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Organization and Administration
We are born in organizations, educated by organizations, and most of us spend much of our lives working for organizations.
We spend much of our leisure time paying, playing, and praying in organizations. Most of us will die in an organization, and when the time comes for burial, the largest organization
of all—the state—must grant official permission.
—AMITAI ETZIONI
CHAPTER TWO
Principles and Practices
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.2
LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the conclusion of this chapter, the student will:
be able to define organizations and be familiar with their elements
know the evolution of organizational theory, including scientific, human relations, systems,and bureaucratic management
understand the major components of organizational structure, such as span of control and unity of command
comprehend the primary leadership theories and skills, including the characteristics and skills of America's best leaders
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.3
LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the conclusion of this chapter, the student will:
comprehend the primary leadership theories and skills, including the characteristics and skills of America's best leaders
be familiar with the components of communication, including its process, barriers, role, cultural cues, and the uniqueness of communication withinpolice organizations
know the kind of world and related challenges and organizational implications of persons of three younger generations who are now in, or willsoon be entering, the workplace
(cont.)
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.4
LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the conclusion of this chapter, the student will:
know the kind of world and related challenges and organizational implications of persons of three younger generations who are now in, or willsoon be entering, the workplace
understand the impact of the socialization and lifestyle of the three younger generations now entering the workplace
describe the rights and interests --& legal aspects--concerning both employees and employers regarding employees' personal appearanceat the workplace
(cont.)
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.5
Defining Organizations
The word organization has a number of meanings and interpretations that have evolved over the years.
We think of organizations as entities of two or more people who cooperate to achieve an objective(s).
The first were likely primitive hunting parties. Organization and a high degree of coordination
were required to bring down huge animals. revealed in fossils from as early as 40,000 years ago
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.6
Defining Organizations
The word organization may be defined as “a consciously coordinated social entity, with a relative identifiable boundary, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or setof goals.”
Social entity refers to the fact that Organizations are composed of people who interact with one another & people in other organizations.
Relatively identifiable boundary alludes to the organization’s goals and the public served.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.7
Defining Organizations
Four different types of formal organizations have been identified by asking “Who benefits?” mutual benefit associations, (police labor unions) business concerns, (General Motors) service organizations, such as community mental
health centers commonweal organizations, such as criminal justice
agencies, where beneficiaries are the public at large
It is important to note that no two organizations are exactly alike. nor is there one best way to run an organization
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.8
Evolution of Organizational Theory
Organizational theory studies organizational designs & structures, relationship of organizations with their external environment, and behavior of administrators and managers within organizations.
The history of management can be divided into three approaches and time periods: scientific management (1900–1940) human relations management (1930–1970) systems management (1965–present)
Another important element may be added: bureaucratic management.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.9
Evolution of Organizational TheoryScientific Management
Frederick W. Taylor is known today as the father of scientific management.
He became interested in methods for getting greater productivity from workers.
Taylor recommended giving workers hourly breaks, going to a piecework system and other adjustments.
Productivity soared, the number of employees needed dropped, worker earnings increased, and production costs were reduced.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.10
Evolution of Organizational TheoryScientific Management
Taylor was highly criticized by unions for his management-oriented views. but proved administrators must know their employees
His views, published in The Principles of Scientific Management in 1911, caught on. soon, emphasis was placed entirely on the formal
administrative structure Terms such as authority, chain of command, span
of control, and division of labor were coined.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.11
Evolution of Organizational TheoryScientific Management
In 1935, Luther Gulick formulated POSDCORB, an acronym for planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting.
Application of scientific management to criminal justice agencies was heavily criticized.
It viewed employees as passive instruments whose feelings were completely disregarded. in addition, employees were considered to be
motivated by money alone
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.12
Figure 2.1 Gulick’s POSDCORB. Source: Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick, Papers on the Science of Administration (New York: Institute of Public Administration, 1937).
Evolution of Organizational TheoryScientific Management
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.13
Evolution of Organizational TheoryHuman Relations Management
Beginning in 1930, people began to see negative effects of scientific management on the worker.
Movement toward human relations management began with studies by the Harvard Business School at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Co.
In the 1940s & 50s, police departments recognized effects of the informal structure on the organization. democratic/participatory management appeared
Many police managers saw this trend as unrealistic. employees began to give less & expect more in return
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.14
Evolution of Organizational TheorySystems Management
In the 60s, human relations & scientific management combined in the systems management approach.
This approach recognized it was still necessary to have hierarchical arrangement for coordination. authority & responsibility were essential overall organization was required
Systems management combined the work of Abraham Maslow, Douglas McGregor, andRobert Blake & Jane Mouton.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.15
Evolution of Organizational TheorySystems Management
The approach holds that to be effective, the manager must be interdependent with other individuals & groups and have the ability to recognize and deal with conflict and change.
Managers require knowledge of people, money, time, and equipment team cooperation is required to achieve these goals
Several theories of leadership also have evolved over the past several decades. trait theory, leadership styles, and situational
approaches
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.16
Evolution of Organizational TheoryBureaucratic Management
Criminal justice agencies fit the description of an organization.
They are managed by being organized into a number of specialized units.
Administrators, managers, and supervisors exist to ensure that these units work toward a common goal.
They agencies consist of people who interact within the organization and with external organizations, and they exist to serve the public.
Criminal justice organizations are bureaucracies, as are nearly all large organizations in modern society.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.17
Evolution of Organizational TheoryBureaucratic Management
Idea of pure bureaucracy was developed by Max Weber, German sociologist & “father of sociology”.
Weber argued that if a bureaucratic structure is to function efficiently, it must have these elements:
Rulification and routinization rules save effort by eliminating need for deriving
a new solution for every problem facilitate standard, equal treatment of similar situations
Division of labor performance of functions by parts of an organization
along with authority to carry out these functions
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.18
Evolution of Organizational TheoryBureaucratic Management
Hierarchy of authority each lower office is under control & supervision
of a higher one Expertise
specialized training is necessary Written rules
administrative acts, decisions, & rulesare formulated and recorded in writing
Most police & prison organizations are based on traditional, pyramidal, quasi-military organizational structure containing elements of a bureaucracy.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.19
Evolution of Organizational TheoryBureaucratic Management
Bureaucracies are often criticized on two grounds. they are said to be inflexible, inefficient, and
unresponsive to changing needs and times also said to stifle the individual freedom, spontaneity,
and self-realization of their employees James Q. Wilson referred to this discontent as the
“bureaucracy problem,” where the key issue is “getting the frontline worker . . . to do ‘the right thing.’”
In short, bureaucracies themselves can create problems.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.20
Figure 2.2The organizationas an input–outputmodel.
Another way to view organizations is as systems that take inputs, process them, and produce outputs.
Evolution of Organizational TheoryOrganizational Inputs/Outputs
A police agency processes reports of crimes and attempts to satisfy the customer (crime victim).
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.21
Organizational Structure
All organizations have an organizational structureor table of organization. written or unwritten, very basic or highly complex
The size of the organization depends on demands placed on it and resources available to it.
Growth precipitates need for more personnel, greater division of labor, specialization, writtenrules, and other such elements.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.22
Organizational Structure
In building the organizational structure, the following principles should be kept in mind:
Principle of the objective every part of every organization must be an
expression of the purpose of the undertaking Principle of specialization
activities of every member should be confinedto performance of a single function
Principle of authority there should be a clear line of authority to every
person in the group
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.23
Organizational Structure
Principle of responsibility responsibility of the superior for the acts of his/her
subordinates is absolute Principle of definition
content of each position, duties involved, authority and responsibility contemplated, and relationships with other positions should be clearly defined
Principle of correspondence responsibility & authority should correspond
Span of control no person should supervise more than six direct
subordinates
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.24
Organizational Structure
A major principle of hierarchy of authority isunity of command, placing one superior officer in command/control of every situation and employee.
The unity-of-command principle ensures that multiple and/or conflicting orders are not issued.
Every person in the organization should report to one and only one superior officer.
When the unity-of-command principle is followed, everyone involved is aware of the actions initiatedby superiors and subordinates.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.25
Figure 2.3 Chain of command.
A simple structureindicating the directline of authority in achain of command
OrganizationalStructure
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.26
Figure 2.4 Organization pyramid. Source: Adapted R. Human Behavior in Organizations, p. 349. © 1966. Reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
The classic pyramidal design, shown here, has the following characteristics:
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.27
Organizational StructurePyramidal Design
Nearly all contacts take the form of orders going down and reports of results going up the pyramid.
Each subordinate must receive instructions and orders from only one boss.
Important decisions are made at the pyramid top. Superiors have a specific span of control,
supervising only a limited number of people. Personnel at all levels except at the top and bottom
have contact only with their boss above them and their subordinates below them.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.28
Communication in the OrganizationImport and Consequences
Communication is very important in our society. People consider language an index of culture,
breeding, personality, intelligence, integrity. Ignorance or improper use of language can easily
interfere with your success and advancement. Communication becomes exceedingly important
and sensitive in criminal justice organizations, as practitioners often see people at their worst, when they are in embarrassing, compromising situations.
To communicate what is known could be devastating to parties concerned.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.29
Communication in the OrganizationDefinition and Characteristics
Today we communicate via e-mail, fax, video, cell phones, satellite dishes, and many other forms. also written letters and memos, body language,
TV & radio, newspapers and meetings
Studies have shown communication is the primary problem in administration. lack of communication is employees’ primary
complaint about their immediate supervisors Estimates vary, but all studies emphasize the
importance of communications in everyday law enforcement operations.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.30
Communication in the OrganizationCommunication Process Elements
Encoding to convey an experience or idea, we translate,
or encode, that experience into symbols Transmission
translation of the encoded symbols into some behavior that another person can observe
Medium communication must be conveyed through
some channel or medium
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.31
Communication in the OrganizationCommunication Process Elements
Reception verbal & nonverbal symbols reach the senses of the
receiver and conveyed to the brain for interpretation Decoding
the individual who receives the stimuli develops some meaning for the verbal and nonverbal symbols and decodes the stimuli
Feedback after decoding transmitted symbols, the receiver
usually provides response or feedback to the sender
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.32
Communication in the OrganizationDefinition and Characteristics
Systems of communication are usually created with formal areas of responsibility & delegation of duties.
Most criminal justice administrators prefer a formal system.
Several human factors affect communication. employees typically communicate with those persons
who can help them to achieve their aims they avoid communicating with those who do not
Communication within a criminal justice organization may be downward, upward, or horizontal.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.33
Communication in the OrganizationFive Types of Downward Communication
Job instruction relating to the performance of a certain task
Job rationale relating a certain task to organizational tasks
Procedures and practice organizational policies, procedures, rules & regulations
Feedback appraising how an individual performs assigned tasks
Indoctrination designed to motivate the employee
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.34
Communication in the OrganizationUpward Communication
Communication is often difficult and infrequent when superiors are isolated and seldom seen or spoken to.
In large organizations, administrators may be located in headquarters far from operations personnel. complexity of the organization may also cause
prolonged delays of communication Communication delays are inherent in bureaucracy.
the more levels the communication passes through, the more it is filtered and diluted in its accuracy
Many problems could be minimized or eliminatedif superiors took time to listen to employees.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.35
Communication in the OrganizationHorizontal Communication
Thrives when formal communication channels arenot open.
A disadvantage is that it is easier and more natural, and often replaces vertical channels.
It is essential if subsystems within a criminal justice organization are to function in an effective and coordinated manner.
Horizontal communication may also provide emotional and social bonds that build moraleand feelings of teamwork among employees.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.36
Communicating in Police OrganizationsConsequence, Jargon and the Grapevine
Officers must possess the ability to communicate internally and externally regarding policies and procedures that affect daily operations.
Like people in other occupations, police have their own jargon, dialect, and slang used on a daily basis. they help officers to communicate among themselves
The police also communicate with one another by listening and talking on the squad car radio. generally with codes in use since the 1920s
The police also use of a phonetic alphabet, designed to avoid confusion between letters that sound alike.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.37
Communicating in Police OrganizationsConsequence, Jargon and the Grapevine
Added to other barriers to effective communication, the grapevine can hinder communications.
It is fast, operates mostly at the workplace & supplements regular, formal communication.
On the positive side, the grapevine can be a tool for management to gauge employees’ attitudes, spread useful information, and help employees vent frustrations. it can also carry untruths and be malicious
Without a doubt, the grapevine is a force for administrators to reckon with on a daily basis.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.38
Oral and Written Communications
Our society tends to place considerable confidence in the written word within complex organizations.
Often, in spite of the writer’s best efforts, information is not conveyed clearly.
Criminal justice organizations seem to rely increasingly on written communication, with tendency toward written rules, policies & procedures has been caused by three developments: the requirement for administrative due process civil liability the accreditation movement
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.39
Oral and Written Communications
In recent years e-mail has proliferated as a communication medium in criminal justice organizations. easy-to-use, almost instantaneous, in upward,
downward, or horizontal directions E-mail messages can lack security and can be
ambiguous—not only with respect to content meaning but also with regard to what theyrepresent.
Are such messages, in fact, mail, to be given thefull weight of an office letter or memo, or shouldthey be treated more as offhand comments?
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.40
Other Barriers to Effective Communication
Several other potential barriers to effective communication exist.
Some people, for example, are not good listeners. Other things obstruct communication, including time
constraints, inadequate or excessive information, prejudices, strained sender–receiver relationships.
Subordinates do not always have the same “big picture” viewpoint that superiors possess and do not always communicate well with someone in a higher position who is perhaps more fluent and persuasive than they are.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.41
Other Barriers to Effective CommunicationCultural Cues
At least 90 percent of communication is nonverbalin nature, involving posture, expressions, gestures, tone of voice.
People learn to interpret these nonverbal messages by growing up in a particular culture, but not every culture interprets nonverbal cues in the same way.
Criminal justice practitioners must possess cultural empathy and understand the cultural cues ofcitizens from other nations.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.42
Primary Leadership TheoriesWhat is Leadership?
Probably since the dawn of time administrators have received advice on how to do their jobs from those around them.
To understand leadership, the term must first be defined, an important & fairly complex undertaking.
Perhaps the simplest definition is to say leading is “getting things done through people.”
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.43
Primary Leadership TheoriesOther Definitions of Leadership
“Influencing activities of an individual or group in efforts toward goal achievement in a given situation”
“Working with and through individuals & groups to accomplish organizational goals”
“The activity of influencing people to strive willingly for group objectives”
“The exercise of influence” In criminal justice organizations, the role might be
defined as “influencing organizational members to use their energies willingly and appropriately to facilitate the achievement of the [agency’s] goals.”
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.44
Primary Leadership TheoriesTrait Theory
Popular until the 1950s, based on the contention that good leaders possessed certain charactertraits that poor leaders did not.
Has lost much support since the 1950s, partly because of the basic assumption of the theorythat leadership cannot be taught.
Quantifiable means to test trait theory were limited, and inability to measure these factors was the real flaw in and reason for the decline of trait theory.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.45
Figure 2.5 Traits and skills commonly associated with leadership effectiveness. Source: Adapted from Gary A. Yukl, Leadership in Organizations, pp. 70, 121–125, Table 3-6. © 1981. Reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Primary Leadership TheoriesTrait Theory
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.46
Primary Leadership TheoriesStyle Theory
A study investigated how leaders motivated individuals/groups to achieve organizational goals.
Three principles of leadership behavior emerged: leaders must give task direction to their followers Closeness of supervision directly affects employee
production leaders must be employee oriented
The major focus of style theory is the adoption of a single managerial style by a manager based on his or her position in regard to initiating structure and consideration.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.47
Primary Leadership TheoriesStyle Theory
Autocratic leaders are leader centered and have a high initiating structure.
A democratic leader tends to focus on working within the group and strives to attain cooperation from group members by eliciting their ideas and support.
Laissez-faire is a hands-off approach in which the leader is actually a nonleader. this may not be a leadership style at all it may be an abdication of administrative duties
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.48
Figure 2.6 Style theory. Source: Richard N. Holden, Modern Police Management (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1986), p. 40.
Three pure leadership styles were thought tobe the basis forall managers: autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.49
Situational Leadership®
Recognizes that the workplace is a complex setting subject to rapid changes. states the best way to lead depends on the situation
The model emphasizes the leader’s behavior in relationship to followers’ behavior and requires that the leader evaluate follower readiness in two ways. willingness (motivation) and ability (competence)
Situational Leadership® takes into account worker readiness; readiness is defined as the capacity to set high but attainable goals, the willingness to take responsibility, and the education and/or experience of the individual or the group.
c
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.50
Situational Leadership® R1 followers are neither willing nor
able to take responsibility for taskaccomplishment.
R2 followers are willing but are notable to take responsibility for taskaccomplishment.
R3 followers are not willing but areable to take responsibility for taskaccomplishment.
R4 followers are willing and ableto take responsibility for taskaccomplishment.
Figure 2.7a Situational Leadership®. Source: Copyright 2006. Reprinted with permission of the Center for Leadership Studies, Inc., Escondido. CA, 92025. All rights reserved.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.51
Situational Leadership® S1-Telling. High task/low relationship
one-way communicationleader defines roles of followers
S2-Selling. High task/high relationshipTwo-way communicationSocioemotional support to getfollowers to accept decisions
S3-Participating.High relationship/low task styleindicates that both the leader andfollowers have the ability andknowledge to complete the task.
S4-Delegating.Low relationship/low task stylefollowers “run their own show”
Figure 2.7b Situational Leadership®. Source: Copyright 2006. Reprinted with permission of the Center for Leadership Studies, Inc., Escondido. CA, 92025. All rights reserved.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.52
Situational Leadership®
The style-of-leader portion of Fig 2.7 means that, as the readiness level of followers develops, the appropriate style of leadership moves correspondingly. a police supervisor who has a subordinate whose
maturity is in the R3 range (able but unwilling) would be most effective when employing an S3 (participating) style of leadership
Hersey and Blanchard asserted that leaders could reduce their close supervision and direction of individuals and increase delegation as followers’ readiness to complete tasks increased.
c
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.53
The Managerial Grid
In 1964, Blake and Mouton developed their managerial grid from the studies done by Edwin Fleishman and others at Ohio State University.
The Ohio team used two variables, focus on task (initiating structure) and focus on relationships (consideration), to develop a managementquadrant describing leadership behavior.
The managerial grid (Figure 2.8) includes five leadership styles based on concern for output (production) and concern for people.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.54
Figure 2.8 Managerial grid. Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. Exhibit from “Breakthrough in Organizational Development” by Robert R. Blake, Jane S. Mouton, Louis B. Barnes, and Larry E. Greiner, Harvard Business Review, November–December 1964. Copyright © 1964 by the Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation; all rights reserved.
Authority–compliancemanagement (9,1)
Country clubmanagement (1,9)
Middle-of-the-roadmanagement (5,5)
Impoverishedmanagement (1,1)
Teammanagement (9,9)
The five leadership styles can be summarized as:
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.55
Characteristics and Skills of America’sBest Leaders
Given today’s skepticism and distrust of leaders, it may seem there is a dearth of leadership.
A survey found that twenty-first-century authentic leaders know who they are; they do not feel a need to impress or please others. they inspire those around them & bring people
together around shared purposes & common values Usually authentic leaders demonstrate five traits:
pursuing their purpose with passion; practicing solid values; leading with hearts as well as heads; establishing connected relationships; self-discipline
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.56
Characteristics and Skills of America’sBest Leaders
Robert Katz identified three skills leaders should possess, each resulting in the achievement of objectives and goals, the primary management task.
Technical skill - those a manager needs to ensure specific tasks are performed correctly.
Human skill - involve working with people, including being thoroughly familiar with what motivates employees and how to utilize group processes.
Conceptual skill - “coordinating & integrating activities and interests of the organization towarda common objective.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.57
Motivating Employees
Some have sought to do so through justice (Plato), others through psychoanalysis (Freud), some through conditioning (Pavlov), some through incentives (Taylor), and still others through fear(any number of dictators and despots).
From the Industrial Revolution to the present, managers have been trying to get a full day’swork from their subordinates.
Many theories have attempted to explain motivation.
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/eKenneth J. Peak
© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.58
Motivating EmployeesThe Hawthorne Studies
An important theory that criminal justice leaders must comprehend is that of the Hawthorne effect. which essentially means that employees’ behavior
may be altered if they know they are being studied The Hawthorne studies revealed people work for
many reasons, not just for money and subsistence. for the first time, clear evidence was gathered to
support workers’ social and esteem needs At least three major new areas of inquiry evolved:
what motivates workers leadership organizations as behavioral systems.
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Motivating EmployeesMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham H. Maslow (1908–1970), founder of the humanistic school of psychology, conducted research on human behavior at the Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, during the 1940s.
The behavior patterns analyzed were those of motivated, happy, and production-oriented people—achievers, not underachievers.
He studied biographies of historical and public figures and also observed and his contemporaries—none of whom showed psychological problems or signs of neurotic behavior.
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Figure 2.9 Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs. Source: A. H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1970).
Maslow’s observations coalesced into a hierarchy of needs
He suggested needs shouldbe filled in sequential orderto prevent frustration
Maslow’s research indicatedthat once a person reaches ahigh state of motivation, he/shewill remain highly motivated,will have a positive attitudetoward the organization, andwill adopt a “pitch in and help” philosophy
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Motivating EmployeesExpectancy and Contingency Theories
The 1960s, expectancy theory, states employees will do what managers or organizations want if: the task appears to be possible the reward (outcome) offered is seen as desirable employees believe performing the task will bring
the desired outcome there is a good chance that better performance
will bring greater rewards The theory will work for an organization that specifies
behaviors it expects the rewards or outcomes for those who exhibit such behaviors.
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Motivating EmployeesExpectancy and Contingency Theories
In the 70s, Morse & Lorsch described their contingency theory, with these basic components: among people’s needs is a central need to achieve a
sense of competence ways in which people fulfill this need will vary competence motivation is most likely to be achieved
when there is a fit between task and organization, an a sense of competence continues to motivate people
even after competence is achieved This tells managers to tailor jobs to people or give
people skills, knowledge, and attitudes they need.
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Gamers, Tattoos, and AttitudesGenerations X, Y, and Next Employees
Many articles and books are being written about understanding and motivating those persons of four younger generations who are now entering or will soon enter the workplace.
Generation X - persons born between 1965 & 1975 Generation Y - between 1976 & 1980. The Next generation - between 1990 &1995 Millennials - also termed Generation 2.0––
extremely tech-savvy and digitally literate 20-somethings preparing to enter the workplace
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Gamers, Tattoos, and AttitudesGenerations X, Y, and Next Employees
These generations grew up amid rising crime rates, violence & terrorism; structured lives; multicultural society & resurgence of the “American hero”. police officers & firefighters commonly in the news
Almost 90 percent have use the Internet; more than half send text messages daily and use social networking sites, have a tattoo or body piercing,or have dyed their hair a nontraditional color.
They have an emerging sense of patriotism and political interest, feel special, connected, confident, hopeful, goal/achievement oriented, and inclusive.
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Gamers, Tattoos, and AttitudesGenerations X, Y, and Next Employees
Their television viewing habits are unique as well. Dragnet vs CSI; Starsky and Hutch vs 24; &
Three’s Company vs The Simpsons An entire generation grew up in a game world––
where reward is everywhere. gaming offers everyone the opportunity to be in
charge, succeed, and be a star With respect to tattooing, while a member of these
generations might not look twice at exposed ink or metal, administrators of the baby boomer generation might find it offensive.
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Implications for the Criminal Justice Workplace
How might criminal justice integrate such individuals into a work environment with a strong hierarchy and no reset button?
The American workplace will increasingly becomea playing field of competing viewpoints and values.
The implications for criminal justice administrators are several. they should think of ways in which they can take
advantage of the motivations of these younger generations as they enter the field
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Implications for the Criminal Justice Workplace
It is also recommended these leaders attempt to understand the younger employee’s preferred work environment.
Such leaders should avoid judging those whose work ethic is slightly different from theirs.
Regarding tattooing, administrators are given some control over their employees’ appearance––andmay find guidance in that arena––in a 1976 U.S. Supreme Court decision, Kelley v. Johnson. the Court said appearance regulations are generally
valid unless so irrational that they are arbitrary
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SUMMARY
Most young people entering the labor force would probably like to retain their individuality, feel free to express themselves, have a sense of being an important part of the team, and realize both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards from their work.
In reality, a majority of people will work within and organization that will not meet all of their needs.
Many organizations have a highly refined bureaucracy. Whether an organization will meet an employee’s
needs depends largely on its administrative philosophy.