CHAPTER IV

ORGANISATIONAL STRESS AND JOB SATISFACTION - .4 Review

Although stress is a concept that has interested

psychologisrs for many years, early studies on stress were

resmcted to the field of medicine.

P h y s ~ o l o ~ s t . Walter Canon (1914), had used the term stress

to describe emotional states that had detr~mental physical results

on organisms In 1935. he modified the use of the term to

descnbe the physlcal stimuli and used the term s t r a n to mean the

organism s response

Ho\\ever, rhc work of Hans Sel!e (19361 is generally

cons~dercd to bc the first major discussion on stress a s a n

exclus~ve phenomenon Sevle absented a phenomenon called the

General Adnptation Syndrome (GAS1 It was described a s the bodlly

response to prolonged stressful curumstances m the form of

p h y ~ ~ o l o p c d . psycholo@cal and behavloural responses.

The modern theonst who has conmbuted moat on stress u

L.nrur 11966 and 1971). who pomts out. that both the

85

environmental stimulus and the reacting individual are vital

ckments, in the stress process.

In thls chapter ~t 1s auned to renew the earher studies m

stress to find out some of the ways by which stress rntght anse, to

consrdcr tts out come and low stress IS resolved The renew 1s

dindcd Into lour pans, b u

S h r d ~ r s on mprnq styles of stress, and

Shrdles on stress tn dtfferent s e c o n tncludlng banks.

tnchanng bank

A.K. Snuasmm (1985) obtalned data from 400 first line

techntul .upenvwra. Role stress x a l e of Ruzo, House and

86

Lr tanrrn (1970) war employed to a r e a s the subjects' role stress.

The J o b Anxiety S c d e atandardised by Sriycrstam (1974) was

used. One of the seven subscales of the Employee's Motivation

Schedule standardized by Snuastatm (1984) was administered to

the Ss to assess h e i r lwel of work related need for achievement.

f h e results md~cated that the employee's 11-Ach markedly

moderates the role stress-job anxtety relat~onship.

Moms and Snyder (1980) ~n theu study on 262 public sector

employees, found that need for achlevemcnt and need for

autonomv la~led to pronde convincing emdence of penCasive linear

mudrrattng ellecrs between role stress variables. role confl~ct and

role ambigu~ty and thc outcomes organlsatlonal commitment, job

~nvolvcment, psvrhosomatlc complaints and propenslp to leave

the organ~sa t~on

In order to understand the moderating effects of need for

ach~wement . the charactenst~cs of ind~vlduals who are high m

nerd for ach~cvcmetn should be examined In terms of the

tnsrrument used in t h ~ s study [Fnes and Knox. 19721, htgh-need-

for-ach~evement md~v~dualn possess the fo l lomg charactensttcs

(a) they are mom goal-onented; (bl thev p l a n w a t e r e rnphas~s on

accompliahmg udcs a r qu~ckly a s possible (c) thq plece p e t e r

emphasis on exerttng theu best effort and (d) they p l a a more

emphasls on success than on bang self-contented. These

charactenst~cs show that, when h~gh-need-for-achiwement

mdivlduals ncelve conflicting demands from theu role c ~ t , they

face greater obstacles m efficient task accomphshment Thus. it

also seems reawnable that h~gh-need-for-ach~evement mdtvlduals

are more dmsatlsfied w t h lntersender role confl~ct

Hangopal (1980) obtalned data from 100 supervisors

working In a publtc sector undertaking and ~nvestigated the

p.rsonal~t\ factors ego strength and dornlnance vs

subm~sstvrriess a s moderators of the reiat~onsh~p between role

srrrss var~ables and companx sat~sfact~on and job ~nvolvement

Thc results suggested that htgh ego strength subjects reported less

of role confltct than thc low ego strength subjects

Snuasrata (1984) obtalned data from 120 male Indian

managera [age 35-51 years) on ego strength, job ~nvolvement and

occupottonal stress Subjects uith h ~ g h ego strength expencnced

mtld a m 8 8 a n s m g from role confltct relative to that expencnced by

SubJecta w t h low or moderate ego strength S~rndarly Subjects

wth hgher job r n ~ l v e m e n t also experienced lower a m s a than

88

those with low or moderate job involvement. The results indicated

that ego strength and job involvement interacted to moderate the

effects of atrear.

Abdel- HaLm ( 198 1) INvestlgated whether employees ability

acts a s a moderating factor on the rclaaonship between role

confict and mmnsic - aatlsfact~on. He collected data from 89, (30-

65 years old) m~ddle-lower managenal personnel from a large

manufacrunng company The results faled to mdlcate any

moderat~ng effects

Olpcn (1963) colltctcd data from 91 mtddlc- managers on

mle stress pcrsonallh. and measures of psychological and physical

straln The rr la t~ons be twen role confllct and psycholog.lcal stram

were stgn~flcantlv positive and hlgher among type A than type B

pcrbonal~ties Results highhght the role of penonahcy factors in

detemunmg how people react to d~fferent kurds of smss

Dhadda (1990) s tud~cd the mlatlonshlp of role a t m a , job

tnvolmmr and p m o n a l ~ t y ~ p e s in awation and railway o f f i d .

The umplc conmeted of 50 mlway and 50 aviation offianla. For

the purpose of the study, the ORS scale (Pareek, 1983~). the Job

lnvolvemetn Scale (Lodahl and Kejner, 1965) and the Type-A /

w - B Scale (Bortner, 1969) were administered to the

respondents.

M~nal (19921 studied role stresses in relation to coping

styles. locus of control and personal~ty type using a sample of 147

doctors belonging to both private and government hospital

scttlngs

P A' Sntasrola and $1 M S ~ n h n 119831 ~nvestlgated the effect

of c m p l o ~ c r s ego strength and lob ~n\.oi\ement on thew expenence

01 role stress arlstng from role o~erload role amblgult\ a n d role

corlfl~ct f h r \ op~ncd that thesr tuo r.anablcs arc of central

Importance In lnflucnclng rmplo\+res behamour and adjustment

on the job

4.1.1 8- and Background fhcton

The background variables atudied by Sen (1981) in rrlation

to role rueem were age, sex, educauon, income, farmly type,

rmrital status, residence, distance from residence to place of work.

distance from place of domicile to place of work, entry a n d

prevlous job experience. Some of the conclusions draw by Sen

were that role etagnation decreases a s people advance in age, age

18 negauvely related with role stress. Women experience more role

stress a s compared to men. Role stress ia inversely related to

mcome; the h~gher the tncome, the less 18 the level of reported role

stress. Unmamed persons expenence more stress than married

persons This may be due to thetr cornparaove lack of security

nerd, rcsult~ng In h~gher self-esteem, autonomy and self-

actualuat~on needs Persons from urban background made

expenence more stress

Bhatnagar and Bose [ 1985) made and attempt to ~dentlfy age

and leadersh~p srvlrs a s correlates of 10 types of role sursses . For

thts purpose. Leadrr Elfectlveness and Adapcabihty Descnpuon

(LEAD) (Heraey and Blanchard, 1972) and ORS Scale (Parrek,

1983cl wem admtnlstercd Means, SD and Person's product

moment coeffiaents of correlaoon were used to a n a l p the data .

The frndrngs of d ~ e study revealed that branch managers scored

l o r n on role unb~guity, self-role &stance and role stagnaaon

tndrcat~ng that respondents do not really experience major

stresses ul these areas.

Beena and Poduval ( 199 1 ) studred gender differences m

relatton to the work stress w t h age a s an Independent vanable

The sample conststed of 80 first-level execut~ves of a large

industrial organltation A 25-~tem work stress related scale was

der.elopcd b, ustng ttcms from the Htggmgs' scale (1991) The

findrngs of the s ~ u d \ indicated that stress expenence of the

cxecutt\rs ~ncreased uith advanctng age Sex u a s also found to bc

s major fac!or affecting the stress condttton

Tnk11!9;31 in his stud\ of 226 salesmen crnplojed b\ a large

rnunulacturcr of pharmaceuttcal and health products. s h o ~ r s that

length of srn1ces in his present posrttons u a s not found be

stgnificantl! related to role strarn Sirn~larly Rrchardson, and

Stator. (19741 ~n theu stud) among sales w l s In a department

store mdtcated that overall department store expenence and

length of s c m c e wrr unrelated to role stram These two s t u d ~ e s

show that length of s e ~ c e may not ~nfluence role strarn among

u l e s persons Robably because of the nature of t h e r jobs. No

sagntficmr c o m l a t ~ o n was obtmned between Job tenure and Job

92

stress by Graham (1983) in his study on 9 0 professional country

employees, and Singh (1983 in h ~ s study on 205 s u p e ~ s o r y and

administrative personnel.

Pelnt (1973) found a negatlvc nlacionsh~p between role

bonflict and age Parasuraaman and Aluno (1984) o b t l n e d data

from 217 employees of a medium-s~zed food processing plant.

Results showed that increasing age was assoclated wth abll~ty to

tolerate stress But one cannot full\. stress the fact that wth

increase m age, confl~ct will be lesser Moreover, contrad~ctory

find~ngs have been obtalned in other s t u d ~ e s Madhu and

Harigopal (19891 obta~ncd data from 65 techn~cal and non-

t cchn~ra l supcnrisors cmplo>ed in a major public sector industry

I t uan found char Role confl~c! was sign~ficantl\ and posrtlvely

correiared wwth age for the techn~cal sample and the pooled

sample I t \sar argued rhar a s age (and also experience) increase

one tends ro establish a set of stabillad role expectauons and may

become less mduct~ve to change his behamour

Mahmoud Tnlo (1978). Graham (1980) m their studies

found chat age wcls not s~gntficantly related to role s m . Sin&

(1983) also found that age aplyed a much smaller role m

perception role conficts.

Education plajs an Important role m the expenence of

confl~ct Pelt~t (1973) In h ~ s study, observed a pos~tlve relat~onshrp

between role confllct and level of educat~on. I e . he found that role

confllcr was p o s ~ t ~ v c l ~ related (1973) dld not find any slgnlficant

rclat~onship berween these vanablcs Slngh 11983) found that

education played a srnallc: role ~n the pcrceptlon of role confllct.

In another s t u d \ . Ahmad and Khanna 11992) ~nvestlgated

rhr r r l i l t~onsh~p brr\rrrn job strrss. job satisfaction and job

~nvolrrmrnr among 50 rnlddle Ir\rl hotel managers (aged 22-36

vrars) Thr a n a i s s ~ z of the data rr\eaied a srgn~ficant negatlvc

mlationship twturen job stress and job sat~sfact~on irrespectl\-e of

the subjrcts' KX, manta1 starus, rducation and expenence

Occupar~onal s n e s s was reported to be negat~vely comlated w t h

p b mvolvement, and the h ~ g h job ~nvolvement group was more

uc~sf ied w t h thew job &an the low job ~nvolvement group

Pandey (1997) conducted a study to determine- the

relationship between personal demographics and organizational

role stress. The study was conducted on 61 personnel of Indian

Railways (aged 28-58 years ). Rol stresses were measured by

administering the Organizational Role Stress Scale (Pareek,

1 9 8 3 ~ ) . The analysis revealed a positive but non-significant

relationship of age with all the dimensions of role stress except

role ambiguity. Similarly, education showed positive but non-

significant correlation with all the 10 dimensions of role stress.

Expenencc was reported to be positively and significantly

assoc~ated w t h ~nter-role distance, role expectation conflict, role

a m b ~ g u ~ t y , personal ~nadequacy, role stagnation, role erosion, and

self-role distance.

The m a n findings of Kumar's (1989) study mdicated that

unmamed executives, executives marned to worlung women, and

marketing executives experienced significantly higher total role

stress. Role stagnation. and personal inadequacy were found to be

significantly higher among lower level executives.

4.1.3 Stress and Organhational Variables

Pamsumman and AluRo (1981) identified a number of

sources of stress (Stressors) in the- work environment and

examined the relationship of contextual, task and role related

variables to such stressors.

Das (1982) has reported that negarlve work group climate

and powerlessness may be dominant causes of stress expenenced

by lndran managers, than role ambiguity.

Das (1982) has reported that work group climate is a n

important cause of managerial stress and perceived power is the

second most potent cause of managerial stress. Role arnbigulty did

not anse a s a significant cause of stress. Thus, negative group

climate and powerlessness may be domlnant causes of stress

experienced by Indian managers.

Jagdish (1983) investigated the relationship of occupational

stress with job satisfaction and mental health of first level

%

superviwrm u r d found that occupational stress arising fmm role

overload, role ambiguity, role conflict, group and political

presmures, responsibility for persons, their participation.

powerlesmness, poor peer relations, intrinsic impoverishment. low

status , strenuous workmg condiuons and unprofitability

sign~ficantly unpav the supenisor s job satisfaction, overall a s well

as area-wae.

Research psycholog~st Sand1 Mann of University of Salford

( 1998) stated that employees who are under increasing pressure to

appear enrhusiast~c, mterested. cheerful and fnendly at all times

In their work place are highly stressed

Jenni/er Srnlth (1998) stated that work place buily~ng

consistmg of \?ctirmsatlon, pressure management. long hours,

diflicult dutles, lack of suppon and unsought promotion, results

In stress. She advocated that managers should be aware of change

In atmosphere among staff, hold agenda free meetings and

conduct exlt lntervlewa to dent@ work place bullymg.

Moms (1980) conducted a study on 3 widely diflering - vocational groupings (professional, clerical and manual employees;

55, 129 and 75 subjects respectively). Results ind~cated that

comparattve influences of role confl~ct and role ambiguity differ

with respect to the outcomes - organisational commitment, job

~nvolvement, work - related psychosomatic illness - with respect to

d~flerences tn the complenty of roles

hrnble (1980) tn hls study on 80 dtstnct agriculturists

~agncultural cxtcnslon agents) found that tolerance of arnbtgulry,

agc extcnston tralntng and extenston expenence acted a s

moderat~ng vanablrs In some of the relationshtps bctwcen role

srrcss and var~ous personal outcomes

Grrenr 119801. m hts s t u d \ , obtatned data from 247 sentor

sctenttsts and englnecrs emplo\ed m the research and

de\~elopmenr dlmslons of a n alr frame manufacturer, a n electrontcs

and buslncss equipment firm. a n d a paper products

manufnctumr The object~\,e was to assess the moderat~ng effects

of formnlraaoon on the relauonship bemaen major forms of

~denuficatron : the profers~onal. orgamaaoonal, mrxtd'. and

mbfferent ~dcntlficationa. \nth role streso v ~ n e b l e s . Results

ruggerted that identification with one's profession and-not with

the organisation war associated with stronger feelings of role

conflict and dienation, particularly within more formalined

organiretional settings.

House. R u m . &RLmQn 11970) tn thetr study found that the

spec~fic organtsat~onal practices whtch tend to be assoc~ated w t h

hlgh mle conficr are goal confltct and lnconststenc)., delay in

drctslons, d~s ton ton and suppresston of tnforrnanon and vlolabons

of the cham of command

S u e of a n organtsarion IS also a causal armbute of role

confl~ct Alan and Slanton 1197 4) In thetr study found that medtum

- sued departments seemed to tnclude mom role - stram than

e ~ t h e r larger or smaller dcpanments

Cummmgs and Elsalrm (1968) obtamed data from 425

managern of Amencan buuness organlsatlons Company amc was

mea8ures thmugh the total number of managrment and non-

management employees in the company. It was found that small

companies were associated with more need fulfdment than both

medlum - arzed and large cornpanlea.

S u p e ~ s o r ) . behanour and attitudes of role-senders to t h e ~ r

liubordinates has a n Important ~nfluence In causing role confict

Slote (1971) In hls study explored two aspects of role confl~ct, job

confl~ct and ~nterpcrsonal confllct It was found that whlle role

confl~ct and communlcatlon patterns d ~ d show s~gn~ficant Inverse

rc la t~onsh~ps the\ urrc based on the critlcall!. d~fferent and

d~yuncttvc pcrceptlons of the d \ad partners

B e v r Vctonn and .Alien ll98J) In thelr stud! matched the

mk expectations of 887 lndustnal managers to percel\.ed and

actual expectatlona held for subjects by thew unmedmte supcnors

All the vanance was found to come dvectly from the managers

pr r rp t lon of the supenor s exprctatlons.

Gmham (1983) in his study revealed that significant

comlationn existed ktween the employees' job streu and leader

khaviour description questionnaire acores of the diatrict

programme leaden' leader behamour. k initiation structure and

consideration Korea of the dintrict programme leader incr-,

the job ntresr Korea decreamd. Simiily, Kenneth (1983) in his

rtudy of 116 sales persons indicated that sale s u p e ~ s o r y

khnviour, consideration, initiation structure, participation and

feedback wm related to sales force perceptions of rule stresa.

Schular (1980) surveyed 382, high, middle and low level

employees m a large rnanufactunng finn. Data showed that

partlclpat~on m decla~on malung was negauvely related to role

conhct From thew studies, 11 can be suggested that, the h~gher

the lnltlatlon and cons~dcrat~on of the supenor the lesser the

conn~ct faced by the focal persons \58.720%~86

V13

h n a s (1969) m h ~ s study found that arpenenced role

confbct to k hyhly comlated wth W m e n t wth ones

rupenor over the d e g m of authonty to docate orguusaaonal

reguda, e g , p y , promotlonr, etc , to one a subordmates. He a h

found that p c m g managen a hrgh delpn of authonty to define

their own jobr had no significant relationrh~p to the degree of role

conflict.

House. h. Ltemnn (1970) In thew study found that role

confbct to be lower under c o n d ~ t ~ o n s m wh~ch superiors arc

descnbed a s more frequently engapng In emphasrnng production

under cond~oons of uncenamry. provldlng structure and

standards, facllitatmg team work, toleratmg upward ~nfluence

Commun~car~on uith the role senders or to h ~ g h e r level

aurhor~r\ has a sign~ficant lnfluence In causlng confl~ct.

Wtnharnpcr and Kenr 119841 In thclr stud\ exam~ncd assoclatlons

k r u e e n SLX o r g a n ~ ~ a t ~ o n d l commun~car~on processes and job

srrTss . ~ n d the relatt\c Importance of communlcatton processes m

explaining rhc presence of stress Results suggest that c e n a n

commun~ca t~on processes, especiall\ supervlson and top

management communication, ma\ pla\ an important role In

provoking s trrss

4.1.1 B t r e u m d Job Pecforrmnce

An employee n a n organuatlon performs m accordance wth

vanous relevant expectat~ons of others around hun HIS

performance In the organmtlon depends on task acuvltlcs,

behavloural settlngs a s well a s patterns of interpersonal

connecrednrss' Somet~mes such job actlwtles or job roles

threaten to exceed the occupant's capacltles and produce role

stress The emot~onal, p h y s ~ o l o ~ c a l and behanoural responses to

expcnenced s m s s are greatly Influenced by personal attnbutes

and experiences u h ~ c h . In turn, may lnfluencc an mdlvldual's

output

A.K Snvastava (19831 attempted to explore the stress-

performance (productron) mlanonsh~p, considering the latter as a

determinant of the former rather than vice versa. The study was

conducted on a p u p of 60 akillcd workers with equal number of

h ~ g h (N-30). The find~ngs of the study established that employees

who maintained a constantly high production level by virtue of

thew attributed productivity perceived and experienced less role

stress a s compared to employees with low production capacity.

Schuler (1975) reported that at the lower and middle level of

the organ~aatlon, role ambiguity 1s negativeiy related to job

performance but this was not found at the higher lwei of the

organlaation. The lack of s~gnlficant relatlonship at higher level is

because, as the employees in organlsatlons are promoted, they

acqulrr skills or coplng uith role ambiguit).

Brehr 11976) tn his studv on 331 employees of a large

manufactunng firm and Persuraman (1978) on 217 members of a

food-prcxess~ng company, report that role-ambiguity was found to

have h~ghcr negatlrr relatlonship with performance lor employees

at h~gher Irvel a In an organlstltlon that a t lourr levels.

Expenencc or job tenure IS Wtel!. to moderate the

rrlatlonshlp k t w n n job amblgu~ty and performance. Chonko

(1979) mhca tes that low performance 1s related to arnblgu~ty for

l e u expcnenced d e s people. Less e x p e n e n d sales people often

fmd themselves in new rituations. requiring new information.

whereas for experienced sales people certain aspects of their jobs

tend to become 'routiniacd'.

Efendroglu (19791, based on data from 54 tellers worlung at

two banking mstltutions md~catcd that performance feedback may

positively affect the degree of perce~ved role a m b ~ g u ~ t y a s caused

by the non-exlstencc or non-clanc of behavloural requuements

Bernard~n (1981) found that for patrol oficers, a m b ~ g u ~ t y was

s~gn~ficantly related to the wrgents overall performance rarlngs.

Madhu and Hangopal (1980) In t h e ~ r study camed out on 65

male suprntsors I c . (40 tcchn~cal and 25 non-techn~cal

supewisorsl reported that role amblgulry was negat~vely related to

job performance onl? for the non-techn~cal sample

Peetarn Sngh and Asha (1983) from theu studv on 60

manage- from 3 eategones (Ch~ef uecuuve , departmental head

and supemsor) from 40 organlsatlons compnsmg 10 mdustnes

found that o r g a n ~ ~ t l o n d non0mnovaUon. poor man-

performance and inadequate utilisation of human skrlls are results

of role ambiguity.

M~cheals. Ronald (1983) in their study on 1.005 purchasing

profess~onals found significant and inverse relationship between

role confict and hlgh performance.

4.2.2 S t m u and Job Ihtlshction

Job satisfaction is a general attltude which 1s the result of

manv specific a t t ~ t u d e s In three areas, namely. spcclfic job factors.

~r~d~vidui i l r h i l r ~ c t ~ n ~ t ~ c s and group relationsh~ps ou ts~de the job

Job factors rrfrr to wagrs. supen*lslon, s tead~nrss of employment.

renditions of work, advancement opportunities. recognition of

abilin., fair evaluation of work, socral relations on the job. prompt

settlemenf of grievances, fa11 treatment by employer, etc.

lndivldual characfenstrcs refer to age, health, temperament.

d e s ~ r e s and levels of aspnatlon. Group relat~onsh~ps outslde the

job are h ~ s farnlly relationsh~ps. social status. recreational outlets,

and acurqt?. In o r g a n ~ s a t ~ o n s - labour polit~cal or purely social. Job

aabsfact~on plays an imporrant role m terms of its rc laaonsh~p

with role conflict. Unless a n individual feels satisfied with his job

intrinsically and extrinsically, he might experience stress in his

role. lntr ins~c aspect of work refers to the satisfaction and

enjoyment a man feels from performing hrr job well. That is, the

degree to which a worker takes an actlve interest in co-workers

and company functions and desires to contribute to job-related

decisions. E m s i c aspect of the job means the value of the job

and social status assoc~ated with it. It has been found that the

higher the role conflict. the lower the job satisfaction (Srilatha,

1991)

House. R z z o and Lrtzrnan (197011n thew study found that

there exisrs lourred degrees of need fulfillment w t h ~ncrcased role

confl~cr Need areas associated uith work itself, the reward system.

and the pleasantness of the soc~a i enwonment appear srrmlarly

affected.

Kmnf (1966) In hls study found that role conflict was

negatrvely related to aatrsfact~on wth the job, the organraatlon and

especlPlly the manager

Miles (1974) reported that experienced role conflict related to

adverse personal outcome, that is, job dissatisfaction.-He found

that both are mutually causative. Keller (1975) also confumed a

negative relationship between role confl~ct and job satisfaction.

Schuler (1975) obtained data from 33 1 employees of a large

manufacturing fum. The sample was divided into three

organisational levels : higher level - upper level managers.

Rofess~onal employees, middle level-middle-level managers, and

cntn. . Ir\.el profess~onals The result lnd~cared that a t lower levels

of the organlsatton, role confllc~ has a stronger negative

relatlonshlp uqth job satlsfactlon than at h~gher level employees

havr acqu~rcd or hove had more sk~lls ro handle and ut111se role

confl~cr than thc m~ddle level rrnplo!ees

Kahn (196 11 also ~ndrcates that role confllct IS more svtssful

and dlssatlsfylng In lower level posltlons, because the employee IS

mom dependent on h ~ s supenlsor and has httle power to ~nflucnce

hun The employers tnablllty to cope adequately w t h role confl~ct

when he 1s h~ghly dependent on h ~ s supenisor should t h u s lead to

d~s.etisfacuon wth the job

Senatra (1977) in his rtudy found role conac t to be

s~gnifcantly related to low job satisfaction. Same findings were

confumed by Carter (18781.

Ahmed (1981) obtaned data from difIerent technology

organraatlons Manufactunng and Banlung (N - 89 and 81

managenal and n o n - m a n a g e d personal nspcct~vely). The results

showed that role confllct was associated w t h lower work

satlsfact~on for ~ndtvlduals on simple. low-scope jobs In long-

l~nked (manufacrunng) techno lo^ and for ~ndlvlduals on complex.

h ~ g h - s c o w jobs in mediat~ng I s e n ~ c e ) techno lo^

Bemardm (1981) In his stud\ on 53 patrol officers, found

role confllct to be slgnlficantly related to satlsfactlon u ~ t h the work

~tself and uith supcn-tslon S~milar hndlngs were obtalned by Cold

well, (19811 on tuv samples of 100 black mdustnal workers each.

But s~gnlficant d~fferences were also obtamed between rugrant

and non-migrant black uvrkers w t h regard to t h ~ s aspect

Dabronrka (1981) diecussed problems (conflict situations) in

the process of rcalizatron of professional roles. These imply

undesirable consequences for the indiwdual an4 for the

organiaation a s a whole. Such consequences include

d~ssat~sfactron with work, decreased eflicrency and distrust of

supemaor 's and co-workers.

Snvastava and Parmar (1981) In t h e r study obtamed data

from 62 supervisors from 2 textile mllls Results Indicated a

negative relatronsh~p between role confllc~ and job sat isfact~on

However, the rnagn~tude of the relat~onshtp depended on the

instrument used for rneasunng sat~sfact~on

A number of other studies also support a negatlve

r r l a t ~ o n s h ~ p between role conf?~ct and job sa t~s fac t~on . (Slngh.

1983. Coldwrll. 1984. J a g d ~ s h and Snvastava. 1984)

4.3 8TRL88 AllO COPING STYLES

D Q u ~ c k (1979) concluded from thelr study that

organrzot~onal techn~ques hke Role Analvs~s Techn~que (RAT).

work rrdes~gn, job ennchmenr, performance planning and

mdtwdual techn~qucs like se rob~c exercrse. relaxahon respon8c

and psychotherapy are preventive techniques which help to

Improve quality of work life and also individual and organizational

effectiveness.

The study by David C. Ganster and Marcelhe. R. Fusilier

and Bronston T. Mayes (1986) examned the role of social support

m the expenence of work stress The results indicated that social

suppon shows a consistent relation wlth a vanety of stress

outcomes

Kaur and Murthy s (19861 study revealed that avoidance

strategtes were predominant a t junlor management level and

approach strateg;les were predominant for senior level

management personnel of publ~c and pnvate sector organisatlons.

Ahmad. Bhatr and Ahrnad (1990) studled smss and copmg

strateper among executive technocrats and found that whlle men

used defens~vc sntle more often than women, females largely used

the approach swlc of coplng

The rtudy by Shailendra S ~ n g h and Arvind.K.Sinha (1984)

ident~fied three categories of coping strategies, namely, s t rateges

w h ~ c h act on the w u r c c of stress, strateees which act on the

symptomatic efkcts of stress and that which acts a s a n escape

from the source and effects of stress.

Sam Bat l~va las (1990) comparative study between Indlan

and Amer~can execut~ves at the organ~sat~onal and personal level

revealed that I n d ~ a n executives experienced more personal

strrssors than thew Amencan counterparts, but they compared

f a ~ r ! ~ ucll uith t h e ~ r Amencan counterpans In the organ~sat~onal

frorlr T!lc aurhor concluded that thcrc IS no one best coplng

technlqucs and each person learns from h ~ s her oun personal

expcncnce to transform stress Into a n asset

liagan Norman. 1 . and b g a n Han!.a (1995) reported that

psvcho-educat~onal tralnlng programs helped to reduce job smss

and lmprove job performance. Royal Bank financial group.

Toronto has also tracked with surveys that ~ t s flexible work

arrangements (FWA's) whlch included job-shanng, fledtime.

compressed work weeks and work-at-home arrangements, helped,

to reduce work s tress and thereby reduce intention to quit' and

'abuntecism' and also increase employee efficiency and business

effectiveness.

Helen Whitten ( Jan 1997) revealed that ' m d maps whlch

is a method of organising thoughts and mformatlon usmg key

words and Images. helps mdicnduals m suess management The

technique is based on undmtandmg of all aspects of the

mdicndual s ltfestyle includmg family, work. fnends, leisure, sports

and so on. in order to help him develop appropnate stress

management s u a t e g ~ e s

Stephen Palmer (Apr 1997) describes problem-focussed

approach consisting of identifymg the problem, selecting goals.

exploring options, cons~denng consequences. malung decisions.

takmg actions and evaluating the strategv, as an affect~ve

approach which can be applied to stress counselhng and stress

management trammg.

Weslcv Sime (Apnl 1998 hlghhghted on the new perspectives

m the field of R o p s a i v e Relaxanon (Mcguigan and M m u n d

Jawboon Apnl 1998). 'Bmfeedback and also on the usage of a n

0bjNXlve instrument to document relationsh~p betweenjob stress

urd employee00 satisfaction and productivity (Settcriind and

L.ruon. 1995).

Roben Holden (Apnl 19981, a stress consultant, stressed on

laughter. happmess, poluuve outlook and a joyful h e m as jolly

good m c d m n n for streas.

JenlfIer Smlth (Apnl. 1998) emphasiscd that organisational

coptng approaches go a btt deeper than tndtadual approaches.

slncc t h r former 1s rooted In the fundamental understanding of

what 11 means to be a human bctng (nor just an emplo!ee) w t h all

Conscious and unronsnous rrsponses to stressful sltuatlons.

Organtsar~onal approaches are thus, h~ghl! indlvldual approaches.

just adrn~nistered coilect~vel!.

Though them are many studies In which, in one way or

another. the researcher has dealt w t h role s tresses cxpcnenced

11.1

by profeauonals of various organimations, only a few such studies

have been discussed here which compared various h u e s

pertaining to role stress with regard to public and private sector

professionals.

Jasmme (1987) conducted a study to compare the level of

job-related smss among public and private sector blue-collar

employees. A job stress scale developed by the author was

admln~stered to a sample of 120 blue-collar workers from public

and 120 from pnvate sector organizations. The analysis of the

data revealed that role ~ncumbents of publ~c sector organization

experienced slgn~ficantly mom stress than those of pnvate sector

organuatlons

Twv stud~es which dealt wth publ~c and pnvate sector

profeas~onals were conducted by Pestonjee and Smgh (1987) and

C P Smgh (1987). Both mveshgatlons stud~ed computer

professtonals. The former study dealt wth two job categones,

namely. system analysts and managen, of both pubhc and pnvate

oqanrzottons whereas m the latter study. S~ngh stud~ed three job

categones, namely managers. systems, personnel and operations

pcrwnnel of both types of organufahons.

I I S

Another 8tudy war conducted by Shanma (1987)gn two job

categories, namely, rnangera and aupernsors of both public and

pnvate pharmaceutical organizations to ascertain the effects and

roles of mot~vational cl~rnatca on four psycholopcal variables such

a aa job satisfaction, participation, d e n a t i o n and rok stresses.

The findings of the study revealed that employees of the

pnvate organuatlon scored h~gher and significantly differed from

chow or publ~c organuatlon a s regards inner-role distance, role

expecrarlon conflict, role eroston. role ~solat~on, personal

tnadcquacy and rcsourcc ~nadcquacg. Publlc organvation

emplo\ces, howcvrr, scored s~gn~ficantl! hlgher on role

stagnattons

Ahmad. Bharadwaj and Naruai (1985) conducted a study of

stvss among cxrrutlvrs A group of 30 excrutrvcs from the public

sector and another group of 30 executives from the pnvate sector

were comparcd on role sntss. It was found that there was no

major dtfference.

b u r . n d Munhy (1986) conducted a study- with the

intention of examining the nature of role stress, coping strategies

and locus of control of managerial personnel a t M e r e n t

orgmuational level In a major public sector industrial organization

and to investigate and relationsh~p amongst these variables.

h t t anayak (1993) exarnlned the level of stress expenenced

bv 240 employees of a n industry a pubi~c sector undertak~ng m

Onssa Results revealed that supervisors expenenced greater job

stress. lack of leadersh~p support, the lnequlty than executives

Emplo\ees of the product~on unlt expenenced greater job stress.

role conillct, role arnb~gu~t). , role overload, job difficulr\, lack of

lcadershtp support, tnequttv inadequacy of role authonn than

s e m c e employees

Satyannra\ana ( 1995) ~nvestlgated smsaors among 7 5

executives and .75 supervisors of Bharat Heavy Elecmcal

Ltd.(BHEL) The analysis of the data revealed that role erosion.

personable msdequacy. resource Inadequacy and role stagnation

were e x p e n e n d a s dommate conmbutors of mle stress in

executive supemmora. The two groups Mered ypllficantly in

117

respect of inta-role distance, role overload, personal inadequacy

and role ambiguity dimensions.

M ~ s h r a (1997) conducted a study to compare the lwel of

occupational s t ress among pubhc and pnvate sector public

relations omcers The analys~s of the data revealed that pubhc

relations o m c e n of publlc sector expenenced slgnlficantly higher

occupat~onal s t ress on the dlmenslons of role ambiguity, role

confllcr, unrtasonablr group and SIC ~mpovenshment, low status

and s trrnuous worklng condlt~ons a s compared ro publrc relations

oflicers of pnvatc sector

Ahmad. Bharadwaj and Narula (1985) conducted a study on

rtrclrs and found that publtc sector executives expenence slightly

morr stress than their counterparts in the pnvate sector.

Beckground fac ton hkr ag?, educat~on. Income expenence and

rnamal s ta tus of execurlws were unrelated to role stress In both

the g r o u p .

Smgh'a (1986) a p l o r a t o q study related to structure and

-c. of s m s a among executive of public and pnvate sector

118

organizations. Some of the results of h ~ s study revealed t6at hlgher

level executives expenenced less stress and stram, utllutd better

copmg strategter and enjoyed more positlve outcomes. Also

execunves of pu bhcs sector organuatlons expenenced less e f f m v e

coplng s trateees and rated themselves a s less effective than theu

counterparts from the pnvate sector. The results also revealed

than suc dunenstons of stress, namely, lack of group cohesiveness,

feekng of inequtty, lack of supemsory support, role amhguity. job

requuement capab~l~ ty mlsmatch and Inadequacy of role authority

had a ncgatlve hnear rclationsh~p whlle role conflrct and role

a m b i g u ~ n had an ~nvened u-shaped relauonsh~p w t h

performance

Pestonejec and Slngh's (1987) stud? revealed that managers

and s \s tems anallsts In pnvate organuations have more stress

and satlsfact~on when compared w t h theu counterparts m pubbc

o r g a n w n o n

Sen (1981) in hta study investigated the mam role stresses

erpenenced by employees in banks a t d f l e n n t levels and the

coping auategies adopted by them.

Uatng the ORS Scale (Reek, 1983c,) Sen observed httle

dtflerence between the scores m the three banks but he found

mterestlng data about d~flerence stn role stresses a t the

organrzattonal levels. Top level people obtiuned lower scores on

role stagnattons whereas clericals staff;abtamed the htghest score

on thts d~menstons Sen. has tnterval staff obtatned the highest

score on thts d tmens~ons Sen has lntcrpretcd thls by obsemng

that people at the lowest level felt that thev were stagnattng both

~ndtvlduall\ as well a s role-wse However, this feelmg decreased

a s people moved up In the hterarchv

Chaudhan (1990) exarntncd the mlattonshtp between role

srress and job sattsfact~on among bank oflicers. The main findlngs

of the stud! were a s follows

(a) Roic rroston and rrsource lnadquac!. were expcnenced as

dominant whereas role amb~gutv and role expectatton

confltct a s remote contnbutors of role smss among bank

offtcers.

(b) No significant drffemnces were oburvtd between the two age

groups on role stress dunenstons.

(c) The overall indices of role stress and job oatisfact& were

found to be negatively correlated in higher as well as lower

age groups of bank officers.

Another study related to bank professionals was conducted

by Pattanayak and Mishra (1997). The main objective was to

explore spcc~fically prevalence and determinants of organitatienal

climate, job stress and job strain among the employees in the

s e m c e Kctors. The study revealed that significant differences

were observed between banlung and Insurance employees with

regard to role confl~ct and experience of Inequity.

Mukherjee ( 1997) studled the relatronsh~p between

organlutlonal role stress, role efficacy, and organlzatlonal climate

among banking profess~onals. The sample consisted of 71

managers which ~ncluded 27 senior level and 44 juntor level

management personnel or a large banhng organuauon. They

concluded that. Juntor level managers expenenctd hlgher stress

on all the role stress dmens lons a s c o r n p a d to senlor level

managera. Stgruf~cant differences were observed knwten the two

groups on the dunensions of inter-role &stance. role overload.

p rmond inadequacy and total role stress.

The study by Anrta and Carolyn (1995). tested the effects of

vanou. demographic a n d soclo-economlc varinbk on perceived

stress among bank managers in both work and aon-work

enwonment , and established significant correlations between

perceived stress in the work and non-work enwonment among the

same bank managers.

I r la evldent from the above dlscuss~on that like Western

researchers lndran scholars also d~fferentl\ approached the

problem of stress The\ wewed thls phenomenon from vanous

prrspccrl\rs ranglng from s t~mulus orlented to response and

ps \chod\n .~m~c polnrs of vlru Anc~ent l n d ~ a n scholars, however.

scrm to h ~ v e plci due attenuon to thls lssue The slstcm of Yoga

IS sna l \ t~ca l and nor on]\ helps the mdlwdual In understanding

hls o\m strrsses but also leads hlrn to the roots of these stresses

There are subtle vanatlons m the lntensln u ~ t h which d~flemnt

strcsaors operate and ~t la not unltkely that the powerful strcsaors

become less or even dormant after a penod of tune whereas the

Ins ponrrful ones rnav d l sappar or return w t h greater vlgour

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