her new role Serial versus Disjunctive Tactics – the serial tactic refers to a process in which newcomers are socialized by experienced members of the organization. The disjunctive tactic refers to a socialization process where role models and experienced organization members do not groom new members or ‘show them the ropes’

Institutionalized Tactics

Collective Formal

Sequential Fixed

Serial Investiture

--

CONTEXT TACTICS

CONTENT TACTICS

SOCIAL TACTICS

Individualized Tactics

Individual Informal

Random Variable

Disjunctive Divestiture

Investiture versus divestiture tactics – divestiture tactics refer to what is also known as debasement and hazing; this occurs when organizations put new members through a series of experiences that are designed to humble them and strip away some of their initial self confidence. Debasement is a way of testing the commitment of new members and correcting for faulty anticipatory socialization. Having been humbled and stripped of preconceptions, members are then ready to learn the norms of the organization. An extreme example is the rough treatment & shaved heads of the US marines. The investiture socialization affirms the incoming identity and attributes of new hires rather than denying them and stripping them away. Organizations that carefully select new members for certain attributes and characteristics would be more likely to use this tactic Institutionalized versus individualized socialization – institutionalized socialization consists of collective, formal, sequential, fixed, serial, and investiture tactics. Individualized socialization consists of individual, informal, random, variable, disjunctive, and divestiture tactics. The main difference between the two is that institutionalized reflects a more formalized and structured program of socialization that reduces uncertainty and encourages new hires to accept organizational norms and maintain the status quo. On the other hand, individualized socialization reflects a relative absence of structure that creates ambiguity and encourages new hires to question the status quo and develop their own approach to their role. -institutional socialization tactics have been found to be related to proximal outcomes, such as lower role ambiguity and conflict and more positive perceptions of P-J and P-O fit, as well as distal outcomes, such as more positive job satisfaction and organizational commitment and lower stress and turnover. In addition, institutional results in a more custodial role orientation, in which new hires accept the status quo and the requirements of their roles -individualized socialization tactics result in a more innovative role orientation, in which new recruits might change or modify the way they perform their tasks and roles -the SOCIAL tactics have been found to be the most strongly related to socialization outcomes Mentor – an experienced or more senior person in the organization who gives a junior person special attention, such as giving advice and creating opportunities to assist him or her during the early stages of his/her career. For a mentor to be effective, they must provide two functions: Career Functions of Mentoring - made possible by the senior person’s experience, status, knowledge of how the organization works, and influence with powerful people in the organization. Includes:

Sponsorship – the mentor might nominate the apprentice for advantageous transfers and promotions

Exposure and visibility – the mentor might provide opportunities to work with key people and see other parts of the organization

Coaching and feedback – the mentor might suggest work strategies and identify strengths and weaknesses in the apprentice’s performance

Developmental assignments – the mentor can provide challenging work assignments that will help develop key skills and knowledge that are crucial to career progress

Psychosocial functions of mentoring – mentors can provide certain psychosocial functions that are helpful in developing the apprentice’s self confidence, sense of identity, and ability to cope with emotional traumas that can damage a person’s effectiveness. These include:

Role modeling – this provides a set of attitudes, values, and behaviours for the junior person to imitate

Provide acceptance and confirmation – this provides encouragement and support and helps the apprentice gain self-confidence

Counselling – this provides and opportunity to discuss personal concerns and anxieties concerning career prospects, work-family conflicts, etc

-mentored individuals have higher objective career outcomes, such as compensation and number of promotions, and higher subjective outcomes, including satisfaction with one’s job and career and greater career commitment. Proactive socialization – the process through which newcomers play an active role in their own socialization through the use of a number of proactive socialization behaviours. i.e. request feedback and seek information about work tasks and roles as well as about their group and organization, networking, relationship building, involvement in work related activities, observing Organizational culture – the shared beliefs, values, and assumptions that exist in an organization. Tends to be fairly stable over time, can involve internal and/or external values, and can have a strong impact on organizational performance and member satisfaction Subcultures – smaller cultures that develop within a larger organizational culture that are based on differences in training, occupation, or departmental goals Strong culture – an organizational culture with intense and pervasive beliefs, values, and assumptions. Assets of strong cultures include coordination (due to lots of communication), conflict resolution (sharing core values can be a powerful mechanism that helps to ultimately resolve conflicts) and financial success (when the culture supports the mission, strategy, and goals of the organization). Liabilities of strong cultures include resistance to change (because of the strong consensus about common values and appropriate behaviour), culture clash (strong cultures can mix badly when a merge or acquisition pushes two of them under the same corporate banner, i.e. HP is engineering oriented while Compaq was sales oriented, ended up in a difficult merger), and pathology (if a strong culture is based on beliefs, values, and assumptions that support infighting, secrecy, and paranoia, it will likely threaten organizational effectiveness. i.e. Enron collapse partly because lies were valued) Companies with strong cultures go to great pains to expose employees to a careful, step by step socialization process:

1. Careful selection of entry-level candidates 2. Humility inducing experiences that promote openness toward accepting

organization’s norms & values (i.e. debasement and hazing)

3. In the trenches training leads to mastery of a core discipline (starting at the bottom)

4. Rewards and control systems are meticulously refined to reinforce behaviour that is deemed pivotal to success in the marketplace

5. Adherence to values enables the reconciliation of personal sacrifices 6. Reinforcing folklore for the nature of the organization’s culture 7. Consistent role models that serve as tangible examples for new members to

imitate -a strong culture may be marked by symbols, rituals (i.e. ‘buzz nights’), an stories (i.e. can the little person rise to the top? Will the organization help me when I have to move? Is the big boss human?) Chapter 9 - Leadership Traits – individual characteristics such as physical attributes, intellectual ability, and personality Traits associated with Leadership Effectiveness (great person theory):

Intelligence

Energy

Self-confidence

Dominance

Motivation to lead

Emotional stability

Honesty and integrity

Need for achievement -the trait approach is mostly concerned with what leaders bring to a group setting, but ignores what leaders do in a group setting and what behaviours caused them to become leaders -some traits might appear to be related to leadership capacity, but there are no traits that guarantee leadership across various situations -extraversion explains about 10% of leadership effectiveness, and conscientiousness 8%, but all 5 together still only explain about 31% of leadership emergence and success:

Personality Trait Variance

Emotional Stability 6% Extraversion 10% Openness to Experience 6% Conscientiousness 8% Agreeableness 1% Total variance 31%

-leaders are not just born, you can develop leadership skills Consideration – the extent to which a leader is approachable and shows personal concern and respect for employees. The considerate leader is seen as friendly and egalitarian, expresses appreciation and support, and is protective of group welfare

Initiating structure – the degree to which a leader concentrates on group goal attainment. The structuring leader clearly defines and organizes his or her role and the roles of followers, stresses standard procedures, schedules the work to be done, and assigns employees to particular tasks -both consideration and initiating structure contribute positively to employees’ motivation, job satisfaction, and leader effectiveness. However, consideration tends to be more strongly related to follower satisfaction, motivation, and leader effectiveness, while initiating structure is slightly more strongly related to leader job performance and group performance

When employees are under a high degree of pressure due to deadlines, unclear tasks, or external threat, initiating structure increases satisfaction and performance i.e. soldiers stranded behind enemy lines should perform better under directive leadership

When the task itself is intrinsically satisfying, the need for high consideration and high structure is generally reduced i.e. the teacher who really enjoys teaching should be able to function with less social-emotional support & less direction from the principal

When the goals and methods of performing the job are very clear, consideration should promote employee satisfaction, while structure might promote dissatisfaction i.e. the job of garbage collection is very clear in goals & methods; employees would appreciate social support but view excessive structure as redundant and unnecessary

When employees lack knowledge as to how to perform a job, or the job itself has vague goals or methods, consideration becomes less important, while initiating structure takes on additional importance i.e. the new astronaut recruit should appreciate direction in learning a complex, unfamiliar job

Leader reward behaviour – the leader’s use of compliments, tangible benefits, and deserved special treatment; when made contingent on performance, will motivate employees to perform at a higher level and experience job satisfaction Leader punishment behaviour – the leader’s use of reprimands or unfavourable task assignments and the active withholding of rewards; harder to use effectively and could lead to employee dissatisfaction. When contingent on performance will lead to more favourable employee perceptions, attitudes and behaviour, but when non-contingent will lead to unfavourable outcomes Contingency theory – Fred Fiedler’s theory that states that the association between leadership orientation and group effectiveness is contingent on how favourable the situation is for exerting influence. Basically, means that some situations are more favourable for leadership than others, and these situations require different orientations on the part of the leader Least Preferred Co Worker (LPC) – a way to measure leadership orientation; a current or past co worker with whom a leader has had a difficult time accomplishing a task is described by the leader

-if described favourably (a high LPC score) then the leader is relationship oriented; despite the fact that the LPC is/was difficult to work with, the leader can still find positive qualities -if described unfavourably (a low LPC score) then the leader is task oriented; the leader allows the low-task competence of the LPC to colour his or her views of the personal qualities of the LPC Factors that affect situational favorableness for Leadership (for contingency theory)

Leader-member relations – when the relationship between the leader and the group is good, the leader is in a favourable situation to exert influence. A poor relationship could damage the leader’s influence

Task structure – when the task at hand is highly structured, the leader should be able to exert considerable influence on the group.

Position power – the more formal authority granted to the leader by the organization, the more favourable is the leadership situation

- a task orientation (Low LPC) is most effective when the leadership situation is very favourable or when it is very unfavourable, whereas a relationship orientation (high LPC) is better in conditions of medium favourability

Why? Because leaders can ‘get away’ with a task situation when the situation is very favourable (employee are ready to be influenced) or very unfavourable (it is the only way to get anything accomplished). In conditions of medium favourability, the boss is faced with some combination of an unclear task or a poor relationship with employees. Here a relationship orientation will help to make the best of a situation that is stress provoking but not impossibly bad Cognitive Resource Theory (CRT) – a leadership theory that focuses on the conditions in which a leader’s cognitive resources (intelligence, expertise, and experience) contribute to effective leadership. Basically, the importance of intelligence for leadership effectiveness depends on the following conditions: the directiveness of the leader, group support for the leader, and the stressfulness of the situation. Leader intelligence is predicted to be the most important when the leader is directive, the group supports the leader, and the situation is low stress, because the leader is able to think clearly and use his/her intelligence. In high stress situations a leader’s cognitive resources are impaired, so there his or her work experience will be most important Path-Goal Theory – Robert House’s theory concerned with the situations under which various leader behaviours (directive, supportive, participative, and achievement oriented) are most effective. He states that the most important activities of leaders are

Favourableness High Low

Leader-Member Relations Good Poor

Task Structure Structured Unstructured Structured Unstructured

Position Power Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak

I II III IV V VI VII VIII

Most Effective Leader Orientation Task Relationship Task

those that clarify the paths to various goals of interest to employees (goals like a promotion, sense of accomplishment, or pleasant work climate). The opportunity to achieve such goals should promote job satisfaction, leader acceptance, and high effort – thus the leader forms a connection between employee goals and organizational goals. -managers should align employee goals with organization goals The effectiveness of each of the following behaviours is dependent on the situation that the leader encounters:

Directive behaviour – directive leaders schedule work, maintain performance standards, and let employees know what is expected of them; this behaviour is essentially identical to initiating structure

Supportive behaviour – supportive leaders are friendly, approachable, and concerned with pleasant interpersonal relationships; this behaviour is essentially identical to consideration

Participative behaviour – participative leaders consult with employees about work related matters and consider their opinions

Achievement oriented behaviour – these leaders encourage employees to exert high effort and strive for a high level of goal accomplishment. They express confidence that employees can reach these goals

The leader effectiveness of the leader behaviours is contingent on the situational factors, including employee characteristics and environmental factors Employee characteristics:

Employees who have a high need for achievement should work well under achievement oriented leadership

Employees who prefer being told what to do work best under directive

When employees feel that they have rather low task abilities, they should appreciate directive leadership and coaching behaviour. When they feel quite capable of performing the task, they will view such behaviours as unnecessary and irritating

Environmental factors:

When tasks are clear and routine, employees will perceive directive leadership as redundant and unnecessary, reducing satisfaction and acceptance of the leader. Similarly, participative leadership would not seem useful since there is little in which to participate

When tasks are challenging but ambiguous, employees would prefer directive and participative leadership as such styles should clarify the path to good performance and demonstrate that the leader is concerned with helping employees to do a good job

Frustrating, dissatisfying jobs should increase employee appreciation of supportive behaviour

Low Skill Directive or Supportive

High Skill Participative or Achievement Oriented

-note that the theory appears to work better in predicting employees’ job satisfaction and acceptance of the leader than in predicting job performance Participative leadership – involving employees in making work related decisions. Can vary between a manager permitting employees to function within limits defined by superior, all the way to opposite where manager makes decision and announces it (non participate leadership) -participative leadership can increase employee motivation because it may permit them to contribute to the establishment of work goals and to decide how they can accomplish these goals. Also, it can increase intrinsic motivation by enriching employees job, as it adds some variety to the job and promotes autonomy. -participation can enhance quality as more employees may mean a larger wealth of knowledge, and often the professional employees have more up to date technical expertise than their superiors. -participation can increase employees’ acceptance of decisions even if it does not promote motivation or increase the quality of decisions because the process is seen as more fair -potential problems of participative leadership include extra time and energy required, a loss of power, and a lack of receptivity or knowledge (if a leader is distrusted, or when a poor labour climate exists, employees might resent ‘having to do management’s work’, even when receptive employees might lack the actual knowledge to make good decisions) Vroom and Jago’s Situational Model of Participation – attempts to specify when leaders should use participation and to what extent they should use it. For issues involving the entire work group, the following range of behaviours is plausible (A stands for autocratic, C for consultative, and G for group; I indicates an individual and II indicates that a group is involved)

AI – you solve the problem or make the decision yourself, using information available to you at the time

AII – you obtain the necessary information from your employees, then decide the solution to the problem yourself. You may or may not tell your employees what the problem is in getting the info from them. The employees only provide necessary info, no generation or evaluation of alternatives/solutions

CI – you share the problem with the relevant employees individually, getting their ideas and suggestions without bringing them together as a group. Then you make the decision, which may or may not reflect your employee’s influence

CII – you share the problem with your employees as a group, obtaining ther collective ideas and suggestions. Then you make the decision, which may or may not reflect your employees’ influence

Routine/Clear Supportive

Non Routine/ Ambiguous Directive or Participative

GII – you share the problem with your employees as a group. Together you generate and evaluate alternatives and attempt to reach a consensus. Your role is like that of a chairperson; you do not try to influence to group to adopt your solution, and you are willing to accept and implement any solution that has the support of the entire group

The effectiveness of the above strategies depends on the situation/problem at hand:

QR – Quality Requirement How important is the technical quality of this decision? CR – Commitment Requirement

How important is subordinate commitment to the decision?

LI – Leader’s Information Do you have sufficient information to make a high quality decision? ST – Problem Structure Is the problem well structured? CP – Commitment Probability

If you were to make the decision by yourself, is it reasonably certain that your subordinates would be committed to the decisions?

GC – Goal Congruence Do subordinates share the organizational goals to be attained in solving the problem?

CO – Subordinate Conflict Is conflict among subordinates over preferred solutions likely? SI – Subordinate information

Do subordinates have sufficient information to make a high quality decision?

Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX theory) – a theory of leadership that focuses on the quality of the relationship that develops between a leader and an employee. High LMX (high quality relationships) involve a high degree of mutual influence, trust, loyalty, and respect between a leader and an employee. High LMX leaders provide employees with challenging tasks and opportunities, greater latitude and discretion, task related resources, and recognition; in these relationships employees perform tasks beyond their

job description. In low LMX (low quality relationships) there is low trust, respect, obligation and mutual support. The leader provides less attention and latitude to the employees, and employees do only what their job descriptions and formal role requirements demand -high quality of LMX is related to high overall satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behaviour, role clarity, job performance, and lower role conflict and turnover intentions Transactional leadership – leadership that is based on a straightforward exchange relationship between the leader and the followers. The leader uses a participatory style, and involves contingent reward behaviour, management by exception and path-goal theory Management by exception – leadership that involves the leader taking corrective action on the basis of results of leader-follower transactions. They monitor follower behaviour, anticipate problems, and take corrective actions before the behaviour creates serious problems Transformational leadership – leadership that provides followers with a new vision that instills true commitment. Transformational leadership is strongly related to follower motivation and satisfaction, leader performance and effectiveness, and individual, group, and organizational performance. Will buy you employees who internalize the company’s values. Transformational leader behaviour involves some key dimensions:

Intellectual stimulation – the leader challenges assumptions, takes risks, and solicits followers’ ideas. The vision provoking creativity

Individualized consideration – treating employees as distinct individuals, indicating concern for their needs and personal development, and serving as a mentor or coach when appropriate

Inspirational motivation – involves the communication of visions that are appealing and inspiring to followers. They have a strong vision for the future based on values and ideals and stimulate enthusiasm, communicate optimism, provide meaning for tasks etc. The speech itself & the delivery of deeply held values

Charisma – the leader has the ability to command strong loyalty and devotion form followers and thus has the potential for strong influence among them. Followers come to trust and identify with charismatic leaders and to internalize the values and goals they hold – charisma provides the emotional aspect of transformational leadership. Possibly most important part, but paprt we know least about

Ethical leadership – the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two way communication, reinforcement, and decision making. Ethical leaders:

Communicate a clear and consistent positive ethics message from the top

Create and embrace opportunities for everyone in the organization to communicate positive ethics, values, and practices

Ensure consequences for ethical and unethical conduct -ethical leadership is positively associated with employee perceptions of honesty, fairness, and effectiveness and with less counterproductive work behaviour Authentic leadership – a positive form of leadership that involves being true to oneself. Authentic leaders know and act upon their true values, beliefs, and strengths, and they help others to do the same. Followers of authentic leaders report higher organizational citizenship behaviour, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and satisfaction with their supervisor, and job performance. Authentic leadership consists of 4 related but distinct dimensions:

Self awareness – authentic leaders have an understanding of one’s strengths and weaknesses and an awareness of one’s impacts on others

Relational transparency – the presenting of one’s true or authentic self to others and the sharing of info and expressions of one’s true thoughts and feelings

Balanced processing – the objective analysis of relevant information before making a decision and consideration of views that challenge one’s own position

Internalized moral perspective – the internal moral standards and values that guide one’s behaviour and decision making. Authentic leaders exhibit behaviour that’s consistent with their internal moral standards

GLOBE is a research project that involved researchers looking at cultural attributes and global leadership dimensions around the world GLOBE CULTURAL DIMENSIONS:

Performance Orientation – the degree to which a collective encourages and rewards (and should encourage and reward) its members for improvement and excellence in their performance Assertiveness – the degree to which individuals are (and should be) assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in their interactions with others Future orientation – the extent to which individuals prepare (and should prepare) for the future, for example by delaying gratification, planning ahead, and investing in the future Humane orientation – the degree to which a collective encourages and rewards Individuals for their fairness, altruism, generosity, caring and kindness to others Institutional collectivism – the degree to which the institutional practices of organizations and society encourage and reward collective distribution of resources and collective action Ingroup collectivism – the degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their families or organizations Gender egalitarianism – the degree to which a collective minimizes gender inequality Power distance – the degree to which members of a collective expect power to be distributed evenly Uncertainty avoidance – the extent to which a society, organization or group relies on social norms, rules, and procedures to lessen the unpredictability of future events

Implicit leadership theory - a theory that states that individuals hold a set of beliefs about the kinds of attributes, personality characteristics, skills, and behaviours that contribute to or impede outstanding leadership -these belief systems are shared among individuals in common cultures, called culturally endorses implicit leadership theory (CLT) Six global leadership dimensions that are contributors to outstanding leadership:

Charismatic/value based – reflects the ability to inspire, to motivate, and to expect high performance outcomes from others on the basis of firmly held core beliefs

Team oriented – emphasizes effective team building and implementation of a common purpose or goal among team members

Participative – the degree to which managers involve others in making and implementing decisions

Humane oriented – reflects supportive and considerate leadership, but also includes compassion and generosity

Autonomous – refers to independent and individualistic leadership

Self protective – focuses on ensuring the safety and security of the individual -the GLOBE created leadership profiles for each national culture and cluster of culture based on their scores on the 6 global leadership dimensions, they all differed greatly in scores, but found that some attributes that were favourable for leaders in some cultures were not in others (for example, being individualistic, being constantly conscious of status, and taking risks). And some attributes (honesty, decisive, motivational, communicative) were desirable globally, while others (loners, irritable, egocentric, imposing your views on others) were undesirable globally Global leadership – a set of leadership capabilities required to function effectively in different cultures and the ability to cross language, social, economic, and political borders. Must have the following characteristics:

Unbridled inquisitiveness – required to cross language, social, economic and political borders

Personal character – an emotional connection to people from different cultures and uncompromising integrity

Duality – must be able to manage uncertainty and balance global and local tensions

Savvy – need to understand the conditions they face in different countries and be able to recognize new market opportunities or their organization’s goods and services

Laissez-faire leadership – a style of leadership that involves the avoidance or absence of leadership -women and men may adopt different leadership styles; said that women are more transformational and engaged in contingent reward behaviours, while men may use more management by exception and laissez faire – perhaps because women have better social skills than men

Glass ceiling – the invisible barrier that prevents women from advancing to senior leadership positions in organizations; perhaps more like a labyrinth, as women face all of the following barrers:

Vestiges of prejudice – men continue to receive higher wages and faster promotions than women with equal qualifications at all organizational levels

Resistance to women’s leadership – mean are perceived as having agentic traits (convey assertion and control and are generally associated with effective leadership) while women are perceived as having communal traits (convvery a concern for the compassionate treatment of others)

Issues of leadership style – women leaders often struggle to find an appropriate leadership style that reconciles the communal traits associated with females and the agentic traits associated with leaders. When women exhibit an agentic style they are criticized for lacking communal traits, and when they exhibit a communal style they are criticized for not being agentic enough to be a leader

Demands of family life – women remain responsible for domestic work and child rearing and as a result have fewer years of work experience and fewer hours of employment, which slows their career progress and results in slower pay

Underinvestment in social capital – women have less time for socializing with colleagues and developing social networks and often have difficulty breaking in to social networks because they are predominantly male, meaning they have less social capital

Examples of agentic traits – dedicated, charismatic, intelligent, determined, aggressive, competitive Examples of communal traits – caring, sensitive, honest, understanding, compassionate, sympathetic Class Example 1 – The Milgram Experiments Participants were told they were doing a study on memory and learning. The other participant is a middle aged man, and a ‘random’ drawing gives you the role of teacher and the man the role of the learner. The learner is supposed to be trying to remember word pairs, and the teacher is required to administer a shock to the learner when he makes mistakes because the study is designed to explore the effects of punishment on learning. Participants were free to leave anytime. The shock machine has levels from 15-450 volts, labeled ranging from slight shock to ‘danger – severe shock’ to ‘XXX’, and the teacher is given a mild electric shock at first to know what it feels like (unpleasant). The experimenter is in the same room as you, presented as a leader “he designed study, perfected it, is really smart, went to prestigious schools etc”. As the teacher administers shocks, the learner sounds as if he’s in excruciating pain. The experimenter says things like “the experiment requires that you continue” “it is absolutely essential that you continue” and “Please go on”

-the experts predicted that only 1-3% of participants would keep going to the end (this is the percent of population that are psychopaths) -the results were that 62.5% of participants obeyed until the end, men and women to the same extent, similar results across cultures; 100% of participants obeyed up to an ‘intense’ 100 volt shock -shows that people will go against their own better judgment even if they know what is right; people do what they are told to do so long as they perceive that the command comes from a legitimate authority -when the experimenter was replaced by another ‘teacher’ (just another research participant who would also be nervous), only 20% reached 450 volts -when told that two other teacher refused to continue, only 10% reached 450 volts – part of a panel, ally in room, no longer fear social isolation -2% reached 450 volts when they could choose the level of shock – psychopaths Halo effect – extrapolate from a positive attitude (this isn’t present when it’s just another teacher replacing the experimenter because there is not enough to extrapolate from) -the social influence of a leader explains the atrocities of the holocaust Organizational Lessons

To Influence To avoid being Influenced

Use Titles Be wary of people who insist on using titles (i.e. “I’m a senior associate at…”)

Dress the part Focus on substance above style

Drive the part A V12 engine sounds nice but evidence and logic are preferable

Basically, when you are confronted with an authority figure, ask yourself two questions: 1. Is this authority truly an expert? 2. How honest can I expect this authority to be (what’s in it for them)? Managerial Grid: A focus on behaviours -note people focus is a general concern about employee well being (not customers)

1) Task management – leaders who believe that since you earn a salary, you owe the organization – negatively impacts performance and threatens employees

2) Country Club Management – love your job, love your boss, but get nothing done – performance will suffer

3) Impoverished management – managers just trying to keep their job, don’t engage employees, keep a low profile – have the lowest levels of job performance

4) Middle of the road management – see people focus and task focus as mutually exclusive – cant see a reality where employees are very happy and very productive, so go somewhere in the middle

5) Team management – minimize status differentials, employees happy and productive

Class Example 2 – Effect of leadership on behaviour in public good dilemmas -De Cremer and Van Knippenberg examined this by doing a study of people working on an investment task where people could earn money for themselves and for their group; each participant received 300 cents and chose how much to contribute. The total amount contributed to the group was multiplied by 2 ad then divided amongst all group members, regardless of their individual contributions -when there was a transformational leader in the group, participants gave 130 cents on average, while when there was no transformational leader they gave 90.92 cents (a 30% decrease) -the best leaders are good at both transactional and transformational leadership Chapter 3 – Perception, Attribution, and Diversity Perception – the process of interpreting the messages of our senses to provide order and meaning to the environment Perceptual defence – the tendency for the perceptual system to defend the perceiver against unpleasant emotions i.e. you see what you want to see or hear what you wante to hear Social identity – the theory that states that people form perceptions of themselves based on their characteristics and memberships in social categories. While our personal identity is based on our personal characteristics (interests, abilities, traits), our social identity is based on our perception that we belong to various social groups (gender, nationality, religion, occupation etc.) -perception is selective, as perceivers don’t use all available clues, and those that they do use are thus given special emphasis. -perception is constant as the target will be perceived in the same way over time across situations i.e. when you ‘get off on the wrong foot’ with someone, it sticks -perception creates a consistent picture of the target – we tend to select, ignore, and distort cues in a manner so that they fit together to form a homogenous picture of the target Primacy effect – the tendency for a perceiver to rely on early cues or first impressions Recency effect – the tendency for a perceiver to rely on recent cues or last impressions

Central traits – personal characteristics of a target that are of particular interest to a perceiver I.e. on developing her perceptions of her new cooker, the experienced engineer developed her impressions around the trait of intellectual capacity, many people will center around attractiveness, or physical height or weight Projection – the tendency for perceivers to attribute their own thoughts and feelings to others i.e. the honest warehouse manager may perceive others as honest, but may find stock disappearing Stereotyping – the tendency to generalize about people in a certain social category and ignore variations among them. We distinguish some category of people, assume that the individuals in this category have certain traits, and that thus everyone in this category possesses these traits. Not all stereotypes are inaccurate, but usually they are. Stereotypes persist nonetheless because inaccurate stereotypes are reinforced by selective perception (you may be on the lookout for the stereotypical behaviour) and it may be easier for the perceiver to rely on an inaccurate stereotype rather than work to discover the true nature of the target -stereotypes are not necessarily bad, but stereotyping is more of a problem -powerful people tend to sterotype others more -low power groups are seen as more homogenous while high power groups are seen as heterogenous (you know high power people’s names because they dictate your future, so you pay attention to them) -it is self serving for people in power to use stereotypes – they will preserve the status quo -higher power people also have to ability to stereotype because they are in contact with high power -stereotype persistence is also attributable to the vicious cycle:

Stereotypes are based on power differences, and they lead to power differences (they reinforce power differences

Attribution – the process by which causes or motives are assigned to explain people’s behaviour Dispositional attributions – explanations for behaviour based on an actor’s personality or intellect Situational attributions – explanations for behaviour based on an actor’s external situation or environment To decide whether we should attribute behaviour to dispositional or situational causes, look for these cues:

Consistency cues – attribution cues that reflect how consistently a person engages in a behaviour over time. High consistency leads to dispositional attributes, when behaviour occurs inconsistently it may be situational attributes i.e. if a person’s performance cycles between mediocre and excellent, we might look to variations in workload to explain the cycles

Consensus cues – attribution cues that reflect how a person’s behaviour compares with that of others. Unusual, low-consensus behaviour leads to more dispositional attributions than typical, high-consensus behaviour. The person who acts differently from the majority is seen as revealing more of his/her true

motives i.e. a co workers private statements bout his boss will be more genuine than his public relations with the boss

Distinctiveness cues – attribution cues that reflect the extent to which a person engages in some behaviour across a variety of situations. When a behaviour occurs across a variety of situations, it lacks distinctiveness, and the observer is prone to provide a dispositional attribution about its cause

Biases in Attribution Fundamental attribution error – the tendency to overemphasize dispositional explanations for behaviour at the expense of situational explanations. We often discount the strong effects that social roles can have on behaviour, and we fail to realize that the observed behaviour is distinctive to a particular situation. i.e. we see bankers as truly conservative people because we ignore the fact that their occupational role and employer dictate that they act that way, and fail to realize hat the banker could be a weekend skydiver. Also, a manager might think an employee is lazy or unintelligent, while poor training or bad sales territory is the real problem Actor-observer effect – the propensity for actors and observers to view the causes of the actor’s behaviour differently. Actors will attribute much of their own behaviour to situational causes because they are much more aware of their private thoughts, felings etc about their behaviour, and might be more aware than observers of the constraints and advantages that the environment offered. i.e. I might know that I sincerely wanted to get to a meeting on time, that I left home extra early, and that the accident that delayed me was truly unusual while my boss might be unaware of all of this information and figure that I am just unreliable Self-serving bias – the tendency to take credit for successful outcomes and deny responsibility for failures. i.e. a marketing VP’s project turns out to be a sales success, she attributes this to her retailing savvy; it’s a big failure, she attributes it to the poor performance of the marketing research firm she used. This bias overcomes the tendency of actors to attribute their behaviour to situational factors when the behaviour is successful Workforce diversity – differences among recruits and employees in characteristics such as gender, race, age, religion, cultural background, physical ability, or sexual orientation -there are many advantages to valuing and managing a diverse workforce, including superior financial performance and improved competitiveness in global markets Stereotype threat – members of a social group feel hey might be judged or treated according to a stereotype and that their behaviour or performance will confirm the stereotype Common ways a company can try to ensure its workforce reflects the diversity of the population:

Select enough minority members to get them beyond token status. When this happens, the majority starts to look at individual accomplishments rather than group membership because they can see variation in the behaviours of the minority

Encourage teamwork that brings minority and majority members together

Ensure that those making career decisions about employees have accurate information about them rather than having to rely on hearsay

Train people to be aware of stereotypes Trust – a psychological state in which one has a willingness to be vulnerable and to take risks with respect to the actions of another party. You can trust management’s ability, benevolence, and integrity -building trust in the workplace is achieved by practicing credibility, respect, and fairness, and by encouraging pride and camaraderie Perceived organizational support (POS) – employees’ general belief that their organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being. When employees have positive POS, they believe that their organization will provide assistance when it is needed for them to perform the job effectively and deal with stressful situations – higher trust. Also leads to job satisfaction, organizational commitment, higher performance, reduced turnover etc. Organizational support theory – a theory that states that employees who have strong perceptions of organizational support feel an obligation to care about the organization’s welfare and to help the organization achieve its objectives Contrast effects – previously interviewed job applicants affect an interviewer’s perception of a current applicant, leading to an exaggeration of differences between pplicants. i.e. if the interviewerhas seen 2 excellent candidates and then encounters an average candidate, she might rank this person lower than if he had been preceded by two average applicants -interviewers are susceptible to perceptions, maybe influenced by looking at the resume first, and the interviewee will be putting off a ‘best face’ – interview validity increases when interviews are more structured -in order to be the most structured, the interview should involve question sophistication (the extent to which the interviewer uses job elated behavioural questions and situational questions), question consistency (he extent to which the interviewer asks the same questions in the same order of every candidate), and rapport building (the extent to which the interviewer does not ask personal questions that are unrelated to the job -an interview structured like this will reduce info overload and ensure that applicants can be more easily compared since they’ve all responded to an identical sequence of questions Signaling theory – job applicants interpret their recruitment experiences as cues or signals about what it is like to work in an organization i.e. if questions are invasive and discriminatory, applicant might think that is what the organization is like Leniency – the tendency to perceive the job performance of rates as especially good Harshness – the tendency to perceive the job performance of rates as especially ineffective Central tendency – the tendency to assign most rates to middle range job performance categories Halo effect – the rating of an individual on one trait or characteristic tends to colour rating on other traits or characteristics i.e. a student perceives his teachers as really nice, which favourably influences his perception of the teacher’s knowledge of the

material; a manager rates an employee as frequently late for work, and in turn devalues the employee’s productivity and quality of work Similar-to-me effect – a rater gives more favourable evaluations to people who are similar to the rater in terms of background or attitudes -behaviourally anchored rating scales can help prevent any biases from affecting employee ratings Ch 12 392 – 401 – Power, Politics, and Ethics Power – the capacity to influence others who are in a state of dependence Legitimate power – power derived from a person’s position or job in an organization Reward power – power derived from the ability to provide positive outcomes and prevent negative outcomes Coercive power – power derived from the use of punishment and threat, supporting legitimate power Referent power – power derived from being well liked by others Expert power – power derived from having special information or expertise that is value by an organization -referent and expert power are most likely to generate true commitment and enthusiasm for the manager’s agenda. Coercion is likely to produce resistance and lack of cooperation; legitimate and reward will produce compliance Empowerment – giving people the authority, opportunity, and motivation to take initiative and solve organizational problems -service encounters predicated on high volume and low cost need careful engineering; those predicated on customized, personalized service need more empowered personnel (i.e. waiter can make adjustments to a plate without having to ask chef) -too much power can lead to ineffective performance and abuse of power, while too little leads to low performance and lack of power Influence tactics – tactics that are used to convert power into actual influence over others. Includes:

Assertiveness

Ingratiation (using flattery and acting polite, friendly or humble)

Rationality

Exchange

Upward appeal (making formal/informal appeals to organizational superiors for intervention)

Coalition formation (seeking united support from other organizational members) To get power, pursue activities that are:

Extraordinary – unusual – you will have an audience if what you’re doing is new and novel

Visible – make sure people are aware of what you’re doing and its importance

Relevant – relevant to the core of the organization, people need to care And cultivate the right people (everyone!):

Superiors – they’re in a position to grant you power

Peers & subordinates – they also evaluate you, if a company is using a 360 degree feedback especially, if no there is still a reputational impacts. Peer/subordinates don’t always STAY your peers/subordinates. And lastly, as a manager your job is to get work done through other people, if subordinate don’t like you, you are les likely to get a lot of power

Outsiders – it’s good to have ‘friends in high places’ – people will seek you out through this relationship, their status reflects on your status

-having a high level of power can give you ‘rose coloured lenses’ – a positive affect, high self-confidence, and optimistic interpretation of social cues (i.e. interpret someone smiling at you as getting hit on, rather than “weird, why”) Sexual harassment -includes quid-pro-quo harassment, unwanted sexual attention, and sexual comments, jokes, and materials Old view – assumed to be motivated by sexual desire New view – not motivated by sexual desire but by enforcing traditional sex roles. There is a desire to maintain power inequalities and traditional social roles “not man enough” harassment – men being ridiculed for not telling about sexual exploits about women -if sexual harassment was based on sexual desire, feminine women will receive the most traditional forms of harassment. If it’s about sex roles, masculine women will be harassed the most (because are the most threatening to traditional sex roles), and feminine men will be targeted the most for ‘not man enough’ harassment -a study goes through employees, and find that masculine women and feminine men are harassed the most – the new view is accurate