What is organizational behaviour and why is it important? What are organizations like as work settings? What is the nature of managerial work? How do we learn about organizational behaviour?

What is organizational behaviour and why is it important?

Workplace success depends on:

Respect for people. Understanding of human behaviour in complex organizational systems. Individual commitment to flexibility, creativity, and learning. Individual willingness to change.

Organizations and their members are challenged to:

Simultaneously achieve high performance and high quality of life. Embrace ethics and social responsibility. Respect the vast potential of demographic and cultural diversity among people. Recognize the impact of globalization.

Organizational behaviour. Study of human behaviour in organizations. A multidisciplinary field devoted to understanding individual and group behaviour, interpersonal processes,

and organizational dynamics.

. Reasons for importance of scientific thinking.

The process of data collection is controlled and systematic. Proposed explanations are carefully tested. Only explanations that can be scientifically verified are accepted.

Contingency approach.

Tries to identify how different situations can be best understood and handled. Important contingency variables include:

Environment. Technology. Tasks. Structure. People.

Modern workplace trends.

Commitment to ethical behaviour. Importance of human capital. Demise of “command and control.” Emphasis on teamwork. Pervasive influence of information technology. Respect for new workforce expectations. Changing definition of “jobs” and “career.”

What are organizations like as work settings?

An organization is a collection of people working together in a division of labor to achieve a common purpose. The core purpose of an organization is the creation of goods and services. Missions and mission statements focus attention on the core purpose. Mission statements communicate:

A clear sense of the domain in which the organization’s products and services fit. A vision and sense of future aspirations.

A strategy is a comprehensive plan that guides organizations to operate in ways that allow them to outperform theircompetitors.

Key managerial responsibilities include strategy formulation and implementation. Knowledge of OB is essential to effectively strategy implementation.

Stakeholders.

People, groups, and institutions having an interest in an organization’s performance. Customers, owners, employees, suppliers, regulators, and local communities are key stakeholders. Interests of multiple stakeholders sometimes conflict. Executive leadership often focuses on balancing multiple stakeholder expectations.

Organizational culture and diversity.

Organizational culture refers to the shared beliefs and values that influence the behaviour of organizationalmembers.

Positive organizational cultures:

• Have a high-performance orientation.• Emphasize teamwork.• Encourage risk taking.• Emphasize innovation.

Respect people and workforce diversity. Success in business world is tied to valuing diversity.

Organizational effectiveness approaches. Systems resource approach focuses on inputs. Internal process approach focuses on the transformation process. Goal approach focuses on outputs. Strategic contingencies approach focuses on impact on key stakeholders.

Longitudinal views of organizational effectiveness. Short-run emphasis on goal accomplishment, resource utilization, and stakeholder satisfaction. Intermediate-run emphasis on organization’s adaptability and development potential. Long-run emphasis on survival.

Study Question 3: What is the nature of managerial work?_Managers perform jobs that involve directly supporting the work efforts of others._Managers assume roles such as coordinator, coach, or team leader.

The management process.

An effective manager is one whose organizational unit, group, or team consistently achieves its goals while its members remain capable, committed, and enthusiastic.

Key results of effective management: Task performance. Job satisfaction.

The nature of managerial work.

Managers work long hours. Managers are busy people. Managers are often interrupted. Managerial work is fragmented and variable. Managers work mostly with other people. Managers spend a lot of time communicating.

Managerial mind-sets.

Reflective mind-set — managing one’s self. Analytic mind-set — managing organizational operations and decisions. Worldly mind-set — managing in a global context. Collaborative mind-set — managing relationships. Action mind-set — managing change.

Managerial skills and competencies.

A skill is an ability to translate knowledge into action that results in a desired performance. Categories of skills.

Technical. Human. Conceptual.

How do we learn about organizational behaviour?

Learning is an enduring change in behaviour that results from experience. Organizational learning is the process of acquiring knowledge and utilizing information to adapt successfully to changing

circumstances.

What is a high-performance organization? What is multiculturalism, and how can workforce diversity be managed? How do ethics and social responsibility influence human behaviour in organizations? What are key OB transitions in the new workplace?

High-performance organizations.

Value and empower people, and respect diversity. Mobilize the talents of self-directed work teams. Use cutting-edge technologies to achieve success. Thrive on learning and enable members to grow and develop. Are achievement-, quality-, and customer-oriented, as well as being sensitive to the external environment.Study Question 1: What is a highperformanceorganization?_Stakeholders.– The individuals, groups, and otherorganizations affected by anOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 30organization’s performance._Value creation.– The extent to which an organizationsatisfies the needs of strategicconstituencies.Study Question 1: What is a highperformanceorganization?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 31Study Question 1: What is a highperformanceorganization?_ Total quality management (TQM).– A total commitment to:• High-quality results.• Continuous improvement.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 32• Customer satisfaction.– Meeting customers’ needs.– Doing all tasks right the first time.– Continuous improvement focuses on two questions:• Is it necessary?• If so, can it be done better?Study Question 1: What is a highperformanceorganization?_ Human capital.– The economic value of people with job-relevantabilities, knowledge, ideas, energies, andcommitments.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 33_ Knowledge workers.– People whose minds rather than physical capabilitiescreate value for the organization._ Intellectual capital.– The performance potential of the expertise,competencies, creativity, and commitment within anorganization’s workforce.Study Question 1: What is a highperformanceorganization?_Empowerment.– Allows people, individually and in groups, touse their talents and knowledge to makeOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 34decisions that affect their work._Social capital.– The performance potential represented in therelationships maintained among people atwork.Study Question 1: What is a highperformanceorganization?_Learning and high-performance cultures.

– Uncertainty highlights the importance oforganizational learning.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 35– High-performance organizations are designedfor organizational learning.– A learning organization has a culture thatvalues human capital and invigorates learningfor performance enhancement.Study Question 1: What is a highperformanceorganization?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 36Study Question 2: What is multi-culturalism,and how can workforce diversity be managed?_ Workforce diversity.– Describes differences among people with respect toage, race, ethnicity, gender, physical ability, andsexual orientation.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 37_ Multiculturalism.– Refers to pluralism and respect for diversity andindividual differences in the workplace._ Inclusivity.– The degree to which the organization’s culturerespects and values diversity.Study Question 2: What is multi-culturalism,and how can workforce diversity be managed?_Diversity biases in the workplace.– Prejudice.– Discrimination.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 38– The glass ceiling effect.– Sexual harassment.– Verbal abuse.– Pay discrimination.Study Question 2: What is multi-culturalism,and how can workforce diversity be managed?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 39Study Question 2: What is multi-culturalism,and how can workforce diversity be managed?_ Managing diversity.– Developing a work environment and organizationalculture that allows all organization members to reachtheir full potential._ A diversity mature organization is created when:Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 40– Managers ensure the effective and efficient utilizationof employees in pursuit of the corporate mission.– Managers consider how their behaviours affectdiversity._ Well-managed workforce diversity increaseshuman capital.Study question 3: How do ethics andsocial responsibility influence humanbehaviour in organizations?_Ethical behaviour.– “Good” or “right” as opposed to “bad”Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 41or “wrong” in a particular setting._The public demands that people inorganizations act according to highmoral standards.Study question 3: How do ethics andsocial responsibility influence humanbehaviour in organizations?_Immoral managers.– Do not subscribe to any ethical principles;pursuit of self-interest.Amoral managers.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 42_– Ethics is simply not on this manager’s “radarscreen.”_Moral managers.– Incorporate ethical principles and goals intotheir personal behaviour .Study question 3: How do ethics and social

responsibility influence human behaviour inorganizations?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 43Study question 3: How do ethics andsocial responsibility influence humanbehaviour in organizations?_Ways of thinking about ethical behaviour.– Utilitarian view –– the greatest good for thegreatest number of people.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 44– Individualism view –– best serving long-termself-interests.– Moral-rights view –– respects and protects thefundamental rights of all human beings.– Justice view –– fair and impartial in thetreatment of all people.Study question 3: How do ethics andsocial responsibility influence humanbehaviour in organizations?_Different types of justice.– Procedural justice –– properly following rulesand procedures in all cases.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 45– Distributive justice –– treating people thesame under a policy, regardless ofdemographic differences.– Interactional justice –– treating people affectedby a decision with dignity and respect.Study question 3: How do ethics and socialresponsibility influence human behaviour inorganizations?_Ethical dilemmas.–Occur when someone must choosewhether or not to pursue a course ofOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 46action that, although offering thepotential of personal ororganizational benefit or both, maybe considered unethical.Study question 3: How do ethics andsocial responsibility influence humanbehaviour in organizations?_Rationalizations for unethical behaviour.– Pretending the behaviour is not really unethicalor illegal.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 47– Saying the behaviour is really in theorganization’s or person’s best interest.– Assuming the behaviour is acceptable if othersdon’t find out about it.– Presuming that superiors will support andprotect you.Study question 3: How do ethics andsocial responsibility influence humanbehaviour in organizations?_Organizational social responsibility.– The obligation of organizations to behave inethical and moral ways as institutions of thebroader society.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 48– Managers should commit organizations to:• Pursuit of high productivity.• Corporate social responsibility.– A whistleblower exposes others’ wrongdoingsin order to preserve high ethical standards.Study question 4: What are key OBtransitions in the new workplace?_Corporate governance and ethicsleadership.– Society expects and demands ethical decisionsOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 49and actions from businesses and other socialinstitutions.– Corporate governance.• The active oversight of management decisions,

corporate strategy, and financial reporting byBoards of Directors.Study question 4: What are key OBtransitions in the new workplace?_Corporate governance and ethicsleadership (cont.).– Ethics leadership.• Making business and organizational decisions withOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 50high moral standards that meet the ethical test ofbeing “good” and not “bad,” and of being “right”and not “wrong.” .– Integrity.• Acting in ways that are always honest, credible,and consistent in putting one’s values into practice.Study question 4: What are key OBtransitions in the new workplace?_Positive organizational behaviour.– Quality of work life.• The overall quality of human experience in theOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 51workplace.• Commitment to quality of work life is an importantvalue within organizational behaviour.• Theory Y provides the theoretical underpinningsfor contemporary quality of work life concepts.Study question 4: What are key OBtransitions in the new workplace?_Positive organizational behaviour (cont.).– Positive organizational behaviour focuses onpractices that value human capacities andencourage their full utilization.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 52– Positive organizational behaviour is based onthe core capacities of:• Confidence.• Hope.• Optimism.• Resilience.Study question 4: What are key OBtransitions in the new workplace?_Globalization, job migration, andorganizational transformation.– Globalization.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 53• The worldwide interdependence of resource flows,product markets, and business competition.– Job migration.• The shifting of jobs from one nation to another.Study question 4: What are key OBtransitions in the new workplace?_Globalization, job migration, andorganizational transformation (cont.).– Global outsourcing.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 54• Involves employers cutting back on domestic jobsand replacing them with contract workers in othernations.– Job migration and global outsourcing havecontributed to organizations redesigningthemselves for high performance in a changedworld.Study question 4: What are key OBtransitions in the new workplace?_Personal management and career planning.– Shamrock organizations.• Relatively small core group of permanent, full-timeOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 55employees with critical skills.• Outside operators contracting to core group toperform essential daily activities.• Part-timers hired by core group on an as-neededbasis.Study question 4: What are key OBtransitions in the new workplace?

_Personal management and career planning(cont.).– Personal management.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 2 56• Understand one’s self, exercising initiative,accepting responsibility, working well with others,and continually learning from experience.– Self-monitoring.• Observing and reflecting on one’s own behaviourand acting in ways that adapt to the situation.Chapter 3 Study Questions_Why is globalization significant fororganizational behaviour?_What is culture and how can weunderstand cultural differences?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 57_How does cultural diversity affect peopleat work?_What is a global view on organizationallearning?Study Question 1: Why is globalizationsignificant for organizational behaviour?_ Most organizations must achieve highperformance within a complex and competitiveglobal environment.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 58_ Globalization refers to the complex economicnetworks of international competition, resourcesuppliers, and product markets.Study Question 1: Why is globalizationsignificant for organizational behaviour?_Forces of globalization.– Rapid growth in information technology andelectronic communication.– Movement of valuable skills and investments.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 59– Increasing cultural diversity.– Implications of immigration.– Increasing job migration among nations.– Impact of multicultural workforces.Study Question 1: Why is globalizationsignificant for organizational behaviour?_Globalization is contributing to theemergence of regional economic alliances._Important regional alliances.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 60– European Union (EU).– North American Free Trade Agreement(NAFTA).– Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation Forum(APEC).Study Question 1: Why is globalizationsignificant for organizational behaviour?_Outsourcing.– Contracting out of work rather than accomplishing itwith a full-time permanent workforce.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 61_Off shoring.– Contracting out work to persons in other countries._Job migration.– Movement of jobs from one location or country toanother.Study Question 1: Why is globalizationsignificant for organizational behaviour?_Global managers.– Know how to conduct business in multiplecountries.– Are culturally adaptable and oftenOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 62multilingual.– Think with a worldview and are able to mapstrategy in the global context.– Have a global attitude.– Have a global mindset.Study Question 1: Why is globalization

significant for organizational behaviour?_Culture.– The learned, shared way of doing things in aparticular society.– The “software of the mind.”Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 63– Helps define boundaries between differentgroups and affects how their members relate toone another.– Cultural intelligence is the ability to identify,understand, and act with sensitivity andeffectiveness in cross-cultural situations.Study Question 2: What is culture and how canwe understand cultural differences?_Language.– Perhaps the most visible aspect of culture.– Whorfian hypothesis — considers language asOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 64a major determinant of thinking.– Low-context cultures — the message isconveyed by the words used.– High-context cultures — words convey only alimited part of the message.Study Question 2: What is culture and how canwe understand cultural differences?_Time orientation.– Polychronic cultures.• Circular view of time.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 65• No pressure for immediate action or performance.• Emphasis on the present.– Monochronic cultures.• Linear view of time.• Create pressure for action and performance.• Long-range goals and planning are important.Study Question 2: What is culture and how canwe understand cultural differences?_Use of space.– Proxemics.• The study of how people use space toOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 66communicate.• Reveals important cultural differences.– Concept of personal space varies acrosscultures.– Space is arranged differently in differentcultures.Study Question 2: What is culture and how canwe understand cultural differences?_Religion.– A major element of culture.– Can be a very visible aspect of culture.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 67– Influences codes of ethics and moral behaviour.– Influences conduct of economic matters.Study Question 2: What is culture and how canwe understand cultural differences?_Values and national culture.– Cultures vary in underlying patterns of valuesand attitudes.– Hofstede’s five dimensions of national culture:Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 68• Power distance.• Uncertainty avoidance.• Individualism-collectivism.• Masculinity-femininity.• Long-term/short-term orientation.Study Question 2: What is culture and how canwe understand cultural differences?_Power distance.– The willingness of a culture to accept statusand power differences among members.– Respect for hierarchy and rank inOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 69organizations.

– Example of a high power distance culture —Indonesia.– Example of a low power distance culture —Sweden.Study Question 2: What is culture and how canwe understand cultural differences?_Uncertainty avoidance.– The cultural tendency toward discomfort withrisk and ambiguity.– Preference for structured versus unstructuredOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 70organizational situations.– Example of a high uncertainty avoidanceculture — France.– Example of a low uncertainty avoidanceculture — Hong Kong.Study Question 2: What is culture and how canwe understand cultural differences?_Individualism-collectivism.– The cultural tendency to emphasize individualor group interests.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 71– Preferences for working individually or ingroups.– Example of an individualistic culture —United States.– Example of a collectivist culture — Mexico.Study Question 2: What is culture and how canwe understand cultural differences?_Masculinity-femininity.– The tendency of a culture to valuestereotypical masculine or feminine traits.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 72– Emphasizes competition/assertiveness versusinterpersonal sensitivity/relationships.– Example of a masculine culture — Japan.– Example of a feminine culture —Thailand.Study Question 2: What is culture and how canwe understand cultural differences?_Long-term/short-term orientation.– The tendency of a culture to emphasize futureorientedvalues versus present-oriented values.– Adoption of long-term or short-termOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 73performance horizons.– Example of a long-term orientation culture —South Korea.– Example of a short-term orientation culture —United States.Study Question 2: What is culture and how canwe understand cultural differences?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 74Study Question 2: What is culture and how canwe understand cultural differences?_Understanding cultural differences helps indealing with parochialism andethnocentrism.Parochialism — assuming that the ways ofOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 75– one’s own culture are the only ways of doingthings.– Ethnocentrism —assuming that the ways ofone’s culture are the best ways of doingthings.Study Question 2: What is culture and how canwe understand cultural differences?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 76Study Question 2: What is culture and how canwe understand cultural differences?_Cultural differences in handlingrelationships with other people.– Universalism versus particularism.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 77• Relative emphasis on rules and consistency, or onrelationships and flexibility.

– Individualism versus collectivism.• Relative emphasis on individual freedom andresponsibility, or on group interests and consensus.Study Question 2: What is culture and how canwe understand cultural differences?_Cultural differences in handlingrelationships with other people (cont.).– Neutral versus affective.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 78• Relative emphasis on objectivity and detachment,or on emotion and expressed feelings.– Specific versus diffuse.• Relative emphasis on focused and narrowinvolvement, or on involvement with the wholeperson.Study Question 2: What is culture and how canwe understand cultural differences?_Cultural differences in handlingrelationships with other people (cont.).– Achievement versus prescription.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 79• Relative emphasis on performance-based andearned status, or on ascribed status.Study Question 2: What is culture and how canwe understand cultural differences?_Cultural differences in attitudes towardtime.– Sequential view of time.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 80• Time is a passing series of events.– Synchronic view of time.• Time consists of an interrelated past, present, andfuture.Study Question 2: What is culture and how canwe understand cultural differences?_Cultural differences in attitudes toward theenvironment.– Inner-directed cultures.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 81• Members view themselves as separate from natureand believe they can control it.– Outer-directed cultures.• Members view themselves as part of nature andbelieve they must go along with it.Study Question 3: How does culturaldiversity affect people at work?_Multinational corporation (MNC).– A business firm that has extensiveinternational operations in more than oneforeign country.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 82– Have a total world view without allegiance toany one national home.– Have enormous economic power and impact.– Bring benefits and controversies to hostcountries.Study Question 3: How does culturaldiversity affect people at work?_Multicultural workforces and expatriates.– Styles of leadership, motivation, decisionmaking, planning, organizing, and controllingvary from country to country.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 83– Expatriates.• People who live and work abroad for extendedperiods of time.• Can be very costly for employers.• Progressive employers take supportive measures tomaximize potential for expatriate success.Study Question 3: How does culturaldiversity affect people at work?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 84Study Question 3: How does culturaldiversity affect people at work?_Ethical behaviour across cultures.

– Ethical challenges result from:• Cultural diversity.• Variations in governments and legal systems.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 85– Prominent current issues.• Corruption and bribery.• Poor working conditions.• Child and prison labor.• Business support of repressive governments.• Sweatshops.Study Question 3: How does culturaldiversity affect people at work?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 86Study Question 3: How does culturaldiversity affect people at work?_Advice regarding cultural relativism andethical absolutism.– Multinational businesses should adopt core orOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 87threshold values that respect and protectfundamental human rights.– Beyond the threshold, businesses should adaptand tailor actions to respect the traditions,foundations, and needs of different cultures.Study Question 4: What is a globalview on organizational learning?_Organizational learning.– The process of acquiring the knowledgenecessary to adapt to a changingenvironment.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 88_Global organizational learning.– The ability to gather from the world at largethe knowledge required for long-termorganizational adaptation.Study Question 4: What is a globalview on organizational learning?_Are management theories universal?– Answer is “no.”Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 89– Cultural influences should be carefullyconsidered in transferring theories and theirapplications across cultures.Study Question 4: What is a globalview on organizational learning?_Best practices around the world.– Global organizational learning should identifybest practices around the world.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 3 90– Potential high-performance benchmarks existthroughout the world.– Cultural diversity enriches global organizationlearning.Chapter 4 Study Questions_What is personality?_How do personalities differ?_What are value and attitude differencesOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 91among individuals, and why are theyimportant?_What are individual differences and howare they related to workforce diversity?Study Question 1: What is personality?_Personality.– The overall profile or combination ofcharacteristics that capture the unique natureof a person as that person reacts and interactswith others.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 92– Combines a set of physical and mentalcharacteristics that reflect how a person looks,thinks, acts, and feels.– Predictable relationships are expected betweenpeople’s personalities and their behaviours.Study Question 1: What is personality?

Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 93Study Question 1: What is personality?_ Heredity and environment.– Heredity sets the limits on the development ofpersonality characteristics.– Environment determines development within theselimits.– About a 50-50 heredity-environment split.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 94– Cultural values and norms play a substantial role inthe development of personality.– Social factors include family life, religion, and manykinds of formal and informal groups.– Situational factors reflect the opportunities orconstraints imposed by the operational context.Study Question 1: What is personality?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 95Study Question 1: What is personality?_Personality and the self-concept.– Personality dynamics.• The ways in which an individual integrates andorganizes social traits, values and motives,personal conceptions, and emotional adjustments.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 96– Self-concept.• The view individuals have of themselves asphysical, social, and spiritual or moral beings.• Self-esteem.• Self-efficacy.Study Question 2: How dopersonalities differ?_ “Big Five” personality dimensions.– Extraversion• Being outgoing, sociable, assertive.– Agreeableness.• Being good-natured, trusting, cooperative.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 97– Conscientiousness.• Being responsible, dependable, persistent.– Emotional stability.• Being unworried, secure, relaxed.– Openness to experience.• Being imaginative, curious, broad-minded.Study Question 2: How dopersonalities differ?_Social traits.– Surface-level traits that reflect the way aperson appears to others when interacting invarious social settings.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 98– An important social trait is problem-solvingstyle.• The way a person goes about gathering andevaluating information in solving problems andmaking decisions.Study Question 2: How dopersonalities differ?_Information gathering in problem solving.– Getting and organizing data for use.– Sensation-type individuals prefer routine andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 99order and emphasize well-defined details ingathering information.– Intuitive-type individuals like new problemsand dislike routine.Study Question 2: How dopersonalities differ?_Information evaluation in problem solving.– Making judgments about how to deal withinformation once it has been collected.– Feeling-type individuals are oriented towardOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 100conformity and try to accommodatethemselves to other people.– Thinking-type individuals use reason and

intellect to deal with problems and downplayemotions.Study Question 2: How dopersonalities differ?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 101Study Question 2: How dopersonalities differ?_Personal conception traits.– The way individuals tend to think about theirsocial and physical settings as well as theirmajor beliefs and personal orientation.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 102– Key traits.• Locus of control.• Authoritarianism/dogmatism.• Machiavellianism.• Self-monitoring.Study Question 2: How dopersonalities differ?_Locus of control.– The extent to which a person feels able tocontrol his/her own life.– Externals.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 103• More extraverted in their interpersonalrelationships and more oriented toward the worldaround them.– Internals.• More introverted and more oriented towards theirown feelings and ideas.Study Question 2: How do personalities differ?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 104Study Question 2: How dopersonalities differ?_Authoritarianism/dogmatism.– Authoritarianism.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 105• Tendency to adhere rigidly to conventional valuesand to obey recognized authority.– Dogmatism.• Tendency to view the world as a threatening place.Study Question 2: How dopersonalities differ?_ People with a high-Machiavellian personality:– Approach situations logically andthoughtfully.– Are capable of lying to achieve personal goals.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 106– Are rarely swayed by loyalty, friendships, pastpromises, or others’ opinions.– Are skilled at influencing others.– Try to exploit loosely structured situations.– Perform in a perfunctory or detached mannerin highly structured situations.Study Question 2: How dopersonalities differ?_ People with a low-Machiavellian personality:– Accept direction imposed by others in looselystructured situations.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 107– Work hard to do well in highly structuredsituations.– Are strongly guided by ethical considerations.– Are unlikely to lie or cheat.Study Question 2: How dopersonalities differ?_Self-monitoring.– A person’s ability to adjust his/her behaviour toexternal situational factors.– High self-monitors.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 108• Sensitive to external cues.• Behave differently in different situations.– Low self-monitors.• Not sensitive to external cues.

• Not able to disguise their behaviours.Study Question 2: How dopersonalities differ?_Emotional adjustment traits.– How much an individual experiences distressor displays unacceptable acts.Type A orientation.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 109– • Characterized by impatience, desire forachievement, and perfectionism.– Type B orientation.• Characterized as more easygoing and lesscompetitive in relation to daily events.Study Question 3: What are value and attitudedifferences among individuals, and why are theyimportant?_Values.– Broad preferences concerning appropriatecourses of action or outcomes.Values influence behaviour and attitudes.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 110– – Parents, friends, teachers, and externalreference groups can influence individualvalues.– Values develop as a product of learning andexperiences.Study Question 3: What are value and attitudedifferences among individuals, and why are theyimportant?Pick up Figure 4.5 from the textbook.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 111Study Question 3: What are value and attitudedifferences among individuals, and why are theyimportant?_Gordon Allport’s values categories.– Theoretical values.– Economic values.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 112– Aesthetic values.– Social values.– Political values.– Religious values.Study Question 3: What are value and attitudedifferences among individuals, and why are theyimportant?_Maglino’s categories of workplace values.– Achievement.– Helping and concern for others.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 113– Honesty.– Fairness.Study Question 3: What are value and attitudedifferences among individuals, and why are theyimportant?_Attitudes.– Are influenced by values and are acquiredfrom the same sources as values.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 114– Are more specific and less stable than values.– An attitude is a predisposition to respond in apositive or negative way to someone orsomething in one’s environment.Study Question 3: What are value and attitudedifferences among individuals, and why are theyimportant?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 115Study Question 3: What are value and attitudedifferences among individuals, and why are theyimportant?_The attitude-behaviour relationship isstronger when:Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 116– Attitudes and behaviours are more specific.– There is freedom to carry out the behaviouralintent.

– The person has experience with the attitude.Study Question 3: What are value and attitudedifferences among individuals, and why are theyimportant?_Attitudes and cognitive consistency.– Cognitive dissonance.• Describes a state of inconsistency between anOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 117individual’s attitudes and his or her behaviour.– Cognitive dissonance can be reduced by:• Changing the underlying attitude.• Changing future behaviour.• Developing new ways of explaining orrationalizing the inconsistency.Study Question 3: What are value and attitudedifferences among individuals, and why are theyimportant?_Attitudes and cognitive consistency (cont.).– Dissonance reduction choices are influencedOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 118by:• The degree of control a person has over thesituation.• The magnitude of the rewards involved.Study Question 4: What are individual differencesand how are they related to workforce diversity?_Workforce diversity.– The presence of individual humancharacteristics that make people differentOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 119from one another._Challenge of workforce diversity.– Respecting individuals’ perspectives andcontributions and promoting a shared senseof organizational vision and identity.Study Question 4: What are individual differencesand how are they related to workforce diversity?_As workforce diversity increases, thepossibility of stereotyping andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 120discrimination increases.– Demographic characteristics may serve as thebasis for stereotypes.Study Question 4: What are individual differencesand how are they related to workforce diversity?_Equal employment opportunity.– Nondiscriminatory employment decisions.• No intent to exclude or disadvantage legallyOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 121protected groups.– Affirmative action.• Remedial actions for proven discrimination orstatistical imbalance in workforce.Study Question 4: What are individual differencesand how are they related to workforce diversity?_ Demographic characteristics.– The background characteristics that help shape what aperson becomes._ Important demographic characteristics for theOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 122workplace.– Gender.– Age.– Able-bodiedness.– Race.– Ethnicity.Study Question 4: What are individual differencesand how are they related to workforce diversity?_Gender.– No consistent differences between men andwomen in:• Problem-solving abilities.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 123• Analytical skills.• Competitive drive.

• Motivation.• Learning ability.• Sociability.Study Question 4: What are individual differencesand how are they related to workforce diversity?_Gender (cont.).– As compared to men, women:Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 124• Are more conforming.• Have lower expectations of success.• Have higher absenteeism.• Are more democratic as leaders.Study Question 4: What are individual differencesand how are they related to workforce diversity?_ Age.– Aging workforce.– Older workers are more susceptible to stereotyping.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 125– Age discrimination lawsuits are increasingly commonin the United States.– Small businesses tend to value older workers.– Experienced workers, who are usually older, tend toperform well, be absent less, and have low turnover.Study Question 4: What are individual differencesand how are they related to workforce diversity?_Able-bodiedness.– Despite evidence of effective job performance,Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 126most disabled persons are unemployed.– Most disabled persons want to work.– More firms are likely to hire disabled workersin the future.Study Question 4: What are individual differencesand how are they related to workforce diversity?_Racial and ethnic groups.– African Americans, Asian Americans, andHispanic Americans make up an everincreasingpercentage of the AmericanOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 127increasing workforce.– Potential for stereotypes and discriminationcan adversely affect career opportunities.– Race cannot be a BFOQ.Study Question 4: What are individual differencesand how are they related to workforce diversity?_Important lessons regarding demographiccharacteristics.– Respect and deal with the needs and concernsOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 128of people with different demographics.– Avoid linking demographics to stereotypes.– Demography is not a good indicator ofindividual-job fits.Study Question 4: What are individual differencesand how are they related to workforce diversity?_Aptitude.– A person’s capability of learning something.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 4 129_Ability.– A person’s existing capacity to perform thevarious tasks needed for a given job.– Includes relevant knowledge and skills.Chapter 5 Study Questions_What is the perception process?_What are common perceptualdistortions?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 130_How can perceptions be managed?_What is attribution theory?Study Question 1: What is theperception process?_Perception.– The process by which people select, organize,interpret, retrieve, and respond to information.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 131

– People process information inputs intoresponses involving feeling and action.– The quality or accuracy of a person’sperceptions has a major impact on responses.Study Question 1: What is the perceptionprocess?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 132Study Question 1: What is theperception process?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 133Study Question 1: What is theperception process?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 134Study Question 1: What is theperception process?_Information attention and selection.– Selective screening.• Lets in only a tiny portion all the information thatOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 135is available.– Two types of selective screening.• Controlled processing.• Screening without perceiver’s consciousawareness.Study Question 1: What is theperception process?_Organization of information.– Schemas.• Cognitive frameworks that represent organizedknowledge about a given concept or stimulusOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 136developed through experience.– Types of schemas:• Self schemas.• Person schemas.• Script schemas.• Person-in-situation schemas.Study Question 1: What is theperception process?_Information interpretation.– Uncovering the reasons behind the waysOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 137stimuli are grouped.– People may interpret the same informationdifferently or make different attributions aboutinformation.Study Question 1: What is theperception process?_Information retrieval.– Attention and selection, organization, andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 138interpretation are part of memory.– Information stored in memory must beretrieved in order to be used.Study Question 2: What are commonperceptual distortions?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 139Study Question 2: What are commonperceptual distortions?_Stereotypes or prototypes.– Combines information based on the categoryor class to which a person, situation, or objectOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 140belongs.– Individual differences are obscured.– Strong impact at the organization stage.Study Question 2: What are commonperceptual distortions?_Halo effects.– Occur when one attribute of a person orsituation is used to develop an overallOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 141impression of the individual or situation.– Likely to occur in the organization stage.– Important in the performance appraisal

process.Study Question 2: What are commonperceptual distortions?_ Selective perception.– The tendency to single out those aspects of asituation, person, or object that are consistentOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 142with one’s needs, values, or attitudes.– Strongest impact is at the attention stage.– Perception checking with other persons canhelp counter the adverse impact of selectiveperception.Study Question 2: What are commonperceptual distortions?_Projection.– The assignment of one’s personal attributes toother individuals.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 143– Especially likely to occur in interpretationstage.– Projection can be controlled through a highdegree of self-awareness and empathy.Study Question 2: What are commonperceptual distortions?_Contrast effects.– Occur when an individual is compared to otherOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 144people on the same characteristics on whichthe others rank higher or lower.– People must be aware of the impact of contrasteffects in many work settingsStudy Question 2: What are commonperceptual distortions?_Self-fulfilling prophecy.– The tendency to create or find in anothersituation or individual that which one expectedOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 145to find.– Also called the “Pygmalion effect.”– Can have either positive or negative outcomes.– Managers should adopt positive and optimisticapproaches to people at work.Study Question 3: How canperceptions be managed?_Impression management.– A person’s systematic attempt to behave inways that create and maintain desiredOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 146impressions in others’ eyes.– Successful managers:• Use impression management to enhance their ownimages.• Are sensitive to other people’s use of impressionmanagement.Study Question 3: How canperceptions be managed?_Distortion management.– Managers should:Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 147• Balance automatic and controlled informationprocessing at the attention and selection stage.• Broaden their schemas at the organizing stage.• Be attuned to attributions at the interpretationstage.Study Question 4:What isattribution theory?_Attribution theory aids in perceptualinterpretation by focusing on how peopleattempt to:Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 148– Understand the causes of a certain event.– Assess responsibility for the outcomes of theevent.– Evaluate the personal qualities of the peopleinvolved in the event.

Study Question 4:What isattribution theory?_Factors influencing internal and externalattributions.– Distinctiveness — consistency of a person’sOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 149behaviour across situations.– Consensus — likelihood of others respondingin a similar way.– Consistency — whether an individualresponds the same way across time.Study Question 4:What isattribution theory?_Fundamental attribution error.– Applies to the evaluation of someone’s elsebehaviour.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 150– Attributing success to the influence ofsituational factors.– Attributing failure to the influence of personalfactors.Study Question 4:What isattribution theory?_Self-serving bias.– Applies to the evaluation of our own behaviour.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 151– Attributing success to the influence ofpersonal factors.– Attributing failure to the influence ofsituational factors.Study Question 4:What isattribution theory?_ Techniques for effectively managing perceptionsand attributions.– Be self-aware.– Seek a wide range of differing information.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 5 152– Try to see a situation as others would.– Be aware of different kinds of schemas.– Be aware of perceptual distortions.– Be aware of self and impression management.– Be aware of attribution theory implications.Chapter 6 Study Questions_ What is motivation?_What do the content theories suggest aboutindividual needs and motivation?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 153_What do the process theories suggest aboutindividual motivation?_What are reinforcement theories and howare they linked to motivation?Study Question 1:What is motivation?_ Motivation refers to forces within an individualthat account for the level, direction, andpersistence of effort expended at work.– Direction — an individual’s choice when presentedOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 154with a number of possible alternatives.– Level — the amount of effort a person puts forth.– Persistence — the length of time a person stays with agiven action.Study Question 1:What is motivation?_ Categories of motivation theories.– Content theories.• Focus on profiling the needs that people seek tofulfill.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 155– Process theories.• Focus on people’s thought or cognitive processes.– Reinforcement theories.• Emphasize controlling behaviour by manipulatingits consequences.Study Question 2: What do the content theoriessuggest about individual needs and motivation?_ Content theories.

– Motivation results from the individual’s attempts tosatisfy needs._ Major content theories.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 156– Hierarchy of needs theory.– ERG theory.– Acquired needs theory.– Two-factor theory._ Each theory offers a slightly different view.Study Question 2: What do the content theoriessuggest about individual needs and motivation?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 157Study Question 2: What do the content theoriessuggest about individual needs and motivation?_ERG theory.– Existence needs.• Desire for physiological and material well-being.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 158– Relatedness needs.• Desire for satisfying interpersonal relationships.– Growth needs.• Desire for continued personal growth anddevelopment.Study Question 2: What do the content theoriessuggest about individual needs and motivation?_ Acquired needs theory.– Need for achievement (nAch).• The desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solveproblems, or to master complex tasks.Need for affiliation (nAff).Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 159– • The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warmrelations with others.– Need for power (nPower).• The desire to control others, to influence their behaviour, or tobe responsible for others.Study Question 2: What do the content theoriessuggest about individual needs and motivation?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 160Study Question 3: What do the process theoriessuggest about individual motivation?_Process theories.– Focus on the thought processes through whichpeople choose among alternative courses ofaction.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 161_The chapter focuses on two processtheories:– Equity theory.– Expectancy theory.Study Question 3: What do the process theoriessuggest about individual motivation?_ Equity theory.– People gauge the fairness of their work outcomes inrelation to others.– Felt negative inequity.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 162• Individual feels he/she has received relatively lessthan others in proportion to work inputs.– Felt positive inequity.• Individual feels he/she has received relatively morethan others in proportion to work inputs.Study Question 3: What do the process theoriessuggest about individual motivation?_Equity restoration behaviours.– Change work inputs.– Change the outcomes received.Leave the situation.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 163– – Change the comparison person.– Psychologically distort the comparisons.– Take actions to change the inputs or outputs ofthe comparison person.Study Question 3: What do the process theoriessuggest about individual motivation?

_ Coping methods for dealing with equitycomparisons.– Recognize that equity comparisons are inevitable in theworkplace.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 164– Anticipate felt negative inequities when rewards are given.– Communicate clear evaluations for any rewards given.– Communicate an appraisal of performance on which the rewardis based.– Communicate comparison points that are appropriate in thesituationStudy Question 3: What do the process theoriessuggest about individual motivation?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 165Study Question 3: What do the process theoriessuggest about individual motivation?_ A person’s motivation is a multiplicative functionof expectancy, instrumentality, and valence (M =E x I x V).Motivational implications of expectancy theory.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 166_ – Motivation is sharply reduced when, expectancy,instrumentality, or valence approach zero.– Motivation is high when expectancy andinstrumentality are high and valence is stronglypositive.Study Question 3: What do the process theoriessuggest about individual motivation?_Extrinsic rewards.– Positively valued work outcomes given to theindividual by some other person.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 167_Intrinsic rewards.– Positively valued work outcomes that theindividual receives directly as a result of taskperformance.Study Question 3: What do the process theoriessuggest about individual motivation?_Guidelines for the distribution of extrinsicrewards.– Clearly identify the desired behaviours.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 168– Maintain an inventory of rewards that have thepotential to serve as positive reinforcers.– Recognize individual differences in therewards that will have a positive value foreach person.Study Question 3: What do the process theoriessuggest about individual motivation?_ Guidelines for the distribution of extrinsicrewards (cont.).– Let each person know exactly what must be done toreceive a desirable reward; set clear target antecedentsand give performance feedback.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 169– Allocate rewards contingently and immediately uponthe appearance of the desired behaviours.– Allocate rewards wisely in terms of scheduling thedelivery of positive reinforcement.Study Question 4: What are reinforcementtheories and how are they linked to motivation?_Reinforcement.– The administration of a consequence as aresult of a behaviour.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 170– Proper management of reinforcement canchange the direction, level, and persistence ofan individual’s behaviour.Study Question 4: What are reinforcementtheories and how are they linked to motivation?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 171Study Question 4: What are reinforcementtheories and how are they linked to motivation?_Law of effect.– Theoretical basis for manipulating

consequences of behaviour.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 172– Behaviour that results in a pleasant outcome islikely to be repeated while behaviour thatresults in an unpleasant outcome is not likelyto be repeated.Study Question 4: What are reinforcementtheories and how are they linked to motivation?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 173Study Question 4: What are reinforcementtheories and how are they linked to motivation?_Organizational behaviour modification (OBMod).– The systematic reinforcement of desirablework behaviour and the nonreinforcement orOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 174punishment of unwanted work behaviour.– Uses four basic strategies:• Positive reinforcement.• Negative reinforcement.• Punishment.• Extinction.Study Question 4: What are reinforcementtheories and how are they linked to motivation?_Positive reinforcement.– The administration of positive consequencesto increase the likelihood of repeating theOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 175desired behaviour in similar settings.– Rewards are not necessarily positivereinforcers.– A reward is a positive reinforcer only if thebehaviour improves.Study Question 4: What are reinforcementtheories and how are they linked to motivation?_Principles governing reinforcement.– Law of contingent reinforcement.• The reward must be delivered only if the desiredOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 176behaviour is exhibited.– Law of immediate reinforcement.• The reward must be given as soon as possible afterthe desired behaviour is exhibited.Study Question 4: What are reinforcementtheories and how are they linked to motivation?_Scheduling reinforcement.– Continuous reinforcement.• Administers a reward each time the desiredOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 177behaviour occurs.– Intermittent reinforcement.• Rewards behaviour periodically —either onthe basis of time elapsed or the number ofdesired behaviours exhibited.Study Question 4: What are reinforcementtheories and how are they linked to motivation?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 178Study Question 4: What are reinforcementtheories and how are they linked to motivation?_Negative reinforcement.– Also known as avoidance.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 179– The withdrawal of negative consequences toincrease the likelihood of repeating the desiredbehaviour in a similar setting.Study Question 4: What are reinforcementtheories and how are they linked to motivation?_Punishment.– The administration of negative consequencesOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 180or the withdrawal of positive consequences toreduce the likelihood of repeating the behaviourin similar settings.Study Question 4: What are reinforcementtheories and how are they linked to motivation?

_Implications of using punishment.– Punishing poor performance enhancesperformance without affecting satisfaction.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 181– Arbitrary and capricious punishment leads topoor performance and low satisfaction.– Punishment may be offset by positivereinforcement from another source.Study Question 4: What are reinforcementtheories and how are they linked to motivation?_Extinction.– The withdrawal of the reinforcingconsequences for a given behaviour.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 182– The behaviour is not unlearned; it simply is notexhibited.– The behaviour will reappear if it is reinforcedagain.Study Question 4: What are reinforcementtheories and how are they linked to motivation?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 183Study Question 4: What are reinforcementtheories and how are they linked to motivation?_ Ethical issues with reinforcement usage.– Is improved performance really due to reinforcement?– Is the use of reinforcement demeaning anddehumanizing?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 6 184– Will managers abuse their power by exerting externalcontrol over behaviour?– How can we ensure that the manipulation ofconsequences is done in a positive and constructivefashion?Chapter 7 Study Questions_How are motivation, job satisfaction, andperformance related?_What are job-design approaches?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 185_How are technology and job designrelated?_What alternative work arrangements areused today?Study Question 1: How are motivation,job satisfaction, and performance related?_Job satisfaction.– The degree to which individuals feel positivelyor negatively about their jobs.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 186– Job satisfaction can be assessed:• By managerial observation and interpretation.• Through use of job satisfaction questionnaires.Study Question 1: How are motivation,job satisfaction, and performance related?_ Implications of key work decisions for jobsatisfaction.– Joining and remaining a member of an organization.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 187• Satisfied workers have better attendance and less turnover.– Working hard in pursuit of high levels of taskperformance.• Three alternative relationships between performance andsatisfaction.Study Question 1: How are motivation,job satisfaction, and performance related?_Argument: satisfaction causesperformance.– Managerial implication —to increaseOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 188employees’ work performance, make themhappy.– Job satisfaction alone is not a consistentpredictor of work performance.Study Question 1: How are motivation,job satisfaction, and performance related?_Argument: performance causes

satisfaction.– Managerial implication —help people achievehigh performance, then satisfaction willOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 189follow.– Performance in a given time period is relatedto satisfaction in a later time period.– Rewards link performance with latersatisfaction.Study Question 1: How are motivation,job satisfaction, and performance related?_Argument: rewards cause both satisfactionand performance.– Managerial implications.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 190• Proper allocation of rewards can positivelyinfluence both satisfaction and performance.• High job satisfaction and performance-contingentrewards influence a person’s work performance.• Size and value of the reward should vary inproportion to the level of one’s performance.Study Question 1: How are motivation,job satisfaction, and performance related?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 191Study question 2: What are jobdesignapproaches?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 192Study question 2: What are jobdesignapproaches?_Scientific management.– Sought to improve work efficiency by creatingsmall, repetitive tasks and training workers todo these tasks well.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 193– Job simplification.• Standardizes work procedures and employs peoplein clearly defined and highly specialized tasks.• Intent is to increase efficiency, but it may bedecreased due to the motivational impact ofunappealing jobs.Study question 2: What are jobdesignapproaches?_Job enlargement and job rotation.– Job enlargement.• Increases task variety by combining into one jobtwo or more tasks that were previously assigned toOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 194separate workers.– Job rotation.• Increases task variety by periodically shiftingworkers among jobs involving different tasks.– Enlargement and rotation use horizontalloading to increase job breadth.Study question 2: What are jobdesignapproaches?_Job enrichment.– The practice of enhancing job content bybuilding motivating factors such asOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 195responsibility, achievement, recognition, andpersonal growth into the job.– Adds planning and evaluating duties to the jobcontent.– Uses vertical loading to increase job depth.Study question 2: What are jobdesignapproaches?_Ways to increase job depth.– Allow workers to plan.– Allow workers to control.– Maximize job freedom.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 196– Increase task difficulty.– Help workers become task experts.– Provide performance feedback.– Increase performance accountability.

– Provide complete units of work.Study question 2: What are jobdesignapproaches?_Concerns about job enrichment.– Job enrichment can be very costly.– Controversy concerning whether payOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 197must be increased when jobs areenriched.• Herzberg’s argument regarding the impactof competitive pay and enriched jobs.Study question 3: What are the keysto designing motivating jobs?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 198Study question 3: What are the keysto designing motivating jobs?_ Core job characteristics.– Skill variety.• Degree to which a job requires a variety of different activitiesand involves the use of a number of different skills andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 199talents of the individual.– Task identity.• Degree to which the job requires the completion of a “whole”and identifiable piece of work; one that involves doing a jobfrom beginning to end with a visible outcome.Study question 3: What are the keysto designing motivating jobs?_ Core job characteristics (cont.).– Task significance.• Degree to which the job is important and involves ameaningful contribution to the organization or society inOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 200general.– Autonomy.• Degree to which the job gives the employee substantialfreedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling thework and in determining the procedures used in carrying itout.Study question 3: What are the keysto designing motivating jobs?_ Core job characteristics (cont.).– Job feedback.• Degree to which carrying out the work activities providesOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 201direct and clear information to the employee regarding howwell the job has been done. .Study question 3: What are the keysto designing motivating jobs?_Motivating potential score.– Combined together, the core jobcharacteristics create a motivating potentialOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 202score (MPS).– MPS indicates the degree to which the job iscapable of motivating people.– A job’s MPS can be raised by enriching thecore characteristics.Study question 3: What are the keysto designing motivating jobs?_Critical psychological states.– When the core characteristics are highlyenriched, three critical psychological statesare positively influenced.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 203• Experienced meaningfulness of work.• Experienced responsibility for work outcomes.• Knowledge of actual results of work activities.– Positive psychological states create positivework outcomes.Study question 3: What are the keysto designing motivating jobs?_Enriched core job characteristics willcreate positive psychological states, whichin turn will create positive work outcomes

Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 204only when:– Employee growth-need strength is high.– The employee has the requisite knowledge andskill.– Employee context satisfaction exists.Study question 3: What are the keysto designing motivating jobs?_Social information processing theory.– Social information in organizations influencesthe way people perceive their jobs and respondOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 205to them.– Research evidence shows that both socialinformation and the core characteristics areimportant determinants of how peopleperceive their jobs.Study question 3: What are the keysto designing motivating jobs?_Managerial and global implications ofenriching jobs.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 206– Not everyone’s job should be enriched.– Job enrichment can apply to groups.– Culture has a substantial impact on jobenrichment.Study Question 4: How are technologyand job design related?_Sociotechnical systems.– Reflects the importance of integrating peopleand technology to create high-performanceOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 207work systems.– Essential for new developments in job design,given the impact of computers and informationtechnology in the modern workplace.Study Question 4: How are technologyand job design related?_Flexible manufacturing systems.– Adaptive computer-based technologies andintegrated job designs that are used to shiftwork easily and quickly among alternativeOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 208products.– Workers develop expertise across a wide rangeof functions.– Jobs offer a wealth of potential for enrichedcore job characteristics.Study Question 4: How are technologyand job design related?_Workflow and process reengineering.– Process reengineering is the analysis,streamlining, and reconfiguration of actionsOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 209and tasks required to reach a work goal.– This approach for improving workflows andjob designs is driven by one question:• What is necessary and what else can be eliminated?Study Question 5: What alternativework arrangements are used today?_Compressed work weeks.– Any scheduling of work that allows a full-timejob to be completed in fewer than the standardOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 210five days.– “4/40” is most common form.Study Question 5: What alternativework arrangements are used today?_ Compressed work weeks (cont.).– Advantages.• For workers: added time off.• For organizations: lower absenteeism andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 211improved recruiting of new employees.– Disadvantages.

• For workers: increased fatigue and familyadjustment problems.• For organizations: work scheduling problems,customer complaints, and possible unionopposition.Study Question 5: What alternativework arrangements are used today?_ Flexible working hours.– Gives individuals a daily choice in the timing oftheir work commitments.– Advantages:Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 212• For workers: shorter commuting time, more leisuretime, more job satisfaction, and greater sense ofresponsibility.• For organizations: less absenteeism, tardiness, andturnover; more commitment; and higherperformance.Study Question 5: What alternativework arrangements are used today?_Job sharing.– One full-time job is assigned to two or morepersons who divide the work according toOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 213agreed-upon hours.– Advantages.• For workers: less burnout and higher energy level.• For organizations; attracting talented people whowho would otherwise be unable to work.Study Question 5: What alternativework arrangements are used today?_Work at home and the virtual office.– Telecommuting.• Work done at home or in a remote location via useof computers and advanced communicationOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 214linkages with a central office or other employmentlocations.– Variants of telecommuting.• Flexiplace.• Hoteling.• Virtual office.Study Question 5: What alternativework arrangements are used today?_ Advantages of telecommuting.– For workers: flexibility, comforts of home, and choiceof work locations consistent with one’s lifestyle.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 215– For organizations: costs savings, efficiency, andimproved employee satisfaction._ Disadvantages of telecommuting.– For workers: isolation from co-workers, decreasedidentification with work team, and technicaldifficulties with computer linkages.Study Question 5: What alternativework arrangements are used today?_Part-time work.– Temporary part-time work.• An employee is classified as temporary and worksOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 216less than the standard 40-hour work week.– Permanent part-time work.• An employee is classified as a permanent memberof the workforce and works less than the standard40-hour work week.Study Question 5: What alternativework arrangements are used today?_ Advantages of part-time work.– For workers: appeals to people who want tosupplement other jobs or do not want full-time work.– For organizations: lower labor costs, ability to betterOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 7 217accommodate peaks and valleys of business cycle, andbetter management of retention quality._Disadvantages of part-time work.

– For workers: added stress and potentially diminishedperformance if holding two jobs, failure to qualify forbenefits, and lower pay rates than full-timecounterparts.Chapter 8 Study Questions_What is goal setting?_What is performance appraisal?_What are compensation and rewards?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 218_What are human resourcedevelopment and person-job fit?Study Question 1: What is goal setting?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 219Study Question 1: What is goal setting?_Goal setting guidelines.– Difficult goals are more likely to lead tohigher performance than are less difficultones.– Specific goals are more likely to lead to higherOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 220performance than are no goals or vague orgeneral ones.– Task feedback, or knowledge of results, islikely to motivate people toward higherperformance by encouraging the setting ofhigher performance goals.Study Question 1: What is goal setting?_Goal setting guidelines (cont.).– Goals are most likely to lead to higherperformance when the people have theabilities and the feeling of self-efficacyOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 221required to accomplish them.– Goals are most likely to motivate peopletoward higher performance when they areaccepted and there is commitment to them.Study Question 1: What is goal setting?_Goal setting and MBO.– Management by objectives (MBO) is a processof joint goal setting between a supervisor anda subordinate.– MBO is consistent with the goal settingOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 222guidelines derived from the Locke and Lathammodel.– MBO establishes performance goals consistentwith higher level work unit and organizationalobjectives.Study Question 1: What is goal setting?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 223Study Question 1: What is goal setting?_ Potential problems with MBO.– Too much paperwork. in documenting goals andaccomplishments.– Too much emphasis on:Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 224• Goal-oriented rewards and punishments.• Top-down goals.• Goals that are easily stated in objective terms.• Individual goals instead of group goals.– MBO may need to be implemented organization-wide.Study Question 2: What is performanceappraisal?_Performance appraisal.– Helps both the manager and subordinatemaintain the organization-job-employeeOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 225characteristics match– The process of systematically evaluatingperformance and providing feedback uponwhich performance adjustments can be made.Study Question 2: What is performanceappraisal?_Functions of performance appraisal.– Define the specific job criteria against which

performance will be measured.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 226– Measure past job performance accurately.– Justify rewards, thereby differentiatingbetween high and low performance.– Define ratee’s needed developmentexperiences.Study Question 2: What is performanceappraisal?_Two general purposes of goodperformance appraisal.– Evaluation.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 227• Concerned with such issues as promotions,transfers, terminations, and salary increases.– Feedback and development.• Let workers know their status relative to firm’sexpectations and performance objectives.Study Question 2: What is performanceappraisal?_Who does the performance appraisal?– Traditionally done by ratee’s immediatesuperior.People other than immediate superior mayOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 228– have better information on certain aspects ofratee’s performance.– 360-degree evaluation provides appraisalinformation from multiple perspectives.Study Question 2: What is performanceappraisal?_Performance appraisal dimensions andstandards.– Output measures.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 229• Quantity of work output.• Quality of work output.– Activity measures.• Behavioural measures that are typically obtainedfrom the evaluator’s observation and rating.Study Question 2: What is performanceappraisal?_Comparative methods of performanceappraisal.– Ranking.• Raters rank order people from best to worst.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 230– Paired comparisons.• Raters compare each person with every otherperson.– Forced distribution.• Raters place a specific proportion of employeesinto each performance category.Study Question 2: What is performanceappraisal?_ Absolute methods of performance appraisal.– Graphic rating scales.• Raters assign scores on a list of dimensions relatedto high performance outcomes in a given job.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 231– Critical incident diary records.• Rater records incidents of unusual success orfailure in a given performance aspect.– Behaviourally anchored rating scales (BARS).• Rater identifies observable job behaviours.Study Question 2: What is performanceappraisal?_ Absolute methods of performance appraisal(cont.).– Behavioural observation scale (BOS).Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 232• Rater rates each observable job behaviour on a fivepointfrequency scale.– Management by objectives.• Jointly established goals used as standards against

which the subordinate’s performance is evaluated.Study Question 2: What is performanceappraisal?_ To be meaningful, an appraisal system must be:– Reliable — provide consistent results across time.– Valid — actually measure people on relevant jobOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 233content._ Measurement errors can threaten the reliability orvalidity of performance appraisals.Study Question 2: What is performanceappraisal?_ Measurement errors in performance appraisal.– Halo errors.• Raters evaluate on several different dimensions andgive a similar rating for each dimension.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 234– Leniency errors.• Raters tend to give everyone relatively highratings.– Strictness errors.• Raters tend to give everyone relatively low ratings.Study Question 2: What is performanceappraisal?_ Measurement errors in performance appraisal(cont.).– Central tendency errors.• Raters lump everyone together around the averageOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 235or middle.– Low differentiation errors.• Raters restrict themselves to a small part of therating scale.• Examples include leniency, strictness, and centraltendency errors.Study Question 2: What is performanceappraisal?_ Measurement errors in performance appraisal(cont.).– Recency errors.• Raters allow recent events to exercise undueinfluence on ratings.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 236– Personal bias errors.• Raters let personal biases, such as stereotypes,unduly influence the ratings.– Cultural bias errors.• Raters allow cultural differences of employees toinfluence the performance appraisal.Study Question 2: What is performanceappraisal?_ Ways to reduce rating errors in performanceappraisals.– Training raters to understand the evaluation processand recognize errors.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 237– Ensuring that raters observe ratees on an ongoingbasis.– Not having the rater evaluate too many ratees.– Ensuring the clarity and adequacy of performancedimensions and standards.– Avoiding terms that have different meanings fordifferent raters.Study Question 2: What is performanceappraisal?_Guidelines for ensuring the legality ofperformance appraisal systems.– Base appraisal on job requirements asreflected in performance standards.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 238– Ensure that employees clearly understand theperformance standards.– Use clearly defined dimensions.– Use behaviourally-based dimensions supportedby observable evidence.

Study Question 2: What is performanceappraisal?_Guidelines for ensuring the legality ofperformance appraisal systems (cont.).– Avoid abstract trait names.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 239– Ensure that scale anchors are brief andlogically consistent.– Ensure that the system is valid andpsychometrically sound.– Provide an appeal mechanism to handleappraisal disagreements.Study Question 3: What arecompensation and rewards?_Pay as an extrinsic reward.– Pay can help organizations attract and retainhighly capable workers, and help satisfy andmotivate these workers.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 240– High levels of job performance must beviewed as the path through which high pay canbe achieved.– Merit pay bases an individual’s salary or wageincrease on the person’s performance.Study Question 3: What arecompensation and rewards?_Pay as an extrinsic reward (cont.).– Merit pay should be based on realistic andaccurate measures of individual workOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 241performance.– Some people argue that merit pay plans ignorethe high degree of task interdependenceamong employees.Study Question 3: What arecompensation and rewards?_ Creative pay practices.– Skill-based pay.• Rewards people for acquiring and developing jobrelevantskills.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 242relevant – Gain-sharing plans.• Give workers an opportunity to share inproductivity gains through increased earnings.– Profit-sharing plans.• Reward employees based on the entireorganization’s performanceStudy Question 3: What arecompensation and rewards?_ Creative pay practices (cont.).– Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs).• Give company stock to employees or allow them topurchase it at a price below market valueOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 243– Lump-sum pay increases.• Provide wage or salary increase in one or morelump-sum payments.– Flexible benefit plans.• Allow workers to select benefits according to theirindividual needs.Study Question 4: What are humanresource development and person-job fit?_Human resource development (HRD) andthe person-job fit.– HRD and the person-job fit are keycontributing activities in performanceOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 244management and rewards.– Human resource strategic planning providesthe foundation for HRD and the person-job fit.– Staffing, training, and career planning anddevelopment are important functions in HRDand achieving a person-job fit.Study Question 4: What are humanresource development and person-job fit?

_Job analysis.– The process and procedures used to collectand classify information about tasks theOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 245organization needs to complete.– Identifies the worker characteristics needed toperform the job.– Forms the basis for a job description and jobspecifications.Study Question 4: What are humanresource development and person-job fit?_ Recruitment.– The process of attracting the best qualified individualsto apply for a given job.– Typical recruitment steps.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 246• Advertisement of a position vacancy.• Preliminary contact with potential job candidates.• Preliminary screening to obtain a pool of candidates.– Recruitment approaches are external or internal.– Realistic job previews.Study Question 4: What are humanresource development and person-job fit?_Selection.– A series of steps from initial applicantscreening to final hiring of the new employee.– Selection process.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 247• Completing application materials.• Conducting an interview.• Completing any necessary tests.• Doing a background investigation.• Deciding to hire or not to hire.Study Question 4: What are humanresource development and person-job fit?_Socialization.– Process that adapts employees to theorganization’s culture.– Occurs during and after completion of theOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 248staffing process.– Phases of socialization.• Anticipatory socialization.• Encounter.• Change and acquisition.Study Question 4: What are humanresource development and person-job fit?_Training.– A set of activities that provides theopportunity to acquire and improve job-relatedskills.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 249– Types of training.• On-the-job training involves job instruction whileperforming the job in the actual workplace.• Off-the-job training commonly involves lectures,videos, and simulations, and increasingly is donethrough e-training.Study Question 4: What are humanresource development and person-job fit?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 250Study Question 4: What are humanresource development and person-job fit?_ Adult life cycle and career stages.– The different problems and prospects of the adult lifecycle affect people’s work and careers.– Career stages reflect the different responsibilities andachievements associated with people’s working lives.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 8 251– Life cycle and career stages.• Entry and establishment or the provisionaladulthood stage.• Advancement or the first adulthood stage.• Maintenance, withdrawal, and retirement or thesecond adulthood stage.

.Chapter 9 Study Questions_What is the nature of groups inorganizations?_What are the stages of group development?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 252_What are the foundations of groupperformance?_How do groups make decisions?Study Question 1: What is the natureof groups in organizations?_A group is a collection of two or morepeople who work with one anotherregularly to achieve common goals.In a true group, members are mutuallyOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 253_dependent on one another and interact withone another._Hot groups thrive in conditions of crisisand competition.Study Question 1: What is the natureof groups in organizations?_ Effective groups achieve high levels of:– Task performance.• Members attain performance goals regarding quantity,quality, and timeliness of work results.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 254– Members satisfaction.• Members believe that their participation and experiences arepositive and meet important personal needs.– Team viability.• Members are sufficiently satisfied to continue workingtogether on an ongoing basis.Study Question 1: What is the natureof groups in organizations?_How groups help organizations– Groups are good for people.– Groups can improve creativity.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 255– Groups can make better decisions.– Groups can increase commitments to action.– Groups help control their members.– Groups help offset large organization size.Study Question 1: What is the natureof groups in organizations?_Situations in which groups are superior toindividuals.– When there is no clear expert in a particularOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 256problem or task.– When problem solving can be handled by adivision of labor and the sharing ofinformation.– When creativity and innovation are needed.Study Question 1: What is the natureof groups in organizations?_ Potential benefits for group members.– People learn from each other and share job skills andknowledge.– Groups are important sources of need satisfaction forOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 257their members.– Members can provide emotional support for eachother in times of crisis or pressure.– Members’ contributions can help them experienceself-esteem and personal involvement.Study Question 1: What is the natureof groups in organizations?_Social loafing.– The tendency of people to work less hard in agroup than they would individually.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 258– Reasons for social loafing.• Individual contributions are less noticeable in thegroup context.

• Some individuals prefer to see others carry theworkload.Study Question 1: What is the natureof groups in organizations?_Ways of preventing social loafing.– Define member roles and tasks to maximizeindividual interests.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 259– Raise accountability by identifyingindividuals’ performance contributions to thegroup.– Link individual rewards to performancecontributions to the group.Study Question 1: What is the natureof groups in organizations?_Social facilitation.– The tendency for a person’s behaviour to beinfluenced by the presence of others.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 260– Positively affects performance when a personis proficient on the task.– Negatively affects task performance when thetask is not well-learned.Study Question 1: What is the natureof groups in organizations?_Formal groups.– Officially designated to serve a specificorganizational purpose.– The head of a formal group is responsible forOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 261the group’s performance and serves a “linkingpin”role.– May be permanent or temporary.• Permanent work groups are commandgroups.• Temporary work groups are task groups.Study Question 1: What is the natureof groups in organizations?_Types of formal groups.– Cross-functional teams or task forces.• Engage in special problem-solving effortsdrawing on input of the functional areas.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 262– Project teams.• Formed to complete a specific task with awell-defined end point.– Virtual group.• Members work together via computers.Study Question 1: What is the natureof groups in organizations?_Informal groups.– Emerge without being officially designated bythe organization.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 263– Types of informal groups.• Friendship groups.• Interest groups.Study Question 1: What is the natureof groups in organizations?_Effects of informal groups.– Can help people get their jobs done.– Can speed up workflow by supplementingOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 264formal lines of authority.– Can satisfy needs that are thwarted or unmetby the formal group.– Can provide members with social satisfaction,security, and a sense of belonging.Study Question 2: What are thestages of group development?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 265Study Question 2: What are thestages of group development?_Forming stage.– Initial entry of members to a group.

– Member challenges.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 266• Getting to know each other.• Discovering what is considered acceptablebehaviour.• Determining the group’s real task.• Defining group rules.Study Question 2: What are thestages of group development?_Storming stage.– A period of high emotionality and tensionamong group members.– Member challenges.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 267• Hostility and infighting.• Formation of coalitions and cliques.• Clarification of members’ expectations.• Giving attention to obstacles to group goals.• Understanding one another’s interpersonal styles.• Finding ways to accomplish group goals whilesatisfying individual needs.Study Question 2: What are thestages of group development?_Norming stage.– The point at which the group really begins tocome together as a coordinated unit.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 268– Member challenges.• Holding group together by maintaining a positivebalance.• Letting the desire for group harmony obscuregroup problems.• Being mistaken about reaching ultimate maturity .Study Question 2: What are thestages of group development?_Performing stage.– Marks the emergence of a mature, organized,and well-functioning group.– Member challenges.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 269• Meeting complex tasks and conflicts in creativeways.• Being motivated by group goals and achievingsatisfaction.• Continuing to improve relationships andperformance.• Adapting to changing opportunities and demands.Study Question 2: What are thestages of group development?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 270Study Question 2: What are thestages of group development?_Adjourning stage.– A well-integrated group is:Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 271• Able to disband when its work is finished.• Willing to work together in the future.– Particularly important for temporary groups.Study Question 3: What are thefoundations of group performance?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 272Study Question 3: What are thefoundations of group performance?_Tasks.– Technical demands of a task.• Routineness, difficulty, and informationOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 273requirements.– Tasks that are complex in technical demandsrequire unique solutions and more informationprocessing.Study Question 3: What are thefoundations of group performance?_Tasks (cont.).– Social demands of a task.

• Relations, ego involvement, and controversies overOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 274ends and means.– Tasks that are complex in social demandsinvolve difficulties in reaching agreement ongoals or methods for accomplishing them.Study Question 3: What are thefoundations of group performance?_ Goals, rewards, and resources.– Long-term performance relies on:• Appropriate goals.• Well-designed reward systems.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 275• Adequate resources.– A group’s performance can suffer when:• Goals are unclear, unchallenging, or arbitrarily imposed.• Goals are focused too much on individuals.• Adequate budgets, facilities, good work methods andprocedures, and the best technologies are not available.Study Question 3: What are thefoundations of group performance?_Technology.– Provides the means to get work accomplished.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 276– The right technology must be available for thetask at hand.– Workflow technology can affect the waygroup members interact.Study Question 3: What are thefoundations of group performance?_Membership characteristics.– A group must have the right skills andcompetencies available for task performanceand problem solving.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 277• Homogeneous groups may not perform well if theylack the requisite experiences, skills, andcompetencies.• Heterogeneous groups may perform well if theyeffectively utilize a variety of experiences, skills,and competencies.Study Question 3: What are thefoundations of group performance?_Membership characteristics (cont.).– Diversity-consensus dilemma.• Increasing diversity among group members makesOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 278it harder for group members to work together, eventhough the diversity itself expands the skills andperspectives available for problem solving.Study Question 3: What are thefoundations of group performance?_Membership characteristics (cont.).– FIRO-B theory.• Identifies individual differences in how peoplerelate to one another in groups.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 279• Based on needs to express and receive feelings ofinclusion, control, and affection.• Groups whose members have compatiblecharacteristics are likely to be more effective.• Groups whose members have incompatiblecharacteristics are likely to be less effective.Study Question 3: What are thefoundations of group performance?_Membership characteristics (cont.).– Status.• A person’s relative rank, prestige, or standing in agroup.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 280– Status congruence.• Occurs when a person’s position within the groupis equivalent in status to positions held outside thegroup.• When status incongruence is present, problems will

likely occur.Study Question 3: What are thefoundations of group performance?_Group size.– Can make a difference in a group’seffectiveness.– As group size increases, performance andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 281member satisfaction increase up to a point.– As a group size continues to grow,communication and coordination problemsoften set in, and performance and satisfactionmay decline.– Problem-solving groups should have 5 to 7members.Study Question 3: What are thefoundations of group performance?_Group dynamics concern the forcesoperating within groups that affect the waymembers relate to and work with oneOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 282another._From a systems perspective, thethroughputs for a group or team are groupdynamics.Study Question 3: What are thefoundations of group performance?_What goes on within groups.– Work group behaviours.Required behaviours —those that are formallyOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 283• defined and expected by the organization.• Emergent behaviours — those that group membersdisplay in addition to what the organization asks ofthem.Study Question 3: What are thefoundations of group performance?_What goes on within groups.– Member relationships.• Activities — the things people do or the actionsOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 284they take.• Interactions — interpersonal communications andcontacts.• Sentiments — the feelings, attitudes, beliefs, orvalues held by group members.Study Question 3: What are thefoundations of group performance?_What goes on between groups.– Intergroup dynamics.• The dynamics that take place between two or moregroups.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 285– Ways to achieve positive intergroup dynamics.• Refocusing members on a common enemy or goal.• Negotiating directly.• Training members to work more cooperatively.• Refocusing rewards on contributions to the totalorganization and how much groups help eachother.Study Question 3: What are the foundations ofgroup performance?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 286Study Question 4: How do groupsmake decisions?_ How groups make decisions.– Decision by lack of response.• One idea after another is suggested without any discussiontakingplace; when the group finally accepts the idea, allothers have been bypassed and discarded by simple lack ofOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 287response rather than by critical evaluation.– Decision by authority rule.• The chairperson, manager, or leader makes a decision for thegroup.

– Decision by minority rule.• Two or three people are able to dominate or “railroad” thegroup into making a decision to which they agree.Study Question 4: How do groupsmake decisions?_ How groups make decisions (cont.).– Decision by majority rule.• Formal voting may take place, or members may be polled tofind the majority viewpoint.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 288– Decision by consensus.• Discussion leads to one alternative being favored by mostmembers and the other members agree to support it.– Decision by unanimity.• All group members agree totally on the course of action to betaken.Study Question 4: How do groupsmake decisions?_Potential advantages of group decisionmaking.– More knowledge and expertise is applied tosolve the problem.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 289– A greater number of alternatives areexamined.– The final decision is better understood andaccepted by all group members.– More commitment among all group membersto make the final decision work.Study Question 4: How do groupsmake decisions?_Potential disadvantages of group decisionmaking.– Individuals may feel compelled to conform toOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 290the apparent wishes of the group.– The group’s decision may be dominated byone individual or a small coalition.– Group decisions usually take longer to make.Study Question 4: How do groupsmake decisions?_Ways to avoid groupthink.– Assign the role of critical evaluator to eachgroup member.– Have the leader avoid seeming partial to oneOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 291course of action.– Create subgroups that each work on the sameproblem.– Have group members discuss issues withoutsiders and report back.Study Question 4: How do groupsmake decisions?_Ways to avoid groupthink (cont.).– Invite outside experts to observe and react togroup processes.– Assign someone to be a “devil’s advocate” atOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 292each meeting.– Write alternative scenarios for the intentionsof competing groups.– Hold “second-chance” meetings afterconsensus is apparently achieved.Study Question 4: How do groupsmake decisions?_How to improve group decisions.– Brainstorming.• Group members actively generate as many ideasand alternatives as possible, and they do soOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 293relatively quickly and without inhibitions.– Nominal group technique.• Puts people in small groups of six to sevenmembers and asks everyone to respondindividually and in writing to a “nominal”

question.Study Question 4: How do groupsmake decisions?_How to improve group decisions (cont.).– Delphi technique.• Involves generating decision-making alternativesOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 9 294through a series of survey questionnaires.– Computer-mediated decision making.• Group decision making takes place across greatdistances with the aid of group decision supportsystems.Chapter 10 Study Questions_ What is a the nature of teams andteamwork?_What is team building?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 295_How does team building improveperformance?_How do teams contribute to the highperformanceworkplace?Study Question 1: What is the natureof team and teamwork?_A team is a small group of people withcomplementary skills, who work activelytogether to achieve a common purpose forOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 296which they hold themselves collectivelyaccountable._Teams are one of the major forces behindrevolutionary changes in contemporaryorganizations.Study Question 1: What is the natureof team and teamwork?_Types of teams.– Teams that recommend things.• Established to study specific problems andrecommend solutions to them.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 297– Teams that run things.• Have formal responsibility for leading othergroups.– Teams that make or do things.• Functional groups that perform ongoing tasks.Study Question 1: What is the natureof team and teamwork?_Teamwork occurs when group membersactively work together in such a way thatOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 298all their respective skills are well utilizedto achieve a common purpose.Study Question 1: What is the natureof team and teamwork?_Characteristics of high performance teams.– They have strong core values.– They turn a general sense of purpose intoOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 299specific performance objectives.– They have the right mix of skills.– They possess creativity.Study Question 1: What is the natureof team and teamwork?_ Characteristics of teams with homogeneousmembership.– Members are similar with respect to such variables asOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 300age, gender, race, experience, ethnicity, and culture.– Members can quickly build social relations andengage in the interactions needed for teamwork.– Homogeneity may limit the team in terms of ideas,viewpoints, and creativity.Study Question 1: What is the natureof team and teamwork?_ Characteristics of teams with heterogeneousmembership.

– Members are diverse in demography, experiences, lifeOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 301styles, and cultures, among other variables.– Diversity can help improve team problem solving andincrease creativity.– Diversity among team members may createperformance difficulties early in the team’s life orstage of development.Study Question 1: What is the natureof team and teamwork?_ Characteristics of teams with heterogeneousmembership (cont.).– Enhanced performance potential is possible onceOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 302short-run struggles are resolved.– Diversity can provide great advantages for highperformanceorganizations.Study Question 2: What is teambuilding?_ Work groups and teams must master challengesas they pass through the various stages of groupdevelopment.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 303_ Team building is a sequence of planned activitiesdesigned to gather and analyze data on thefunctioning of a group and to initiate changesdesigned to improve teamwork and increasegroup effectiveness.Study Question 2: What is teambuilding?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 304Study Question 2: What is teambuilding?_Approaches to team building.– Formal retreat approach.• Team building occurs during an offsite retreat.Continuous improvement approach.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 305– • The manager, team leader, or members takeresponsibility for ongoing team building.– Outdoor experience approach.• Members engage in physically challengingsituations that require teamwork.Study Question 3: How does teambuilding improve performance?_New members are concerned aboutissues of:– Participation.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 306– Goals.– Control.– Relationships.Study Question 3: How does teambuilding improve performance?_Behaviour profiles of coping withindividual entry problems.– Tough battler.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 307– Friendly helper.– Objective thinker.Study Question 3: How does teambuilding improve performance?_ Task and maintenance leadership.– Sustained high performance requires meeting bothtask needs and maintenance needs.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 308– High-performance teams require distributedleadership.– Distributive leadership is the sharing among teammembers of the responsibilities for task andmaintenance contributions.Study Question 3: How does teambuilding improve performance?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 309Study Question 3: How does team

building improve performance?_ Groups members should avoid the followingdisruptive behaviours:– Being overly aggressive toward other members.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 310– Withdrawing and refusing to cooperate with others.– Horsing around when there is work to be done.– Using the group as a forum for self-confession.– Talking too much about irrelevant matters.– Trying to compete for attention and recognition.Study Question 3: How does teambuilding improve performance?_Roles and role dynamics.– A role is a set of expectations associated witha job or position on a team.– Role ambiguity — occurs when a person isOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 311uncertain about his/her role.– Role overload — occurs when too much isexpected and the person feels overwhelmedwith work.– Role underload —occurs when too little isexpected and the person feels underutilized.Study Question 3: How does teambuilding improve performance?_Roles and role dynamics (cont.).– Role conflict —occurs when a person isunable to meet conflicting expectations.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 312– Forms of role conflict.• Intrasender role conflict.• Intersender role conflict.• Person-role conflict.• Interrole conflict.Study Question 3: How does teambuilding improve performance?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 313Study Question 3: How does teambuilding improve performance?_Norms represent beliefs about how groupor team members are expected to behave._Norms are rules or standards of conduct.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 314_Managers and leaders should help theirgroups adopt positive norms that supportorganizational goals.Study Question 3: How does teambuilding improve performance?_Key norms that can have positive ornegative implications.– Performance norms.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 315– Ethics norms.– Organizational and personal pride norms.– High-achievement norms.– Support and helpfulness norms.– Improvement and change norms.Study Question 3: How does teambuilding improve performance?_ Cohesiveness is the degree to which members areattached to and motivated to remain a part of theteam_ High team cohesiveness occurs when:Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 316– Members are similar in age, attitudes, needs, and backgrounds.– Group size is small.– Members respect each others’ competencies.– Members agree on common goals.– Members work on interdependent tasks.– Groups are physically isolated from others.– Groups experience performance success or crisis.Study Question 3: How does teambuilding improve performance?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 317Study Question 3: How does team

building improve performance?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 318Study Question 4: How do teams contribute tothe high-performance workplace?_Problem-solving teams.– Employee involvements teams include a widevariety of teams whose members meetregularly to collectively examine importantOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 319workplace issues.– Quality circle.• A special type of employee involvement team.• Team meets periodically to address problemsrelating to quality, productivity, or cost.Study Question 4: How do teams contribute tothe high-performance workplace?_Cross-functional teams.– Consist of members representing differentfunctional departments or work units.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 320– Used to overcome functional silos problem.– Used to solve problems with a positivecombination of functional expertise andintegrative systems thinking.Study Question 4: How do teams contribute tothe high-performance workplace?_Advantages of virtual teams.– Cost-effectiveness and speed where membersare unable to meet easily face-to-face.– Computer power fulfills typical team needs forOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 321information processing and decision making.– Communication is possible among peopleseparated by great distances.– Interaction and decision making are focusedon facts and objective information rather thanemotional considerations.– .Study Question 4: How do teams contribute tothe high-performance workplace?_Disadvantages of virtual teams.– The lack of personal contact between teamOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 322members.– Group decisions are made in a limited socialcontext.Study Question 4: How do teams contribute tothe high-performance workplace?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 323Study Question 4: How do teams contribute tothe high-performance workplace?_Advantages of self-managing teams.– Productivity and quality improvements.– Production flexibility and faster response toOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 324technological change.– Reduced absenteeism and turnover.– Improved work attitudes and quality of worklife.Study Question 4: How do teams contribute tothe high-performance workplace?_ Disadvantages of self-managing teams.– Structural changes in job classifications andmanagement levels eliminate the need for first-lineOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 10 325supervisors.– Managers must learn to deal with teams rather thanindividuals.– Supervisors who are displaced by self-managingteams may feel threatened.Chapter 11 Study Questions_What is leadership and how does it differfrom management?_What are situational contingencyapproaches to leadership ?

Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 326_What are attributional approaches toleadership?_What are some emerging leadershipperspectives and why are they especiallyimportant in today’s organizations?Study Question 1: What is leadership andhow does it differ from management?_ Management promotes stability or enables theorganization to run smoothly._ Leadership promotes adaptive or useful changes.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 327_ Persons in managerial positions may be involvedwith both management and leadership._ Both management and leadership are needed fororganizational success.Study Question 1: What is leadership andhow does it differ from management?_Leadership is a special case ofinterpersonal influence that gets anindividual or group to do what the leader orOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 328manager wants done._Forms of leadership.– Formal leadership.– Informal leadership.Study Question 1: What is leadership andhow does it differ from management?_Approaches to leadership.– Trait and behavioural perspectives.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 329– Situational contingency perspectives.– Attributional perspectives.– New leadership perspectives.Study Question 1: What is leadership andhow does it differ from management?_Trait theories.– Assume that traits play a key role in:• Differentiating between leaders and nonleaders.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 330• Predicting leader or organizational outcomes.– Great person-trait approach.• Earliest approach in studying leadership.• Tried to determine the traits that characterizedgreat leaders.Study Question 1: What is leadership andhow does it differ from management?Pick up Figure 11.1 from the textbook.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 331Study Question 1: What is leadership andhow does it differ from management?_Behavioural theories.– Assume that leader behaviours are crucial forexplaining performance and otherorganizational outcomes.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 332– Focus on leader behaviours rather than traits.– Major behavioural theories.• Michigan leadership studies.• Ohio State leadership studies.• Leadership Grid.• Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory.Study Question 1: What is leadership andhow does it differ from management?_Michigan leadership studies.– Employee-centered supervisors.• Place strong emphasis on subordinate’s welfare.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 333– Production-centered supervisors.• Place strong emphasis on getting the work done.– Employee-centered supervisors have moreproductive work groups than productioncenteredsupervisors.Study Question 1: What is leadership andhow does it differ from management?

_Ohio State leadership studies.– Consideration.• Concerned with people’s feelings and makingthings pleasant for the followers.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 334– Initiating structure.• Concerned with defining task requirements andother aspects of the work agenda.– Effective leaders should be high on bothconsideration and initiating structure.Study Question 1: What is leadership andhow does it differ from management?_Leadership Grid.– Developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton.– Built on dual emphasis of consideration andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 335initiating structure.– A 9 x 9 Grid (matrix) reflecting levels ofconcern for people and concern for task.• 1 reflects minimum concern.• 9 reflects maximum concern.Study Question 1: What is leadership andhow does it differ from management?_Leadership Grid (cont.).– Five key Grid combinations.• 1/1 — low concern for production, low concern forpeople.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 336• 1/9 — low concern for production, high concernfor people.• 9/1 — high concern for production, low concernfor people.• 5/5 — moderate concern for production, moderateconcern for people.• 9/9 — high concern for production, high concernfor people.Study Question 1: What is leadership andhow does it differ from management?_Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory.– Focuses on the quality of the workingrelationship between leaders and followers.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 337– LMX dimensions determine followers’membership in leader’s “in group” or “outgroup.”– Different relationships with “in group” and“out group.”Study Question 2: What are situationalcontingency approaches to leadership?_ Leader traits and behaviours can act in conjunctionwith situational contingencies._ The effects of leader traits are enhanced by theirrelevance to situational contingencies.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 338_ Major situational contingency theories.– Fiedler’s leadership contingency theory.– Fiedler’s cognitive resource theory.– House’s path-goal theory of leadership.– Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership model.Study Question 2: What are the situationalcontingency approaches to leadership?_Key variables in Fiedler’s contingencymodel.– Situational control.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 339• The extent to which a leader can determine whathis or her group is going to do as well as theoutcomes of the group’s actions and decisions.• Is a function of:– Leader-member relations.– Task structure.– Position power.Study Question 2: What are situationalcontingency approaches to leadership?_Key variables in Fiedler’s contingency

model (cont.).– Least preferred co-worker (LPC) score reflectsOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 340a person’s leadership style.• High-LPC leaders have a relationship-motivatedstyle.• Low-LPC leaders have a task-motivated style.Study Question 2: What are situationalcontingency approaches to leadership?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 341Study Question 2: What are situationalcontingency approaches to leadership?_Fiedler’s cognitive resource theory.– A leader’s use of directive or nondirectivebehaviour depends on:• The leader’s or subordinate group members’ abilityor competency.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 342• Stress.• Experience.• Group support of the leader.– Leader directiveness is most helpful forperformance when the leader is competent,relaxed, and supported.Study Question 2: What are situationalcontingency approaches to leadership?_House’s path-goal theory of leadership.– Rooted in the expectancy model of motivation.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 343– Emphasizes how a leader influencessubordinates’ perceptions of both work goalsand personal goals and the links, or paths,found between these two sets of goals.Study Question 2: What are situationalcontingency approaches to leadership?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 344Study Question 2: What are situationalcontingency approaches to leadership?_Path-goal theory predictions.– Directive leadership will have a positiveimpact on subordinates when tasks areambiguous and the opposite effect when tasksOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 345are clear.– Supportive leadership will increase thesatisfaction of subordinates who work on tasksthat are highly repetitive, unpleasant, stressful,or frustrating.Study Question 2: What are situationalcontingency approaches to leadership?_Path-goal theory predictions (cont.).– Achievement-oriented leadership willencourage subordinates to strive for higherperformance standards and to have moreOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 346confidence in their ability to meet challenginggoals when subordinates are working atambiguous, nonrepetitive tasks.– Participative leadership will promotesatisfaction on nonrepetitive tasks that allowfor the ego involvement of subordinates.Study Question 2: What are situationalcontingency approaches to leadership?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 347Study Question 2: What are situationalcontingency approaches to leadership?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 348Study Question 3: What are attributionalapproaches to leadership?_ Attribution theory provides a competingperspective to the traditional leadership theoryassumption that leadership and its substantiveOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 349effects can be identified and measuredobjectively.

_ Attribution theory suggests that leadership isinfluenced by attempts to understand causes ofand assess responsibilities for behaviour.Study Question 3: What are attributionalapproaches to leadership?_Leadership prototypes.– People’s mental image of what a model leadershould look like.– Mix of specific and general characteristics.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 350– Prototypes may differ by country and nationalculture.– The closer that a leader’s behaviour matches theprototype held by the followers, the morefavorable the leader’s relations and keyoutcomes.Study Question 3: What are attributionalapproaches to leadership?_Exaggeration of the leadership difference.– Top leaders of organizations have little impacton profits and effectiveness compared toOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 351environmental and industry forces.– Much of the impact of top leaders is symbolic.– The romance of leadership refers to peopleattributing romantic, almost magical, qualitiesto leadership.Study Question 4: What are some emergingleadership perspectives and why are theyespecially important in today’s organizations?_Charismatic approaches to leadership.– Charismatic leaders, by force of their personalabilities, can have a profound andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 352extraordinary effect on followers.– Characteristics of charismatic leaders include:• High need for power.• High feelings of self-efficacy.• Conviction in the moral rightness of their beliefs.Study Question 4: What are some emergingleadership perspectives and why are theyespecially important in today’s organizations?_Dark side versus bright side of charismaticleadership.– Dark side.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 353• Emphasizes personalized power.• Leaders focus on themselves.– Bright side.• Emphasizes socialized power.• Leaders empower followers.Study Question 4: What are some emergingleadership perspectives and why are theyespecially important in today’s organizations?_ Conger and Kanungo’s three-stage charismaticleadership model.Stage 1: the leader critically evaluates the status quo.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 354– – Stage 2: the leader formulates and articulates futuregoals and a idealized future vision.– Stage 3: the leader shows how the goals and visioncan be achieved.Study Question 4: What are some emergingleadership perspectives and why are theyespecially important in today’s organizations?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 355Study Question 4: What are some emergingleadership perspectives and why are theyespecially important in today’s organizations?_Transactional leadership.– Involves leader-follower exchanges necessaryfor achieving routine performance that isagreed upon by leaders and followers.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 356– Leader-follower exchanges involve:

• Use of contingent rewards.• Active management by exception.• Passive management by exception.• Abdicating responsibilities and avoiding decisions.Study Question 4: What are some emergingleadership perspectives and why are theyespecially important in today’s organizations?_Transformational leadership.– Leaders broaden and elevate followers’interests, generate awareness and acceptanceof the group’s mission, and stir followers toOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 357look beyond self-interests.– Dimensions of transformational leadership.• Charisma.• Inspiration.• Intellectual stimulation.• Individualized consideration.Study Question 4: What are some emergingleadership perspectives and why are theyespecially important in today’s organizations?_ Leadership in self-managing work teams.– Leaders provide resources or act as liaisons with otherunits but without the trappings of authority associatedwith traditional first-line supervisors.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 358– Conditions for creating and maintaining teamperformance.• Efficient, goal-directed effort.• Adequate resources.• Competent, motivated performance.• A productive, supportive climate.• Commitment to continuous improvement and adaptation.Study Question 4: What are some emergingleadership perspectives and why are theyespecially important in today’s organizations?_Can people be trained in the newleadership?– People can be trained to adopt new leadershipOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 359approaches.– Leaders can devise improvement programs toaddress their weaknesses and work withtrainers to develop their leadership skills.– Leaders can be trained in charismatic skills.Study Question 4: What are some emergingleadership perspectives and why are theyespecially important in today’s organizations?_Is new leadership always good?– Not always good.– Dark-side charismatics can have negativeeffects on followers.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 11 360– Not always needed.– Needs to be used in conjunction withtraditional leadership.– Applies at all levels of organizationalleadership.Chapter 12 Study Questions_What are power and influence in anorganization?_How are power, obedience, and formalOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 361authority intertwined in an organization?_What is empowerment?_What is organizational politics?Study Question 1: What are powerand influence in an organization?_Power.– The ability to get someone to do somethingyou want done.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 362– The ability to make things happen in the wayyou want._Influence.

– Expressed by others’ behavioural response toyour exercise of power.Study Question 1: What are powerand influence in an organization?_ Position power derives from a person’s positionin the organizational hierarchy._ Types of position power.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 363– Reward power.– Coercive power.– Legitimate power.– Process power.– Information power.– Representative power.Study Question 1: What are powerand influence in an organization?_ Reward power.– The extent to which a manager can use extrinsic andintrinsic rewards to control other people.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 364_ Coercive power.– The extent to which a manager can deny desiredrewards and administer punishment to control otherpeople.Study Question 1: What are powerand influence in an organization?_ Legitimate power.– The extent to which a manager can use subordinates’internalized values or beliefs that the boss has theOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 365“right of command” to control other people._ Process power.– The control over methods of production and analysisthat a manager has due to being in a position toinfluence how inputs are transformed into outputs.Study Question 1: What are powerand influence in an organization?_ Information power.– The access to and/or control of information. ._ Representative power.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 366– The formal right conferred by the firm to speak for apotentially important group composed of individualsacross departments or outside the firm.Study Question 1: What are powerand influence in an organization?_Personal power derives from individualsources.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 367_Types of personal power.– Expert power.– Rational persuasion.– Referent power.Study Question 1: What are powerand influence in an organization?_ Expert power.– The ability to control another person’s behaviourthrough the possession of knowledge, experience, orjudgment that the other person does not have butOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 368needs._ Rational persuasion.– The ability to control another person’s behaviour byconvincing the other person of the desirability of agoal and a reasonable way of achieving it.Study Question 1: What are powerand influence in an organization?_ Referent power.– The ability to control another’s behaviour because theperson wants to identify with the power source.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 369Study Question 1: What are powerand influence in an organization?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 370Study Question 1: What are power

and influence in an organization?_Ways to build position power.– Demonstrating work unit relevance toorganizational goals and needs.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 371– Increasing task relevance of one’s ownactivities and work unit’s activities.– Attempting to define tasks so they are difficultto evaluate.Study Question 1: What are powerand influence in an organization?_Ways to build personal power.– Building expertise.• Advanced training and education, participation inprofessional associations, and project involvement.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 372– Learning political savvy.• Learning ways to negotiate, persuade, andunderstand goals and means that others accept.– Enhancing likeability.• Pleasant personality characteristics, agreeablebehaviour patterns, and attractive personalappearance.Study Question 1: What are powerand influence in an organization?_Ways that managers increase the visibilityof their job performance.– Expanding contacts with senior people.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 373– Making oral presentations of written work.– Participating in problem-solving task forces.– Sending out notices of accomplishment.– Seeking opportunities to increase namerecognition.Study Question 1: What are powerand influence in an organization?_Controlling decision premises.– Executives attempt to control, or at leastinfluence, decision premises.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 374– A decision premise is a basis for defining theproblem and for selecting among alternatives.– Executives who want to increase their powerwill make their goals and needs clear andbargain effectively.Study Question 1: What are powerand influence in an organization?_Common techniques for exercisingrelational influence.– Reason.– Friendliness.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 375– Coalition.– Bargaining.– Assertiveness.– Higher authority.– Sanctions.Study Question 2: How are power, obedience,and formal authority intertwined in anorganization?_Important practical issues in the exerciseof power and formal authority.– Why should subordinates respond to aOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 376manager’s authority (or “right tocommand”)?– Given that subordinates are willing to obey,what determines the limits of obedience?Study Question 2: How are power, obedience,and formal authority intertwined in anorganization?_ The Milgram experiments.– Designed to determine the extent to which peopleobey the commands of an authority figure, even ifthey believe they are endangering the life of another

Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 377person.– The results indicated that the majority of theexperimental subjects would obey the commands ofthe authority figure.– Basic conclusion was that people tend to comply withand be obedient to authority.Study Question 2: How are power, obedience,and formal authority intertwined in anorganization?_ For a directive from a superior to beaccepted as authoritative, the subordinate:– Can and must understand it.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 378– Must feel mentally and physically capable ofcarrying it out.– Must believe that it is consistent with theorganization’s purpose.– Must believe that it is consistent with his orher personal interests.Study Question 2: How are power, obedience,and formal authority intertwined in anorganization?_Zone of indifference.– In exchange for certain inducements,subordinates recognize the authority of theorganization and its managers to direct theirOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 379behaviour in certain ways.– A zone of indifference is the range ofauthoritative requests to which a subordinate iswilling to respond without subjecting thedirectives to critical evaluation or judgment.Study Question 2: How are power, obedience,and formal authority intertwined in anorganization?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 380Study Question 3: What is empowerment?_Empowerment.– The process by which managers help others toacquire and use the power needed to makedecisions affecting themselves and their work.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 381– Provides the foundation for self-managingwork teams and other employee involvementgroups.– Empowerment emphasizes the ability to makethings happen.Study Question 3: What is empowerment?_Changing position power.– Moving power down the hierarchy alters theexisting pattern of position power.– Changing this pattern raises the followingOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 382important questions:• Can “empowered” individuals give rewards andsanctions based on task accomplishment?• Has their new right to act been legitimized withformal authority?Study Question 3: What is empowerment?_Expanding the zone of indifference.– Management needs to recognize the currentzone of indifference and systematically moveOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 383to expand it.– Management should show how empowermentwill benefit people and provide the neededinducement.– .Study Question 3: What is empowerment?_Power as an expanding pie.– Employees need to be trained to expand theirpower and their new influence potential.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 384– The key is to change from a view stressing

power over others to one emphasizing the useof power to get things done.Study Question 3: What is empowerment?_Power as an expanding pie.– Clearer definition of roles and responsibilitieshelps managers empower others.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 385– All mangers need to emphasize different waysof exercising influence.– Special support may be needed for individualsto become comfortable.Study Question 4: What is organizationalpolitics?_Machiavellian tradition of organizationalpolitics.– Emphasizes self-interest and the use ofnonsanctioned means.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 386– Organizational politics is defined as themanagement of influence to obtain ends notsanctioned by the organization or to obtainsanctioned ends through nonsanctionedinfluence means.Study Question 4: What is organizationalpolitics?_Alternate tradition of organizationalpolitics.– Politics is a necessary function resulting fromdifferences in the self-interests of individuals.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 387– Politics is the art of creative compromiseamong competing interests.– Politics is the use of power to develop sociallyacceptable ends and means that balanceindividual and collective interests.Study Question 4: What is organizationalpolitics?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 388Study Question 4: What is organizationalpolitics?_Subunit power.– Line units are typically more powerful thanare staff groups.– Units toward the top of the organizationalOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 389hierarchy are often more powerful than thosetoward the bottom.– Power differentials are not as pronouncedamong units at or near the same level in anorganization.Study Question 4: What is organizationalpolitics?_Political actions for influencing lateral,intergroup relationships.– Workflow linkages.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 390– Service linkages.– Advisory linkages.– Auditing linkages.– Approval linkages.Study Question 4: What is organizationalpolitics?_ Important aspects of corporate political strategy.– Absence of a political strategy can be damaging.– Corporate political strategy should be targeted towardOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 391turning the government from a regulator againstindustry to a protector of it.– Need to make decisions about when and how to getinvolved in the public policy processes.Study Question 4: What is organizationalpolitics?_ Avoidance is quite common where the employeemust risk being wrong or where actions mayyield a sanction.

Common techniques for avoiding action and riskOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 392_ taking.– Working to the rules.– Playing dumb.– Depersonalization.– Stalling.Study Question 4: What is organizationalpolitics?_ Common techniques for redirectingaccountability and responsibility.– Passing the buck.– Buffing (or rigorous documentation).Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 393– Preparing a blind memo.– Rewriting history.– Redirecting.• Scapegoating.• Blaming the problem on uncontrollable events.• Escalating commitment.Study Question 4: What is organizationalpolitics?_ Defending turf.– Defending turf is a time-honored tradition in mostlarge organizations.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 394– Defending turf results when:• Managers seek to increase their power by expanding the jobstheir groups perform.• Competing interests exist among various departments andgroups.Study Question 4: What is organizationalpolitics?_Agency theory.– An important power problem arises from theseparation of owners and managers.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 395– Managers are “agents” of the owners.– Public corporations can function effectivelyeven though its managers are self-interested.Study Question 4: What is organizationalpolitics?_Key arguments of agency theory.– By protecting stockholder interests, all theinterests of society are served.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 396– Stockholders have a clear interest in greaterreturns.– Managers are self-interested and must becontrolled.Study Question 4: What is organizationalpolitics?_Types of controls instituted for agents.– Pay plan incentives that align the interests ofmanagement and stockholders.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 397– The establishment of a strong, independentboard of directors.– Stockholders with a large stake in the firmtaking an active role on the board.Study Question 4: What is organizationalpolitics?_ Resource dependencies.– The firm’s need for resources that are controlled byothers._ The resource dependence of an organizationOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 398increases as:– Needed resources become more scarce.– Outsiders have more control over needed resources.– There are fewer substitutes for a particular type ofresource controlled by a limited number of outsiders.Study Question 4: What is organizationalpolitics?_ Organizational governance.

– The pattern of authority, influence, and acceptablemanagerial behaviour established at the top of theorganization.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 399– Organizational governance establishes the following:• What is important.• How issues will be defined.• Who should and should not be involved in keychoices• Boundaries for acceptable implementation.Study Question 4: What is organizationalpolitics?_Negative views of organizationalgovernance.– Unbalanced organizational governance bysome United States corporations may limitOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 400their ability to manage global operationseffectively.– Organizational governance is too closely tiedto the short-term interests of stockholders andthe pay of the CEO.Study Question 4: What is organizationalpolitics?_ Positive views of organizational governance.– The governance of U.S. firms extends well beyond thelimited interests of the owners.– Organization governance should be based on threeOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 12 401ethical criteria.– When the three ethical criteria cannot be fulfilled, thecriterion of overwhelming factors should be invoked.– Choosing to be ethical often involves considerablepersonal sacrifice.Chapter 13 Study Questions_ What is the nature of communication inorganizations?_ What are the essentials of interpersonalcommunication?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 402_ What are the barriers to effectivecommunication?_ What are current issues in organizationalcommunication?Study Question 1: What is the natureof communication in organizations?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 403Study Question 1: What is the natureof communication in organizations?_Feedback and communication.– Feedback is the process through which thereceiver communicates with the sender byOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 404returning another message.– Giving feedback often is associated with oneor more persons communicating an evaluationof what another person has said or done.– 360-degree feedback.Study Question 1: What is the natureof communication in organizations?_ Guidelines for effective constructive feedback.– Give feedback directly and in a spirit of mutual trust.– Be specific, not general; use clear examples.Give feedback when the receiver is most ready toOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 405– accept it.– Be accurate; check validity with others.– Focus on things that the receiver can control.– Limit how much feedback the receiver gets at onetime.Study Question 1: What is the natureof communication in organizations?_Communication channels.– Formal channels.• Follow the chain of command established by an

organization’s hierarchy of authority.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 406– Informal channels.• Do not follow an organization’s hierarchy ofauthority.• The grapevine is an informal channel throughwhich rumors and unofficial information pass.Study Question 1: What is the natureof communication in organizations?_ Channel richness.– The capacity of a communication channel to conveyinformation effectively.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 407– Richest channels — face-to-face communication.– Moderately rich channels —telephone, electronic chatrooms, E-mail, written memos, and letters.– Leanest channels — posted notices and bulletins.Study Question 1: What is the natureof communication in organizations?_Organizational communication is thespecific process through which informationmoves and is exchanged throughout anOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 408organization._Information flows:– Through formal and informal structures.– Downward, upward, and laterally.Study Question 1: What is the natureof communication in organizations?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 409Study Question 2: What are the essentialsof interpersonal communication?_Effective and efficient communication.– Effective communication.• The accuracy of communication.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 410– Efficient communication.• The cost of communication.– Effectiveness does not guarantee efficiency orvice versa.Study Question 2: What are the essentialsof interpersonal communication?_ Nonverbal communication.– Occurs through facial expressions, bodyposition, eye contact, and other physicalgestures.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 411– Gives clues to what a person is really thinking.– Two important aspects of nonverbalcommunication.• Kinesics ¾ the study of gestures and bodypostures.• Proxemics ¾the study of how space is utilized.Study Question 2: What are the essentialsof interpersonal communication?_Active listening.– Ability to listen well is a distinct asset.– Everyone needs to develop good skills inOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 412active listening.– Active listening is the ability to help thesource of a message say what he or she reallymeans.Study Question 2: What are the essentialsof interpersonal communication?_Guidelines for active listening.– Listen for content.– Listen for feelings.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 413– Respond to feelings.– Note all cues.– Reflect back.Study Question 2: What are the essentialsof interpersonal communication?_Cross-cultural communication.

– Ethnocentrism.• The tendency to believe that one’s culture and itsvalues are superior to those of others.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 414– Cross-cultural communication challenges.• Language differences.• Use of gestures.– One of the best ways to understand culturaldifferences is to learn some of the language.Study Question 3: What are thebarriers to effective communication?_Physical distractions.– Any aspect of the physical setting in whichOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 415communication takes place.– Can interfere with communicationeffectiveness.Study Question 3: What are thebarriers to effective communication?_Semantic problems.– Involves a poor choice or use of words.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 416– Use the KISS principle of communication.• “Keep it short and simple.”Study Question 3: What are thebarriers to effective communication?_Mixed messages.– Occur when a person’s words communicateone thing while actions or body languageOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 417communicates another.– Nonverbals add important insights in face-tofacemeetings.Study Question 3: What are thebarriers to effective communication?_Absence of feedback.– One-way communication flows from sender toreceiver only, with no direct and immediatefeedback.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 418– Two-way communication goes from sender toreceiver and back again.– Two-way communication is more effectivethan one-way communication.Study Question 3: What are thebarriers to effective communication?_ Status effects.– Status differences create potential communicationbarriers between persons of higher and lower ranks .– Mum effect.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 419• Occurs when people are reluctant to transmit badnews.– Management by wandering around (MBWA).• Getting out of the office to directly communicatewith others as they do their jobs.Study Question 4: What are current issuesin organizational communication?_ Advances in information technologies enableorganizations to:– Distribute information much faster.– Make more information available.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 420– Allow broader and more immediate access toinformation.– Encourage participation in the sharing and use ofinformation.– Integrate systems and functions, and use informationto link with the environment.Study Question 4: What are current issuesin organizational communication?_Potential disadvantages of electroniccommunications.– Technologies are impersonal.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 421

– Nonverbal communication is removed fromsituation.– Can unduly influence the emotional aspects ofcommunication.– Information overload.Study Question 4: What are current issuesin organizational communication?_Communication and social context.– Mean and women are socialized into differentcommunication styles.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 13 422• Women are socialized to be more sensitive tointerpersonal relationships in communication.• Men are socialized to be competitive, aggressive,and individualistic, which may causecommunication problems.Chapter 14 Study Questions_What is the decision-making process inorganizations?_What are the useful decision-makingmodels?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 423_How do intuition, judgment, and creativityaffect decision making?Chapter 14 Study Questions (cont.)_How do you manage the decision-makingprocess?_What are some of the current issues inOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 424decision making?_How do you infuse ethics into the decisionmakingprocess?Study Question 1: What is the decisionmakingprocess in organizations?_ Decision making is the process of choosing acourse of action for dealing with a problem oropportunity._ Steps in systematic decision making.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 425– Recognize and define the problem or opportunity.– Identify and analyze alternative courses of action, andestimate their effects on the problem or opportunity.– Choose a preferred course of action.– Implement the preferred course of action.– Evaluate the results and follow up as necessary.Study Question 1: What is the decisionmakingprocess in organizations?_ Certain decision environments.– Exist when information is sufficient to predict theresults of each alternative in advance ofimplementation.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 426_ Risk decision environments.– Exist when decision makers lack complete certaintyregarding the outcomes of various courses of action,but they are aware of the probabilities associated withtheir occurrence.Study Question 1: What is the decisionmakingprocess in organizations?_ Uncertain decision environments.– Exist when managers have so little information onhand that they cannot even assign probabilities tovarious alternatives and their possible outcomes.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 427– Described as a rapidly changing setting in terms of:• External conditions.• The information technology requirements needed foranalyzing and making decisions.• The people who influence problem and choice definitions.Study Question 1: What is the decisionmakingprocess in organizations?_Uncertain decision environments (cont.).– Can be described in terms of types of risksencountered by the organization.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 428

• Strategic risks are threats to overall businesssuccess.• Operational risks are threats inherent in thetechnologies used to reach business success.• Reputation risks are threats to a brand or to thefirm’s reputationStudy Question 1: What is the decisionmakingprocess in organizations?_Types of decisions.– Programmed decisions.• Involve routine problems that arise regularly andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 429can be addressed through standard responses.– Nonprogrammed decisions.• Involve nonroutine problems that require solutionsspecifically tailored to the situation at hand.Study Question 2:What are the usefuldecision-making models?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 430Study Question 2:What are the usefuldecision-making models?_Classical decision theory assumes themanager faces a clearly defined problem,knows all possible action alternatives andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 431their consequences, and then chooses theoptimum solution._Widespread application of classicaldecision theory is restricted by boundedrationality.Study Question 2:What are the usefuldecision-making models?_Classical decision theory does not appearto fit well in the modern business world,though it can be used toward the bottom ofmany firms.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 432_Behavioural decision theory accepts thenotion of bounded rationality. It assumesthe manager acts only in terms of what isperceived about a given situation, and thenchooses a satisficing solution.Study Question 2:What are the usefuldecision-making models?_The garbage can model.– A model of decision making that viewsproblems, solutions, participants, and choicesituations as mixed together in the “garbageOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 433can” of the organization.– The garbage can model highlights twoimportant organizational facts of life.• Different individuals may do choice making andimplementation.• Many problems go unsolved.Study Question 2:What are the usefuldecision-making models?_Decision making realities.– Decision making information may not beavailable.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 434– Bounded rationality and cognitive limitationsaffect the way people define problems,identify alternatives, and choose preferredsolutions.Study Question 2:What are the usefuldecision-making models?_Decision making realities (cont.).– Most decision making in organizations goesbeyond step-by-step rational choice.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 435– Decisions must be made under risk anduncertainty.– Decisions should be ethical.Study Question 3: How do intuition, judgment,

and creativity affect decision making?_Intuition.– The ability to know or recognize quickly andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 436readily the possibilities of a given situation.– A key element of decision making under riskand uncertainty.Study Question 3: How do intuition, judgment,and creativity affect decision making?_Judgmental heuristics.– Simplifying strategies or “rules of thumb”Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 437used to make decisions.– Make it easier to to deal with uncertainty andlimited information.Study Question 3: How do intuition, judgment,and creativity affect decision making?_Types of heuristics.– Availability heuristic.• Bases a decision on similarity to past occurrencesthat are easily remembered.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 438– Representativeness heuristic.• Bases a decision on similarities between an eventand stereotypes of similar occurrences.– Anchoring and adjustment heuristic.• Bases a decision on incremental adjustments to aninitial value determined by historical precedent orsome reference point.Study Question 3: How do intuition, judgment,and creativity affect decision making?_General judgmental biases in decisionmaking.– Confirmation trap.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 439• The tendency to seek confirmation for what isalready thought to be true and to not search fordisconfirming information.– Hindsight trap.• The tendency to overestimate the degree to whichan event that has already taken place could havebeen predicted.Study Question 3: How do intuition, judgment,and creativity affect decision making?_Stages in the creative thinking process.– Preparation.– Concentration.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 440– Incubation.– Illumination– Verification.Study Question 3: How do intuition, judgment,and creativity affect decision making?_ Ways of fostering creativity.– Diversifying teams to include members with differentbackgrounds, training, and perspectives.– Encouraging analogical reasoning.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 441– Stressing periods of silent reflection.– Recording all ideas so that the same ones are notrediscovered.– Establishing high expectations for creativity.– Developing a physical space that encourages fun,divergent ideas.Study Question 3: How do intuition, judgment,and creativity affect decision making?_Creativity is higher when:– Linguistic ability, willingness to engage indivergent thinking, and intelligence arepresent.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 442– Individuals are motivated by and derivesatisfaction from task accomplishment.– There are opportunities for creativity, as manyconstraints as possible are eliminated, and

rewards are provided for creative efforts.Study Question 3: How do intuition, judgment,and creativity affect decision making?_Creativity is higher when (cont.):– The decision maker emphasizes engagement inthe creative process and counsels individualsOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 443to share their ideas with others.– The decision maker encourages subordinatesto recognize ambiguity, contact others withdifferent views, and be prepared to makeconsiderable changes.Study Question 4: How do youmanage the decision-making process?_In choosing problems to address, ask andanswer the following questions:– Is the problem easy to deal with?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 444– Might the problem resolve itself?– Is this my decision to make?– Is this a solvable problem within the context ofthe organization?Study Question 4: How do youmanage the decision-making process?_ Reasons for decision making failure.– Managers too often copy others’ choices and try to sellthem to subordinates.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 445– Subordinates may believe the manager is imposing hisor her will rather than working for everyone’sinterests.– Managers may focus on the problems they see ratherthan the outcomes they want.– Managers use participation too infrequently.Study Question 4: How do youmanage the decision-making process?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 446Study Question 4: How do youmanage the decision-making process?_ Key problem attributes in the Vroom, Yetton,and Jago decision making framework.– The required quality of the decision.– The commitment needed from subordinates.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 447– The amount of information the leader has.– Commitment probability.– Goal congruence.– Subordinate conflict.– Subordinate information.Study Question 4: How do youmanage the decision-making process?_ Authority decisions in the Vroom, Yetton, andJago decision making framework.– Manager or team leader uses information that he orshe possesses and decides what to do withoutOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 448involving others.– Variant 1 ¾ manager solves the problem or makes thedecision alone.– Variant 2 ¾ manager obtains the necessaryinformation from others and then decides.Study Question 4: How do youmanage the decision-making process?_ Consultative decisions in the Vroom, Yetton, andJago decision making framework.– Manager or team leader solicits input from otherpeople and then, based on this information and itsOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 449interpretation, makes a final choice.– Variant 1 ¾ manager seeks input from othersindividually and then makes a decision.– Variant 2 ¾ manager seeks input from otherscollectively and then makes a decision.Study Question 4: How do youmanage the decision-making process?

_Group decisions in the Vroom, Yetton, andJago decision making framework.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 450– Manager or team leader consults with othersand allows them to help make the final choice.Study Question 4: How do youmanage the decision-making process?_ Knowing when to quit.– The natural desire to continue on a selected course ofaction reinforces escalating commitment.– Escalating commitment is the tendency to continueOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 451and renew effort on a previously chosen course ofaction, even though it is not working.– Tendency to escalate commitments often outweighsthe willingness to disengage from them.– Good decision makers are willing to reverse previousdecisions.Study Question 5: What are some of thecurrent issues in decision making?_Workplace trends affecting organizationaldecision makers.– Business units are becoming smaller in size.– New, more flexible, and adaptableOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 452organizational forms.– Multifunctional understanding is increasinglyimportant.– Workers with both technical knowledge andteam skills are increasingly desirable.– The nature of “work” is in a state of flux.Study Question 5: What are some of thecurrent issues in decision making?_Information technology and decisionmaking.– Artificial intelligence is the study of howOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 453computers can be programmed to think likehuman beings.– Expert systems support decision making byfollowing “either-or” rules to makedeductions.Study Question 5: What are some of thecurrent issues in decision making?_Information technology and decisionmaking (cont.).– Fuzzy logic and neural networks reasonOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 454inductively.– Computer support for decision making.– Information technology does not deal withissues raised by the garbage can model.Study Question 5: What are some of thecurrent issues in decision making?_ Cultural factors and decision making.– Culture is “the way in which a group of people solvesproblems.”– North American culture stresses decisiveness, speed,Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 455and the individual selection of alternatives.– Other cultures place less emphasis on individualchoice than on developing implementations that work.– The most important impact of culture on decisionmaking concerns which issues are elevated to thestatus of problems solvable within the firm.Study Question 6: How do you infuseethics into the decision-making process?_Ways to infuse ethics into decisionmaking.– Develop a code of ethics and follow it.– Establish procedures for reporting violations.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 456– Involve employees in identifying ethicalissues.– Monitor ethical performance.

– Reward ethical behaviour.– Publicize ethical efforts.Study Question 6: How do you infuseethics into the decision-making process?_ Morality is involved in:– Choosing problems.– Deciding who should be involved in makingdecisions.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 14 457– Estimating the impacts of decisionalternatives.– Selecting an alternative for implementation._ An effective decision needs to solve a problem aswell as match moral values and help others.Chapter 15 Study Questions_What is conflict?_How can conflict be managedsuccessfully?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 458_What is negotiation?_What are the different strategies involvedin negotiation?Study Question 1: What is conflict?_Conflict occurs whenever:– Disagreements exist in a social situation overOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 459issues of substance.– Emotional antagonisms cause frictionsbetween individuals or groups.Study Question 1: What is conflict?_Types of conflict.– Substantive conflict.• A fundamental disagreement over ends or goals tobe pursued and the means for theirOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 460accomplishment.– Emotional conflict.• Interpersonal difficulties that arise over feelings ofanger, mistrust, dislike, fear, resentment, etc.Study Question 1: What is conflict?_Levels of conflict.– Intrapersonal conflicts.• Actual or perceived pressures from incompatibleOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 461goals or expectations.• Approach-approach conflict.• Avoidance-avoidance conflict.• Approach-avoidance conflict.Study Question 1: What is conflict?_Levels of conflict (cont.).– Interpersonal conflict.• Occurs between two or more individuals who areOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 462in opposition to one another.– Intergroup conflict.• Occurs among members of different teams orgroups.Study Question 1: What is conflict?_Levels of conflict (cont.).– Interorganizational conflict.• Commonly refers to the competition and rivalryOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 463that characterize firms operating in the samemarkets.• Encompasses disagreements that exist between anytwo or more organizations.Study Question 1: What is conflict?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 464Study Question 1: What is conflict?_Potential benefits of functional conflict.– Surfaces important problems so they can beaddressed.Causes careful consideration of decisions.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 465– – Causes reconsideration of decisions.

– Increases information available for decisionmaking.– Provides opportunities for creativity.Study Question 1: What is conflict?_Potential disadvantages of dysfunctionalconflict.– Diverts energies.– Harms group cohesion.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 466– Promotes interpersonal hostilities.– Creates overall negative environment.– Can decrease work productivity and jobsatisfaction.– Can contribute to absenteeism and jobturnover.Study Question 1: What is conflict?_Culture and conflict.– Culture and cultural differences must beconsidered for their conflict potential.– Individuals who are not able to recognize andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 467respect the impact of culture may contribute toemergence of dysfunctional situations– Cross-cultural sensitivity helps defusedysfunctional conflict and capture advantagesthat constructive conflict may offer.Study Question 2: How can conflict bemanaged successfully?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 468Study Question 2: How can conflict bemanaged successfully?_Causes of conflict.– Vertical conflict.• Occurs between hierarchical levels.Horizontal conflict.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 469– • Occurs between persons or groups at the samehierarchical level.– Line-staff conflict.• Involves disagreements over who has authority andcontrol over specific matters.Study Question 2: How can conflict bemanaged successfully?_Causes of conflict (cont.).– Role conflicts.• Occur when the communication of taskexpectations proves inadequate or upsetting.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 470– Workflow interdependencies.• Occur when people or units are required tocooperate to meet challenging goals.– Domain ambiguities.• Occur as misunderstandings over such things ascustomer jurisdiction or scope of authority .Study Question 2: How can conflict bemanaged successfully?_Causes of conflict (cont.).– Resource scarcity.• When resources are scarce, working relationshipsOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 471are likely to suffer.– Power or value asymmetries.• Occur when interdependent people or groups differsubstantially from one another in status andinfluence or in values.Study Question 2: How can conflict bemanaged successfully?_Indirect conflict management approaches.– Reduced interdependence.• Adjusting the level of interdependency amongOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 472units or individuals when workflow conflicts exist.• Decoupling, buffering, and linking pin roles.– Appeal to common goals.• Focusing the attention of potentially conflicting

parties on one mutually desirable conclusion.Study Question 2: How can conflict bemanaged successfully?_Indirect conflict management approaches(cont.).– Hierarchical referral.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 473• Problems are referred up the hierarchy for moresenior managers to reconcile.– Altering scripts and myths.• Superficial management of conflict by usingbehavioural routines that become part of theorganization’s culture.Study Question 2: How can conflict bemanaged successfully?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 474Study Question 2: How can conflict bemanaged successfully?_Lose-lose conflict.– Avoidance.• Everyone simply pretends that the conflict does notreally exist and hopes that it will go away.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 475– Accommodation or smoothing.• Involves playing down differences among theconflicting parties and highlighting similarities andareas of agreement.– Compromise.• Each party gives up something of value, but neitherparty’s desires are fully satisfiedStudy Question 2: How can conflict bemanaged successfully?_Win-lose conflict.– Competition.• One party achieves a victory through the use ofOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 476force, superior skills, or domination.– Authoritative command.• Use of formal authority to dictate a solution andspecify who gains what and who loses what.Study Question 2: How can conflict bemanaged successfully?_Win-win conflict.– Collaboration or problem solving.• Recognition by all conflicting parties thatOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 477something is wrong and needs attention, and itstresses gathering and evaluating information insolving disputes and making choices.• Collaboration and problem solving are preferred togain true conflict resolution when time and costpermit.Study Question 2: How can conflict bemanaged successfully?_Win-win solutions should:– Achieve each other’s goals.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 478– Be acceptable to both parties.– Establish a process whereby both parties see aresponsibility to be open and honest aboutfacts and feelings.Study Question 2: How can conflict bemanaged successfully?_Potential disadvantages of collaboration.– Collaboration requires time and energy.– Both parties to the conflict need to be assertiveOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 479and cooperative.– Collaboration may not be feasible if theorganization’s culture does not valuecooperation.Study Question 3: What is negotiation?_Negotiation goals and outcomes.– Substance goals.• Outcomes that relate to content issues.

Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 480– Relationship goals.• Outcomes that relate to how well people involvedin the negotiations and any constituencies theyrepresent are able to work with one another oncethe process is concluded.Study Question 3: What is negotiation?_Effective negotiation.– Occurs when substance issues are resolved andworking relationships are maintained orimproved.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 481– Criteria for an effective negotiation.• Quality.• Harmony.• Efficiency.Study Question 3: What is negotiation?_ Ethical aspects of negotiation.– To maintain good working relationships, negotiatorsshould strive for high ethical standards.– Negotiators’ rationalizations for questionable ethicalOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 482behaviour are offset by long-run negativeconsequences.– The unethical negotiator may be targeted for revenge.– Unethical negotiating actions may become habitual.Study Question 3: What is negotiation?_Organizational settings for negotiation.– Two-party negotiation.• Manager negotiates directly with one other person.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 483– Group negotiation.• Manager is part of a group whose members arenegotiating.Study Question 3: What is negotiation?_ Organizational settings for negotiation (cont.).– Intergroup negotiation.• Manager is part of a group that is negotiating withOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 484another group.– Constituency negotiation.• Manager is involved in negotiation with otherpersons, with each party representing a broaderconstituency.Study Question 4: What are the differentstrategies involved in negotiation?_ Distributive negotiation.– Focuses on positions staked out or declared by theconflicting parties.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 485– Parties try to claim certain portions of the existing pie._ Integrative negotiation.– Sometimes called principled negotiation.– Focuses on the merits of the issues.– Parties try to enlarge the available pie.Study Question 4: What are the differentstrategies involved in negotiation?_Distributive negotiation.– The key question is: “Who is going to get thisresource?”Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 486– “Hard” distributive negotiation.• Each party holds out to get its own way.– “Soft” distributive negotiation.• One party is willing to make concessions to theother party to get things over.Study Question 4: What are the differentstrategies involved in negotiation?_Integrative negotiation.– The key question is: “How can the resourcebest be utilized?”Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 487– Is less confrontational than distributivenegotiation, and permits a broader range ofalternative solutions to be considered.

– Opportunity for a true win-win solution.Study Question 4: What are the differentstrategies involved in negotiation?_Attitudinal foundations of integrativeagreements.– Willingness to trust the other party.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 488– Willingness to share information with theother party.– Willingness to ask concrete questions of theother party.Study Question 4: What are the differentstrategies involved in negotiation?_ Behavioural foundations of integrativeagreements.– Ability to separate the people from the problem.– Ability to focus on interests rather than positions.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 489– Ability to avoid making premature judgments.– Ability to keep alternative creation separate fromevaluation.– Ability to judge possible agreements on an objectiveset of criteria or standards.Study Question 4: What are the differentstrategies involved in negotiation?_Information foundations of integrativeagreements.– Each party must know what he or she will doOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 490if an agreement can’t be reached.– Each party must determine what is personallyimportant in the situation.– Each party must achieve an understanding ofwhat the other party values.Study Question 4: What are the differentstrategies involved in negotiation?_Common negotiation pitfalls.– Myth of the fixed pie.– Possibility of escalating commitment.Negotiators often develop overconfidence inOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 491– their positions.– Communication problems can causedifficulties during a negotiation.• Telling problem.• Hearing problem.Study Question 4: What are the differentstrategies involved in negotiation?_Third-party roles in negotiation.– Alternative dispute resolution.• A neutral third party works with personsinvolved in a negotiation to help themOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 492resolve impasses and settle disputes.– Arbitration.• A third party acts as a “judge” and has thepower to issue a decision that is binding onall disputing parties.Study Question 4: What are the differentstrategies involved in negotiation?_Third-party roles in negotiation (cont.).– Mediation.• A neutral third party tries to engageOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 15 493disputing parties in a negotiated solutionthrough persuasion and rational argument.Chapter 16 Study Questions_What is organizational change?_What change strategies are used inorganizations?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 494_How is resistance to change best managed?_How do organizations innovate?_How does stress affect people in changeenvironments?

Study Question 1: What isorganizational change?_Transformational change.– Results in a major overhaul of the organizationor its component systems.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 495– Described as radical change or frame-breakingchange.– Organizations experiencing transformationalchange undergo a significant shift in basiccharacteristic features.Study Question 1: What isorganizational change?_Incremental change or frame-bendingchange.– Part of the organization’s natural evolution inbuilding on the existing ways of operating toOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 496enhance or extend them in new directions.– Introduction of new products, newtechnologies, and new systems and processes.– Continuous improvement through incrementalchange is an important asset.Study Question 1: What isorganizational change?_Change agents.– Individuals and groups who take responsibilityfor changing the existing behaviour patterns ofOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 497another person or social system.– Success of change efforts depends in part onchange agents.– Being an effective change agent means beinga great change leader.Study Question 1: What isorganizational change?_Unplanned change.– Occurs spontaneously and without a changeagent’s direction, and such change may beOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 498disruptive.– Appropriate goal is to act quickly to minimizethe negative consequences and maximize anypossible benefits.Study Question 1: What isorganizational change?_Planned change.– The result of specific efforts by a changeagent.– Direct response to someone’s perception of aOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 499performance gap.• A performance gap is the discrepancy between thedesired and actual state of affairs.• Performance gaps represent problems to beresolved or opportunities to be explored.Study Question 1: What isorganizational change?_Organizational forces for change.– Organization-environment relationships.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 500– Organizational life cycle.– Political nature of organizations.Study Question 1: What is organizationalchange?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 501Study Question 1: What isorganizational change?_ Reasons for failure of transformational change.– No sense of urgency.– No powerful guiding coalition.No compelling vision.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 502– – Failure to communicate the vision.– Failure to empower others to act.

– Failure to celebrate short-term wins.– Failure to build on accomplishments.– Failure to institutionalize results.Study Question 1: What isorganizational change?_Phases of planned change.– Unfreezing.• Preparing a situation for change by disconfirmingexisting attitudes and behaviours.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 503– Changing.• Taking action to modify a situation by altering thetargets of change.– Refreezing.• Maintaining momentum and eventuallyinstitutionalizing the change.Study Question 2: What changestrategies are used in organizations?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 504Study Question 3: How is resistanceto change best managed?_Resistance to change.– Any attitude or behaviour that indicatesunwillingness to make or support a desiredOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 505change.– Alternative views of resistance.• Something that must be overcome for change to besuccessful.• Feedback that can be used to facilitate achievingchange objectives.Study Question 3: How is resistanceto change best managed?_ Why people resist change.– Fear of the unknown.– Lack of good information.Fear for loss of security.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 506– – No reasons to change.– Fear for loss of power.– Lack of resources.– Bad timing.– Habit.Study Question 3: How is resistanceto change best managed?_ Resistance to the change itself.– People may reject a change because they believe it isnot worth their time, effort, or attention.– To deal with resistance to the change itself, all thoseOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 507affected should know how it satisfies the followingcriteria:• Benefit.• Compatibility.• Complexity.• Triability.Study Question 3: How is resistanceto change best managed?_ Resistance to the change strategy.– Force-coercion strategy.• Likely resistance among individuals who resent managementby “command” or the use of threatened punishment.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 508– Rational persuasion strategy.• Likely resistance when the data are suspect or the expertise ofadvocates is unclear.– Shared-power strategy.• Likely resistance if it appears manipulative and insincere.Study Question 3: How is resistanceto change best managed?_Resistance to the change agent.– Resistance to the change agent is directed atOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 509the person implementing the change and ofteninvolves personality and other differences.

Study Question 3: How is resistanceto change best managed?_How to deal with resistance.– Education and communication.– Participation and support.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 510– Facilitation and support.– Negotiation and agreement.– Manipulation and cooptation.– Explicit and implicit coercion.Study Question 3: How is resistanceto change best managed?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 511Study Question 4: How doorganizations innovate?_ Innovation.– The process of creating new ideas and putting theminto practice._ Product innovations.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 512– The introduction of new or improved goods orservices to better meet customer needs._ Process innovations.– The introduction of new and better work methods andoperations.Study Question 4: How doorganizations innovate?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 513Study Question 4: How doorganizations innovate?_Features of innovative organizations.– Strategies and cultures that are built around acommitment to innovation.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 514– Structures that support innovation.– Staffing with a clear commitment toinnovation.– Top-management support for innovation.Study Question 5: How does stress affectpeople in change environments?_Stress.– A state of tension experienced by individualsOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 515facing extraordinary demands, constraints, oropportunities.Study Question 5: How does stress affectpeople in change environments?_Source of stress.– Stressors.• The wide variety of things that cause stress forOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 516individuals.– Types of stressors.• Work-related stressors.• Life stressors.Study Question 5: How does stress affectpeople in change environments?_Work-related stressors.– Task demands.– Role ambiguities.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 517– Role conflicts.– Ethical dilemmas.– Interpersonal problems.– Career developments.– Physical setting.Study Question 5: How does stress affectpeople in change environments?_Life stressors.– Family events.– Economic difficulties.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 518– Personal affairs.– Individual’s needs.– Individual’s capabilities.

– Individual’s personality.Study Question 5: How does stress affectpeople in change environments?_Stress and performance.– Constructive stress (or eustress).• Moderate levels of stress act in a positive way forboth individuals and organization.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 519– Destructive stress (or distress).• Low and especially high levels of stress act in anegative way for both individuals and organization.– Job burnout.• A loss of interest in and satisfaction with a job dueto stressful working conditions.Study Question 5: How does stress affectpeople in change environments?_ Stress and health.– Stress can harm people’s physical and psychologicalhealth.– Health problems associated with stress.• Heart attack.• Stroke.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 520• Hypertension.• Migraine headache.• Ulcers.• Substance abuse.• Overeating.• Depression.• Muscle aches.– Managers and team leaders should be alert to signs ofexcessive stress.Study Question 5: How does stress affectpeople in change environments?_Stress management.– Stress prevention.• Taking action to keep stress from reachingdestructive levels in the first place.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 521– Once stress has reached a destructive point,special techniques of stress management canbe implemented.– Stress management.• Begins with the recognition of stress symptomsand continues with actions to maintain a positiveperformance edge.Study Question 5: How does stress affectpeople in change environments?_Stress management (cont.).– Personal wellness.• Pursuit of one’s job and career goals with theOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 16 522support of a personal health promotion program.– Employee assistance programs.• Provide help for employees who are experiencingpersonal problems and related stress.Chapter 17 Study Questions_What is strategy and how is it linked todifferent types of organizational goals?_What are the basic attributes oforganizations?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 523_How is work organized and coordinated?_What are bureaucracies and what are thecommon structures?Study Question 1: What is strategy andhow is it linked to different types oforganizational goals?_Strategy.– The process of positioning the organization inthe competitive environment andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 524implementing actions to compete successfully.– A pattern in a stream of decisions.• Choices regarding goals and the way the firm

organizes to accomplish them.Study Question 1: What is strategy andhow is it linked to different types oforganizational goals?_Elements of conventional strategydecisions.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 525– Choosing the types of contributions the firmintends to make to society.– Precisely whom the firm will serve.– Exactly what the firm will provide to others.Study Question 1: What is strategy andhow is it linked to different types oforganizational goals?_ Societal goals.– Reflect an organization’s intended contributions to thebroader society.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 526– Enable organizations to gain legitimacy, a social rightto operate, and more discretion for their non-societalgoals and operating practices.– Enable organizations to make legitimate claims overresources, individuals, markets, and products.Study Question 1: What is strategy andhow is it linked to different types oforganizational goals?_Societal contributions and missionstatements.– A firm’s societal contribution is often part ofOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 527its mission statement.• A written statement of organizational purpose.– A good mission statement identifies whom thefirm will serve and how it will go aboutaccomplishing its societal purpose.Study Question 1: What is strategy andhow is it linked to different types oforganizational goals?_Output goals.– Define the type of business the organization ispursuing.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 528– Provide some substance to the more generalaspects of mission statements.Study Question 1: What is strategy andhow is it linked to different types oforganizational goals?_ Systems goals.– Concerned with the conditions within the organizationthat are expected to increase the organization’ssurvival potential.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 529– Typical systems goals include growth, productivity,stability, harmony, flexibility, prestige, and humanresource maintenance.– Systems goals must often be balanced against oneanother.Study Question 1: What is strategy andhow is it linked to different types oforganizational goals?_Well-defined systems goals can:– Focus managers’ attention on what needs to bedone.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 530– Provide flexibility in devising ways to meetimportant targets.– Be used to balance the demands, constraints,and opportunities facing the firm.– Form a basis for dividing the work of the firm.Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?_ Successful organizations develop a structureconsistent with the pattern of goals established bysenior management.The formal structure shows the planned

Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 531_ configuration of positions, job duties, and thelines of authority among different parts of theorganization._ The formal structure of the firm is also known asthe division of labor.Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?_ Vertical specialization.– A hierarchical division of labor that distributes formalauthority and establishes where and how criticaldecisions are to be made.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 532– Creates a hierarchy of authority.• An arrangement of work positions in order of increasingauthority.– Organization charts are diagrams that depict theformal structures of organizations.Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 533Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?_ Chain of command.– A listing of who reports to whom up and down theorganization.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 534_ Unity of command.– Each person has only one boss and each unit oneleader._ Span of control.– The number individuals reporting to a supervisor.Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?_Line units.– Work groups that conduct the major businessof the organization.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 535_Staff units.– Work groups that assist the line units byproviding specialized expertise and services tothe organization.Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?_ Internal versus external units.– Internal line units.• Transform raw materials and information into products andservices.External line units.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 536– • Maintain outside linkages.– Internal staff units.• Assist the line units in performing their functions.– External staff units.• Assist the line units with outside linkages and act to bufferinternal operations.Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 537Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?_ Some firms are outsourcing many of their stafffunctions._ Use of information technology to streamlineOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 538operations and reduce staff._ Most organizations use a variety of means tospecialize the vertical division of labor._ Best pattern of vertical specialization depends onenvironment, size, technology, and goals.Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?_Control.– The set of mechanisms used to keep actions oroutputs within predetermined limits.

Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 539– Deals with:• Setting standards.• Measuring results against standards.• Instituting corrective action.Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?_Output controls.– Focus on desired targets and allow managersto use their own methods to reach definedOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 540targets.– Part of overall method of managing byexception.– Promote flexibility and creativity.Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?_Process controls.– Specify the manner in which tasks areaccomplished.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 541– Types of process controls.• Policies, procedures, and rules.• Formalization and standardization.• Total quality management controls.Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?_Policies, procedures, and rules.– Policies.• Guidelines for action that outline importantOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 542objectives and broadly indicate how activities areto be carried out.– Procedures.• Identify the best method for performing a task,show which aspects of a task are most important,or outline how an individual is to be rewarded.Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?_Policies, procedures, and rules (cont.).– Rules.• Describe in detail how a task or a series of tasks isOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 543to be performed, or indicate what cannot be done.– Policies, procedures, and rules are often usedas substitutes for direct managerialsupervision.Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?_Formalization.– The written documentation of policies,procedures, and rules to guide behaviour andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 544decision making._Standardization.– The degree to which the range of allowableactions in a job or series of jobs is limited sothat uniform actions occur.Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?_ Deming’s 14 points for achieving total qualitymanagement.– Create a consistency of purpose in the company toinnovate; put resources into research and education,Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 545and into maintaining equipment and new productionaids.– Learn a new philosophy of quality to improve everysystem.– Require statistical evidence of process control andeliminate financial controls on production.Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?_ Deming’s 14 points for achieving total qualitymanagement (cont.).

– Require statistical evidence of control in purchasingparts.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 546– Use statistical methods to isolate the sources oftrouble.– Institute modern on-the-job training.– Improve supervision to develop inspired leaders.– Drive out fear and instill learning.– Break down barriers between departments.Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?_ Deming’s 14 points for achieving total qualitymanagement (cont.).– Eliminate numerical goals and slogans.– Constantly revamp work methods.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 547– Institute massive training programs for employees instatistical methods.– Retrain people in new skills.– Create a structure that will push, every day, on theabove 13 points.Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?_Centralization and decentralization.– Centralization.• Degree to which the authority to make decisions isOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 548restricted to higher levels of management.– Decentralization.• Degree to which the authority to make decisions isgiven to lower levels in an organization’shierarchy.Study Question 2: What are the basicattributes of organizations?_Benefits of decentralization.– Higher subordinate satisfaction.– Quicker response to a series of unrelatedOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 549problems.– Assists in on-the-job training of subordinatesfor higher-level positions– Encourages participation in decision making.Study Question 3: How is workorganized and coordinated?_Horizontal specialization.– A division of labor that establishes specificwork units or groups within an organization.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 550– Often referred to as departmentation.– Whenever managers divide tasks and groupsimilar types of skills and resources together,they must also be concerned withcoordination.Study Question 3: How is workorganized and coordinated?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 551Study Question 3: How is workorganized and coordinated?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 552Study Question 3: How is workorganized and coordinated?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 553Study Question 3: How is workorganized and coordinated?_Coordination.– The set of mechanisms that an organizationuses to link the actions of its units into aconsistent pattern.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 554– Within a unit, much of the coordination ishandled by its manager.– Smaller organizations rely on managementhierarchy for coordination.– As the organization grows, more efficient andeffective methods of coordination are required.

Study Question 3: How is workorganized and coordinated?_ Personal methods of coordination.– Produce synergy by promoting dialogue, discussion,innovation, creativity, and learning, both within andacross units.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 555– Common personal methods of coordination are directcontact between and among organizational membersand committee memberships.– Mix of personal coordination methods should betailored to subordinates, skills, abilities, andexperiences.Study Question 3: How is workorganized and coordinated?_ Impersonal methods of coordination.– Produce synergy by stressing consistency andstandardization so that individual pieces fit together.– Often are refinements and extensions of processOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 556controls.– Historical use of specialized departments to coordinateacross units.– Contemporary use of matrix departmentation andmanagement information systems for coordination.Study Question 4: What are bureaucracies andwhat are the common structures?_Bureaucracy.– An ideal form of organization, thecharacteristics of which were defined by theOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 557German sociologist Max Weber.– Relies on a division of labor, hierarchicalcontrol, promotion by merit with careeropportunities for employees, andadministration by rule.Study Question 4: What are bureaucracies andwhat are the common structures?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 558Study Question 4: What are bureaucracies andwhat are the common structures?_Mechanistic type of bureaucracy (machinebureaucracy).– Emphasizes vertical specialization and control.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 559– Stresses rules, policies, and procedures;specifies techniques for decision making; anduse well-documented control systems.– Often used with a low cost leader strategy.Study Question 4: What are bureaucracies andwhat are the common structures?_ Benefits of the mechanistic type.– Efficiency._ Limitations of the mechanistic type.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 560– Employees dislike rigid designs, which makes workmotivation problematic.– Unions may further solidify rigid designs.– Key employees may leave.– Hinders organization’s capacity to adjust to subtleenvironmental changes or new technologies.Study Question 4: What are bureaucracies andwhat are the common structures?_Organic type of bureaucracy (professionalbureaucracy).– Horizontal specialization.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 561– Procedures are minimal, and those that doexist are not highly formalized.– Used to pursue strategies that emphasizeproduct quality, quick response to customers,or innovation.Study Question 4: What are bureaucracies andwhat are the common structures?_ Benefits of the organic type.

– Good for problem solving and serving individualcustomer needs.– Centralized direction by senior management is lessintense.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 562– Good at detecting external changes and adjusting tonew technologies._ Limitations of the organic type.– Less efficient than mechanistic type.– Restricted capacity to respond to central managementdirection.Study Question 4: What are bureaucracies andwhat are the common structures?_Common types of hybrid structures.– Divisional firm.• Composed of quasi-independent divisions so thatOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 563different divisions can be more or less organic ormechanistic.– Conglomerate.• A single corporation that contains a number ofunrelated businesses.Study Question 4: What are bureaucracies andwhat are the common structures?_The conglomerate simultaneouslyillustrates three key points that will be thefocus of Chapter 18.– All structures are combinations of the basicOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 17 564elements.– There is no one best structure.– The firm does not stand alone but is part of alarger network of firms that compete againstother networks.Chapter 18 Study Questions_ What is organizational design and how is itlinked to strategy?_ What is information technology and how is itused?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 565_ Can the design of the firm co-evolve with theenvironment?_ How does a firm learn and continue to learn overtime?Study question 1: What is organizationaldesign and how is it linked to strategy?_Organizational design.– The process of choosing and implementing astructural configuration.– The choice of an appropriate organizationalOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 566design depends on the firm’s:• Size.• Operations and information technology.• Environment.• Strategy for growth and survival.Study question 1: What is organizationaldesign and how is it linked to strategy?_ The structural configuration of organizationsshould:– Enable senior executives to emphasize the skills andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 567abilities that their firms need to compete, and toremain agile and dynamic in a rapidly changing world.– Allow individuals to experiment, grow, and developcompetencies so that the strategy of the firm canevolve.Study question 1: What is organizationaldesign and how is it linked to strategy?_Co-evolution.– The firm can adjust to external changes evenas it shapes some of the challenges facing it.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 568– Shaping capabilities via the organization’sdesign is a dynamic aspect of co-evolution.

– Even with co-evolution, managers mustmaintain a recognizable pattern of choices inorganizational design.Study question 1: What is organizationaldesign and how is it linked to strategy?_Organizational size.– As the number of employees increase, thepossible interconnections among themincrease even more.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 569– The design of small firms is directlyinfluenced by core operations technology.– Larger firms have many core operationstechnologies in a variety of specialized units.Study question 1: What is organizationaldesign and how is it linked to strategy?_ The simple design for smaller units and firms.– A configuration involving one or two ways ofspecializing individuals and units.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 570– Vertical specialization and control emphasize levels ofsupervision without elaborate formal mechanisms.– Appropriate for many smaller firms because ofsimplicity, flexibility, and responsiveness to a centralmanager.Study question 1: What is organizationaldesign and how is it linked to strategy?_ Organizational design must be adjusted to fittechnological opportunities and requirements.– Operations technology.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 571• The combination of resources, knowledge, and techniquesthat creates a product or service output.– Information technology.• The combination of machines, artifacts, procedures, andsystems used to gather, store, analyze, and disseminateinformation for translating it into knowledge.Study question 1: What is organizationaldesign and how is it linked to strategy?_Thomson’s view of technology.– Technologies classified according to thedegree of specification and degree ofOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 572interdependence of work units.– Intensive technology.• Uncertainty as to how to produce desiredoutcomes.Study question 1: What is organizationaldesign and how is it linked to strategy?_Thomson’s view of technology (cont.).– Mediating technology.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 573• Links parties that want to become interdependent.– Long-linked technology.• The way to produce desired outcomes is knownand broken down into a number of sequential steps.Study question 1: What is organizationaldesign and how is it linked to strategy?_ Woodward’s view of technology.– Small-batch production.• The organization tailor makes a variety of customproducts to fit customer specifications.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 574– Mass production.• The organization produces one or a few productsthrough an assembly line system.– Continuous-process technology.• The organization produces a few products usingconsiderable automation.Study question 1: What is organizationaldesign and how is it linked to strategy?_Woodward’s view of technology (cont.).– The proper matching of structure andtechnology is critical to organizationalsuccess.

Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 575• Successful small-batch and continuous-processplants have flexible structures with small workgroups at the bottom.• Successful mass production operations are rigidlystructured and have large work groups at thebottom.Study question 1: What is organizationaldesign and how is it linked to strategy?_Adhocracy.– An appropriate structural design whenOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 576managers and employees do not know theappropriate way to service a client or producea particular product.Study question 1: What is organizationaldesign and how is it linked to strategy?_An adhocracy is characterized by:– Few rules, policies, and procedures.– Substantial decentralization.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 577– Shared decision making among members.– Extreme horizontal specialization.– Few levels of management.– Virtually no formal controls.Study question 1: What is organizationaldesign and how is it linked to strategy?_An adhocracy is useful when:– The tasks facing the firm vary considerablyOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 578and provide many exceptions.– Problems are difficult to define and solve.Study Question 2:What is informationtechnology and how is it used?_Why IT makes a difference.– IT provides a partial substitute for:• Some operations.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 579• Some process controls.• Some impersonal methods of coordination.– IT provides a strategic capability.– IT provides a capability for transforminginformation to knowledge for learning.Study Question 2:What is informationtechnology and how is it used?_Information technology as a substitute.– Initial implementation of IT often displacedroutine, highly specified, and repetitious jobs.• Did not alter fundamental character or design ofOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 580the organization.– A second wave of substitution replacedprocess controls and informal coordinationmechanisms with IT.• Brought some marginal changes in organizationaldesign.Study Question 2:What is informationtechnology and how is it used?_ Information technology as a strategic capability.– IT has been used to improve the efficiency, speed ofresponsiveness, and effectiveness of operations.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 581– IT provides individuals the information they need toplan, make choices, coordinate with others, andcontrol their own operations.– This new strategic IT capability resulted from ITbeing broadly available to everyone.Study Question 2:What is informationtechnology and how is it used?_IT and learning.– IT systems empower individuals and expandtheir jobs.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 582– IT encourages the development of a “virtual”network.

– IT transforms how people manage.Study Question 2:What is informationtechnology and how is it used?_IT and e-business.– Many dot-com firms adopted some variationof adhocracy.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 583– As the dot-coms grew, the adhocracy designbecame problematic.• Limits on the size of an effective adhocracy.• Actual delivery of products and services restedmore on responsiveness to clients and maintainingefficiency than on continual innovation.Study Question 3: Can the design of thefirm co-evolve with the environment?_ Understanding the environment is importantbecause an organization is an open system._ General environment.– The set of cultural, economic, legal-political, andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 584educational conditions found in the areas in which theorganization operates._ Specific environment.– The owners, suppliers, distributors, governmentagencies, and competitors with which an organizationmust interact to grow and survive.Study Question 3: Can the design of thefirm co-evolve with the environment?_Environmental complexity.– The magnitude of problems and opportunitiesin the organization’s environment, as reflectedin:Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 585• Degree of richness.• Degree of interdependence.• Degree of uncertainty.– More complex environments provide moreproblems and opportunities.Study Question 3: Can the design of thefirm co-evolve with the environment?_Environmental richness.– The environment is richer when:• The economy is growing.Individuals are improving their education.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 586• • Those on whom the organization relies areprospering.– A rich environment has more opportunitiesand dynamism.– The opposite of richness is decline.Study Question 3: Can the design of thefirm co-evolve with the environment?_Environmental interdependence.– Linkage between environmental independenceand organization design may be subtle andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 587indirect.• Organization may co-opt powerful outsiders.• Organization may absorb or buffer demands ofpowerful external elements.Study Question 3: Can the design of thefirm co-evolve with the environment?_Environmental uncertainty.– Uncertainty and volatility can be particularlydamaging to large bureaucracies.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 588– A more organic form is the appropriateorganizational design response to uncertaintyand volatility.– Adhocracy may be needed extremeuncertainty and volatility.Study Question 3: Can the design of thefirm co-evolve with the environment?_In a complex global economy, firms mustlearn to co-evolve by altering their

environment.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 589_Two important ways of co-evolution:– Management of networks.– Development of alliances.Study Question 3: Can the design of thefirm co-evolve with the environment?_Networks and alliances around the world.– Informal combines or cartels exist in Europebut are illegal in the United States except inrare cases.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 590– Networks are called keiretsu in Japan.• Bank-centered keiretsu.• Vertical keiretsu.– In the United States, outsourcing is developingas a specialized form of network organization.Study Question 3: Can the design of thefirm co-evolve with the environment?_Interfirm alliances.– Announced cooperative agreements or jointventures between two independent firms.– Alliances are quite common in highOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 591technology industries.– Since firms cooperate rather than compete;consequently, both the alliance managers andsponsoring executives must be patient,flexible, and creative in pursuing goals.Study Question 3: Can the design of thefirm co-evolve with the environment?_Virtual organization.– An ever-shifting constellation of firms, with alead corporation, that pool skills, resources,Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 592and experiences to thrive jointly.– A design option when internal and externalcontingencies are changing quickly.Study Question 3: Can the design of thefirm co-evolve with the environment?_ Key to making a virtual organization work.– The production system needs to be in a partnernetwork bound together by mutual trust and survival.– The partner network needs to develop and maintain anOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 593advanced IT, trust and cross-owning of problems andsolutions, and a common shared culture.– The lead firm must take responsibility for the wholenetwork and coordinate member firm actions.– The lead corporation and the partners need to rethinkhow they are internally organized and managed.Study Question 3: Can the design of thefirm co-evolve with the environment?_Boundaryless organization.– A design option that eliminates vertical,horizontal, external, and geographic barriersthat block desired action.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 594– Actions to create a boundaryless organization.• Executives should systematically examine theorganization and its processes.• Organization members should initiate a process ofimproving their cooperation.Study Question 4: How does a firm learnand continue to learn over time?_ Organizational learning.– Process of knowledge acquisition, informationdistribution, information interpretation, andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 595information retention in adapting successfully tochanging circumstances.– Adjustment of organization’s and individual’s actionsbased on experience.– The key to successful co-evolution.Study Question 4: How does a firm learn

and continue to learn over time?_Mimicry.– Occurs when managers copy what they believeare the successful practices of others– Is important to new firms.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 596• Provides workable, if not ideal, solutions to manyproblems.• Reduces the number of decisions that need to beanalyzed separately.• Establishes legitimacy or acceptance and narrowsthe choices requiring detailed explanation.Study Question 4: How does a firm learnand continue to learn over time?_Experience.– A primary way to acquire knowledge.– Besides learning by doing, managers can alsoOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 597systematically embark on structured programsto capture the lessons to be learned.– The major problem with emphasizing learningby doing is the inability to precisely forecastchanges.Study Question 4: How does a firm learnand continue to learn over time?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 598Study Question 4: How does a firm learnand continue to learn over time?_Scanning.– Involves looking outside the firm and bringingback useful solutions.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 599_Grafting.– The process of acquiring individuals, units, orfirms to bring in useful knowledge.Study Question 4: How does a firm learnand continue to learn over time?_Common problems in informationinterpretation.– Self-serving interpretations.• People seeing what they want to see, rather thanOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 600seeing what is.– Managerial scripts.• A series of well-known routines for problemidentification and alternative generation andanalysis that are commonly used by a firm’smanagers.Study Question 4: How does a firm learnand continue to learn over time?_Organizational myths.– Commonly held cause-effect relationships orassertions that cannot be empiricallyOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 601supported.– Common myths._ Single organizational truth._ Presumption of competence._ Denial of tradeoffs.Study Question 4: How does a firm learnand continue to learn over time?_Information retention mechanisms.– Individuals.– Organizational culture.Transformation mechanisms.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 602– – Formal organizational structures.– Ecology.– External archives.– Internal information technologies.Study Question 4: How does a firm learnand continue to learn over time?_Deficit cycles.– A pattern of deteriorating performance that isfollowed by even further deterioration.

Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 603– Factors associated with deficit cycles.• Organizational inertia.• Hubris.• Detachment.Study Question 4: How does a firm learnand continue to learn over time?_Benefit cycles.– A pattern of successful adjustment followedby further improvements.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 18 604– Firms can successfully co-evolve by initiatinga benefit cycle.– The firm develops adequate mechanisms forlearning.Chapter 19 Study Questions_What is organizational culture?_How do you understand an organizationalculture?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 605_How can the organizational culture bemanaged?_How can you use organizationaldevelopment to improve the firm?Study Question 1: What isorganizational culture?_Organizational culture.– The system of shared actions, values, andbeliefs that develops within an organizationOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 606and guides the behaviour of its members.– Called corporate culture in the businesssetting.– No two organizational cultures are identical.Study Question 1: What isorganizational culture?_External adaptation.– Involves reaching goals and dealing withoutsiders regarding tasks to be accomplished,methods used to achieve the goals, andOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 607methods of coping with success and failure.– Important aspects of external adaptation.• Separating eternal forces based on importance.• Developing ways to measure accomplishments.• Creating explanations for not meeting goals.Study Question 1: What isorganizational culture?_ External adaptation involves answering importantgoal-related questions regarding coping withreality.– What is the real mission?– How do we contribute?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 608– What are our goals?– How do we reach our goals?– What external forces are important?– How do we measure results?– What do we do if specific targets are not met?– How do we tell others how good we are?– When do we quit?Study Question 1: What isorganizational culture?_Internal integration.– Deals with the creation of a collective identityand with finding ways of matching methods ofworking and living together.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 609– Important aspects of working together.• Deciding who is a member and who is not.• Developing an understanding of acceptable andunacceptable behaviour.• Separating friends from enemies.Study Question 1: What isorganizational culture?

_ Internal integration involves answering importantquestions associated with living together.– What is our unique identity?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 610– How do we view the world?– Who is a member?– How do we allocate power, status, and authority?– How do we communicate?– What is the basis for friendship?Study Question 1: What isorganizational culture?_Subculture.– A group of individuals with a unique patternof values and philosophy that are notinconsistent with the organization’s dominantOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 611values and philosophy._Counterculture.– A group of individuals with a pattern of valuesand philosophy that outwardly reject thesurrounding culture.Study Question 1: What isorganizational culture?_ Problems associated with subcultural divisionswithin the larger culture.– Subordinate groups are likely to form into aOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 612counterculture pursuing self-interests.– The firm may encounter extreme difficulty in copingwith broader cultural changes.– Embracing natural divisions from the larger culturemay lead to difficulty in international operations.Study Question 1: What isorganizational culture?_ Taylor Cox’s five step program.– Step 1: The organization should develop pluralism.– Step 2: The organization should fully integrate itsstructure.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 613– Step 3: The organization must integrate the informalnetworks.– Step 4: The organization should break the linkagebetween naturally occurring group identity andorganizational identity.– Step 5: The organization must actively work toeliminate identity-based interpersonal conflict.Study Question 2: How do youunderstand an organizational culture?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 614Study Question 2: How do youunderstand an organizational culture?_ Sagas.– Heroic accounts of organizational accomplishments._ Rites.– Standardized and recurring activities that are used atOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 615special times to influence organizational members._ Rituals.– Systems of rites._ Cultural symbols.– Any object, act, or event that serves to transmitcultural meaning.Study Question 2: How do youunderstand an organizational culture?_Culture often specifies rules and roles.– Rules.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 616• The various types of actions that are appropriate.– Roles.• Where individual members stand in the socialsystem.Study Question 2: How do youunderstand an organizational culture?_Shared values.– Help turn routine activities into valuable and

important actions.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 617– Tie the organization to the important values ofsociety.– May provide a very distinctive source ofcompetitive advantage.Study Question 2: How do youunderstand an organizational culture?_Characteristics of strong corporatecultures.– A widely shared real understanding of whatthe firm stands for, often embodied in slogans.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 618– A concern for individuals over rules, policies,procedures, and adherence to job duties.– A recognition of heroes whose actionsillustrate the company’s shared philosophyand concerns.Study Question 2: How do youunderstand an organizational culture?_Characteristics of strong corporate cultures(cont.).– A belief in ritual and ceremony as important tomembers and to building a common identity.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 619– A well-understood sense of the informal rulesand expectations so that employees andmanagers know what is expected of them.– A belief that what employees and managers dois important and that it is essential to shareinformation and ideas.Study Question 2: How do youunderstand an organizational culture?_Organizational myths.– Unproven and often unstated beliefs that areaccepted uncritically.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 620– Myths enable managers to redefine impossibleproblems.– Myths can facilitate experimentation andcreativity.– Myths allow managers to govern.Study Question 2: How do youunderstand an organizational culture?_National culture influences.– Widely held common assumptions may betraced to the larger culture of the host society.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 621– National cultural values may becomeembedded in expectations of organizationmembers.Study Question 3: How can theorganizational culture be managed?_Strategies for managing corporate culture.– Managers help modify observable culture,shared values, and common assumptionsOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 622directly.– Use of organizational development techniquesto modify specific elements of the culture.Study Question 3: How can theorganizational culture be managed?_Why a well-developed managementphilosophy is important.– Establishes generally understood boundariesOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 623on all members of the firm.– Provides a consistent way for approachingnew and novel situations.– Helps hold individuals together by showingthem a known path to success.Study Question 3: How can theorganizational culture be managed?_ Strategies for building, reinforcing, and changingorganizational culture.

– Directly modifying the visible aspects of culture.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 624– Changing the lessons to be drawn from commonstories.– Setting the tone for a culture and for cultural change.– Fostering a culture that addresses questions of externaladaptation and internal integration.Study Question 3: How can theorganizational culture be managed?_ Mistakes that managers can make in building,reinforcing, and changing culture.– Trying to change people’s values from the topdown:Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 625• While keeping the ways in which the organizationoperates the same.• Without recognizing the importance of individuals.– Attempting to revitalize an organization bydictating major changes and ignoring sharedvalues.Study Question 4: How can you useorganization development to improve the firm?_Organization development (OD).– The application of behavioural scienceknowledge in a long-range effort to improveOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 626an organization’s ability to cope with changein its external environment and to increase itsinternal problem-solving capabilities.Study Question 4: How can you useorganization development to improve the firm?_Organizational development.– Designed to work on both issues of externaladaptation and internal integration.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 627– Used to improve organizational performance.– Seeks to achieve change so the organization’smembers maintain the culture and longer-runorganizational effectiveness.Study Question 4: How can you useorganization development to improve the firm?_ Underlying assumptions of OD.– Individual level.• Respect for people and their capabilities.– Group level.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 628• Belief that groups can be good for both people andorganizations.– Organizational level.• Respect for the complexity of an organization as asystem of interdependent parts.Study Question 4: How can you useorganization development to improve the firm?_Organization development goals.– Outcome goals.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 629• Mainly deal with issues of external adaptation.– Process goals.• Mainly deal with issues of internal integration.Study Question 4: How can you useorganization development to improve the firm?_ In pursuing outcome and process goals, OD helpsby:– Creating an open problem solving climate.– Supplementing formal authority with knowledge andcompetence.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 630– Moving decision making where relevant informationis available.– Building trust and maximizing collaboration.– Increasing the sense of organizational ownership.– Allowing people to exercise self-direction and selfcontrol.Study Question 4: How can you useorganization development to improve the firm?_Action research.

– The process of systematically collecting dataon an organization, feeding it back to theOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 631members for action planning, and evaluatingresults by collecting and reflecting on moredata after the planned actions have been taken.Study Question 4: How can you useorganization development to improve the firm?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 632Study Question 4: How can you useorganization development to improve the firm?Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 633Study Question 4: How can you useorganization development to improve the firm?_Organizationwide OD interventions.– Survey feedback.• Collection and feedback of data to organizationOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 634members for action planning purposes.– Confrontation meetings.• Activities for quickly determining how anorganization can be improved and taking initialactions for betterment.Study Question 4: How can you useorganization development to improve the firm?_Organizationwide OD interventions(cont.).– Structural redesign.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 635• Realigning the organization’s structure or majorsubsystems.– Collateral organization.• Using representative organizational members inperiodic small group problem-solving sessions.Study Question 4: How can you useorganization development to improve the firm?_Group and intergroup OD interventions.– Team building.• Activities to improve the functioning of a group.Process consultation.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 636– • Activities to improve the functioning of key groupprocesses.– Intergroup team building.• Activities to improve the functioning or two ormore groups.Study Question 4: How can you useorganization development to improve the firm?_Individual OD interventions.– Role negotiation.• Clarifying expectations in working relationships.Job redesign.Organizational Behaviour: Chapter 19 637– • Creating long-term congruence between individualgoals and organizational career opportunities.– Career planning.• Structured opportunities for individuals to workwith managers or staff experts on career issues.Thank Youwww.bookfiesta4u.comOrganizational Behaviour: Chapter 1www.bookfiesta4u.com638