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OREIGN TRADE (EXEMPTION FROM APPLICATION OF RULES IN CERTAIN CASES) ORDER, 1993
Minitry of Commerce
Notification S.O. No. 1056 (E), dated 31-12-1993
In exercise of the powers conferred by section 3, read with section 4, of the Foreign Trade
(Development and Regulation) Act, 1992 (22 of 1992) and in supersession of the Imports (Control)
Order, 1955 and the Exports (Control) Order, 1988, except as respects things done or omitted to be
done before such supersession, the Central Government hereby makes the following Order, namely
:-
1. Short title and commencement. (1) This Order may be called the Foreign Trade (Exemption
from application of Rules in certain cases) Order, 1993.
(2) It shall come into force on the date of its publication in the Official Gazette.
2. Definitions. In this Order, unless the context otherwise requires,
(a) "Act" means the Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act, 1992 (22 of 1992);
(b) "Import Trade Regulations" means the Act and the rules and order made thereunder and theexport and import policy;
(c) "Rules" means the Foreign Trade (Regulation) Rules, 1993;
(d) Words and expressions used in this Order and not defined but defined in the Act shall have the
meanings respectively assigned to them in the Act.
3. Exemption from the application of rules. (1) Nothing contained in the Rules shall apply to the
import of any goods.
(a) by the Central Government or agencies, undertakings owned and controlled by the Central
Government for Defence purposes;
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(b) by the Central Government or any State Government, statutory corporation, public body or
Government undertaking run as a Joint Stock Company through the agency of the Purchase
Organisations of the Ministry of Supply, that is India Supply Mission, London and India Supply
Mission, Washington;
(c) by the Central Government, any State Government or any statutory corporation or public body or
Government undertaking run as a Joint Stock Company, orders in respect of which are placed
through the Directorate General, Supplies and Disposals, New Delhi;
(d) by transhipment or imported and bonded on arrival for re-export as ships stores to any country
outside India except Nepal and Bhutan or imported and bonded on arrival for re-export as aforesaid
but subsequently released for use of Diplomatic personnel, Consular Officers in India and the
officials of the United Nations Organisation and its specialised agencies who are exempt from
payment of duty under the notification of the Government of India in the Ministry of Finance
(Department of Revenue) No. 3, dated 8th January, 1957 and the United Nations (Privileges and
Immunities) Act, 1947 (46 of 1947) respectively;
(e) imported and bonded on arrival for sale at approved duty-free shops, whether to outgoing or
incoming passengers, against payments in free foreign exchange;
(f) which are in transit through India by post or otherwise, or are redirected by post or otherwise to
a destination outside India, except Nepal and Bhutan provided that such goods while in India are
always in the custody of the postal or customs authorities;
(g) for transmission across India by air to Afghanistan or by land, to any other country outside India,
except Nepal and Bhutan under claim for exemption from duty or for refund of duty either in whole
or in part :
Provided that such goods are imported by or on behalf of the Govern-ment or a country bordering
on India or that the importer undertakes to produce within a specified period evidence that such
goods have crossed the borders of India or in default to pay such penalty as the proper officer of
customs may deem fit to impose on such goods :
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Provided further that nothing contained in this item will exempt any goods from the Import Trade
Regulations;
(h) by the person as passenger baggage to the extent admissible under the Baggage Rules for the
time being in force except quinine exceeding five hundred tablets or 1/3 Ib powder or one hundredampoules :
Provided that in the case of imports by a tourist, articles of high value whose re-export is obligatory
under rule 7 of the Tourist Baggage Rules,1978 shall be re-exported on his leaving India, failing which
such goods shall be deemed to be goods of which the import has been prohibited under the
Customs Act, 1962 (52 of 1962):
Provided further that the import of gold in any form including ornaments (but excluding ornamentsstudded with stones or pearls) will be allowed as part of baggage by passengers of Indian origin or a
passenger holding a valid passport issued under the Passports Act, 1967 (15 of 1967) subject to the
following conditions, namely :-
(a) that the passenger importing the gold is coming to India after a period of not less than six months
of stay abroad;
(b) the quantity of gold imported shall not exceed 5 Kilograms per passenger;
(c) import duty on gold shall be paid in convertible foreign currency; and
(d) there will be no restriction on sale of such imported gold;
(i) by any person through the post or otherwise for his personal use, or by any institution or hospital
for its use except
(a) vegetable seeds exceeding one Ib. in weight;
(b) beer;
(c) tea;
(d) books, magazines, journals and literature which are not allowed to be imported under the Policy
for the time being in
force;
(e) goods, the import of which is canalised under the Policy;
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(f) alcoholic beverages;
(g) fire arms and ammunition;
(h) consumer electronic items (except hearing aids and life-saving equipments, apparatus and
appliances and parts thereof):
Provided that the c.i.f. value of goods imported as aforesaid at any one time shall not exceed rupees
two thousand.
(j) by or on behalf of Diplomatic personnel, consular officers and Trade Commissioners in India who
are exempted from payment of Customs duty under Notification No. 3 dated the 8th January, 1957
of the Government of India in the Ministry of Finance (Department of Revenue);
(k) from any country, which are exempted from Customs duty on re-importation under section 20 of
the Customs Act, 1962 (52 of 1962) or under Customs Notification Nos. 113 dated 16th May 1957,
103 dated 25th March, 1958, 260 and 261 dated llth October, 1958, 269, 271, 273, 274, 275 and 276
dated 25th October, 1958 and 204 dated 2nd August, 1976, of the Government of India, Ministry of
Finance (Department of Revenue) or Notification No. 174, dated the 24th September, 1966 or
Notification No. 103, dated the 16th May, 1978, of the Government of India, Ministry of Finance
(Department of Revenue and Insurance) or Notification No. 80, dated 29th August, 1970;
(1) of Indian manufacture and foreign-made parts of such goods, exported and received back by the
manufacturer from the consignee for repair and re-export:
Provided that
(i) the customs authorities are satisfied that the goods received back by the said manufacturers are
the same which were so exported; and
(ii) in the case of goods other than those exempted from customs duty on reimportation under
Customs Notification No. 132, dated 9th December, 1961, a bond is executed by the importer with
the customs authority at the port concerned to the effect that the goods thus imported will be re-
exported after repair within six months;
(m) by officials of the United Nations Organisation and its specialised agencies who are exempted
from payment of Customs duty under the United Nations (Privileges and Immunities) Act, 1947 (46
of 1947);
(n) by the Ford Foundation who are exempt from payment of Customs duty under an Agreement
entered into between the Government of India and the Ford Foundation;
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(o) being vehicles as defined in Article I of the Customs Convention on the Temporary Importation of
Private Road Vehicles or the component parts thereof referred to in Article 4 of the said Convention
and which are exempted from payment of customs duty under the notification of the Government
of India in the Ministry of Finance (Department of Revenue) No. 296, dated the 2nd August, 1976 :
Provided that
(i) such vehicles or component parts are re-exported within the period specified in the said
notification or within such further period as the customs authorities may allow;
(ii) the provisions of the said notification or of the "triptyque or Camel-De-Passage" permit are not
contravened in relation to such vehicle or component parts :
Provided further that nothing contained in this item shall prejudice the application to the said
vehicles or component parts of any other prohibition or regulation affecting the import of goods that
may be in force at the time of import of such goods;
(p) being goods imported temporarily for display or use in fairs, exhibitions or similar events
specified in Schedule I to the notification of the Government of India in the Ministry of Finance
(Department of Revenue) No. 157/90-CUSTOMS, dated the 28th March, 1990 against ATA Carnets
under the Customs Convention on the ATA Carnets for temporary admission of goods (ATA
Convention) done at Brussels on the 30th July, 1963:
Provided that
(i) such goods are exported within a period of six months from the date of clearance or such
extended period as the Central Government may allow in each case; and
(ii) the provisions of the said notification or of the ATA convention are not contravened:
Provided further that nothing contained in this item shall prejudice the application to the said goods
of any other prohibition or regulation affecting the import of goods that may be in force at the time
of import of such goods;
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(q) covered by an import licence issued by His Majesty's Government of Nepal and the importer
furnishes a bond to the proper officer of customs in the form prescribed by such officer with a
Scheduled Bank as surety to the effect that he shall pay the duty and pay penalty imposed for
contravening Import Trade Regulations in respect of the whole or any portion of the goods which is
not proved to have entered the territory of Nepal;
(r) of Indian manufacture or by the Central Government or any State Government for repair and re-
export to Indian Embassies abroad or to any other office of the Central Government or State
Government in a foreign country;
(s) being foodgrains, by Food Corporation of India:
Provided that at the time of clearance, a declaration to the effect that the import in question hasbeen approved by the Central Government, is furnished by the importer to the Customs authorities;
(t) being articles of food and edible material, which are supplied as free gift by the agencies
approved by the United Nations Organisation and which are exempted from payment of customs
duty under the Notification of Government of India in the Ministry of Finance (Department of
Revenue) No. GSR 766, dated 21st June, 1975.
(2) Nothing contained in the Rules shall apply to
(a) any goods exported by or under the authority of the Central Government;
(b) any goods other than foodstuffs constituting the stores or equipment of any outgoing vessel or
conveyance;
(c) any goods constituting the bona fide personal baggage of any person, including a passenger or
member of a crew in any vessel or conveyance, going out of India:
Provided that the Wild Life (dead, alive or part thereof or produce therefrom) shall not be treated as
part of such personal baggage;
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(d) any goods exported by post or by air under the conditions specified in postal notice issued by the
Postal Authorities;
(e) any goods transhipped at a port in India after having been manifested for such transhipment at
the time of despatch from a port outside India;
(f) any goods imported and bonded on arrival in India for re-export to any country outside India,
except Nepal and Bhutan;
(g) any goods in transit through India by post or any goods re-directed by post to a destination
outside India except Nepal and Bhutan:
Provided that such goods while in India are always in the custody of the postal authorities;
(h) any goods imported without a valid import licence and exported in accordance with an order for
the export of such goods made by the proper officer of Customs;
(i) products approved for manufacture in and export from the respective Free trade Zones/Export
Processing Zones and 100 per cent Export Oriented Units except textile item covered by bilateral
agreements, exports to Rupee Payment Countries under the Annual Trade Protocol and Exports
against payment in Indian Rupees to former Rupee Payment Countries:
Provided that conditions imposed by the Board of Approval on an Export Oriented Unit of Export
Processing Zone unit will be binding on such a unit;
(j) export of Blood group Oh (Bombay Phono type) meant for scientific research or emergency
medical treatment, as life saving measure on humanitarian grounds by the Director, National Blood
Group Reference Laboratory, Bombay on the basis of a certificate issued by him to this effect in each
case;
(k) export of samples of lubricating oil additives. Lube Oil, crude oil and other related petroleum
products and raw materials used to manufacture Lube Additives by Lubrizols India Limited,
Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited, and Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited, from their
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installation in India to Lubrizol's Laboratories in the United States of America and the United
Kingdom for evaluation and testing purposes.
anana
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Banana (disambiguation).
Banana
Banana 'tree' (Musa acuminata 'Lacatan'). Illustration from the 1880 book Flora de Filipinas by
Francisco Manuel Blanco
Hybrid parentage
Musa acuminata × Musa balbisiana
Colla 1820
Cultivar group
See Banana Cultivar Groups
Origin
Southeast Asia, South Asia
Banana is the common name for herbaceous plants of the genus Musa and for the fruit they
produce. Bananas come in a variety of sizes and colors when ripe, including yellow, purple, and red.
Almost all modern edible parthenocarpic bananas come from the two wild species Musa acuminata
and Musa balbisiana. The scientific names of bananas are Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana orhybrids Musa acuminata × balbisiana, depending on their genomic constitution. The old scientific
names Musa sapientum and Musa paradisiaca are no longer used.
Banana is also used to describe Enset and Fe'i bananas, neither of which belong to the Musa genus.
Enset bananas belong to the genus Ensete while the taxonomy of Fe'i-type cultivars is uncertain.
In popular culture and commerce, "banana" usually refers to soft, sweet "dessert" bananas. By
contrast, Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called plantains. The distinction is purely
arbitrary and the terms 'plantain' and 'banana' are sometimes interchangeable depending on their
usage.
They are native to tropical South and Southeast Asia, and are likely to have been first domesticatedin Papua New Guinea.[1] Today, they are cultivated throughout the tropics.[2] They are grown in at
least 107 countries,[3] primarily for their fruit, and to a lesser extent to make fiber, banana wine and
as ornamental plants.
Contents [hide]
1 Description
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2 Taxonomy
3 Historical cultivation
4 Modern cultivation
5 Pests, diseases, and natural disasters
6 Uses
7 See also
8 Footnotes
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Description
Banana inflorescence, partially opened.
Banana 'tree' showing fruit and inflorescence.
The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant.[4] The plants are normally tall and fairly
sturdy and are often mistaken for trees, but their main or upright stem is actually a pseudostem that
grows 6 to 7.6 metres (20 to 24.9 ft) tall, growing from a corm. Each pseudostem can produce a
single bunch of bananas. After fruiting, the pseudostem dies, but offshoots may develop from the
base of the plant. Many varieties of bananas are perennial.
Leaves are spirally arranged and may grow 2.7 metres (8.9 ft) long and 60 cm (2.0 ft) wide.[5] They
are easily torn by the wind, resulting in the familiar frond look.[6]
Each pseudostem normally produces a single inflorescence, also known as the banana heart. (More
are sometimes produced; an exceptional plant in the Philippines produced five.)[7] The inflorescence
contains many bracts (sometimes incorrectly called petals) between rows of flowers. The female
flowers (which can develop into fruit) appear in rows further up the stem from the rows of male
flowers. The ovary is inferior, meaning that the tiny petals and other flower parts appear at the tip of
the ovary.
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The banana fruits develop from the banana heart, in a large hanging cluster, made up of tiers (called
hands), with up to 20 fruit to a tier. The hanging cluster is known as a bunch, comprising 320 tiers,
or commercially as a "banana stem", and can weigh from 3050 kilograms (66110 lb). In common
usage, bunch applies to part of a tier containing 3-10 adjacent fruits.
Individual banana fruits (commonly known as a banana or 'finger') average 125 grams (0.28 lb), of
which approximately 75% is water and 25% dry matter. There is a protective outer layer (a peel or
skin) with numerous long, thin strings (the phloem bundles), which run lengthwise between the skin
and the edible inner portion. The inner part of the common yellow dessert variety splits easily
lengthwise into three sections that correspond to the inner portions of the three carpels.
The fruit has been described as a "leathery berry".[8] In cultivated varieties, the seeds are
diminished nearly to non-existence; their remnants are tiny black specks in the interior of the fruit.
Bananas grow pointing up, not hanging down.
Bananas are naturally slightly radioactive,[9] more so than most other fruits, because of their high
potassium content, and the small amounts of the isotope potassium-40 found in naturally occurring
potassium.[10] Proponents of nuclear power sometimes refer to the banana equivalent dose of radiation to support their arguments.[11]
Taxonomy
The genus Musa is in the family Musaceae. The APG II system, of 2003 (unchanged from 1998),
assigns Musaceae to the order Zingiberales in the clade commelinids in the monocotyledonous
flowering plants. Some sources assert that the banana's genus, Musa, is named for Antonio Musa,
physician to the Emperor Augustus.[12] Others say that Linnaeus, who named the genus in 1750,
simply adapted an Arabic word for banana, mauz.[13] The word banana itself might have come from
the Arabic banan, which means "finger",[13] or perhaps from Wolof banaana.[14] The genus
contains many species; several produce edible fruit, while others are cultivated as ornamentals.[15]
Banana classification has long been a problematic issue for taxonomists due to the way Linnaeus
originally classified bananas as two species based only on their methods of consumption, Musa
sapientum for dessert bananas and Musa paradisiaca for plantains. However, this simplistic
classification has proved to be inadequate to address the sheer number of cultivars (a lot of them
synonymous) existing in its primary center of diversity, Southeast Asia.[16]
Ernest Cheesman first discovered that Musa sapientum and Musa paradisiaca, described by
Linnaeus, were actually cultivars and descendants of two wild and seedy species, Musa acuminata
and Musa balbisiana, both first described by Luigi Aloysius Colla.[17] He recommended their
abolition in favor of reclassifying bananas according to three morphologically distinct cultivars -
those primarily exhibiting the botanical characteristics of Musa balbisiana, those primarily exhibiting
the botanical characteristics of Musa acuminata, and those with characteristics that are the
combination of the two.[16]
Researchers Norman Simmonds and Ken Shepherd proposed the genome-based nomenclature
system in 1955. This system eliminated almost all the difficulties and inconsistencies of the
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nomenclature system of bananas based on Musa sapientum and Musa paradisiaca. Despite this,
Musa paradisiaca is still recognized by some authorities today, leading to confusion.[17][18]
Generally, modern classifications of banana cultivars follow Simmonds' and Shepherd's system. The
accepted names for bananas are Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana or Musa acuminata × balbisiana,
depending on their genetic ancestry.
Synonyms include:
Musa × sapientum L.
Musa paradisiaca L.
Musa × paradisiaca L.
Musa paradisiaca L. subsp. Musa sapientum J. G. Baker
Musa rosacea N. J. von Jacquin
Musa violacea J. G. Baker
Musa cliffortiana L.
Musa dacca P. F. Horaninow
Musa rosacea N. J. von Jacquin
Musa × paradisiaca L. subsp. sapientum(L.) C. E. O. Kuntze
Musa × paradisiaca var. dacca (P. F. Horaninow) J. G. Baker ex K. M. Schumann
For the banana cultivar previously referred to as Musa sapientum, see Latundan Banana.[19] Forbananas and plantains previously referred to as Musa paradisiaca, see Plantain.[17]
For a list of the cultivars classified under the new system see Banana Cultivar Groups.
Comparison between the two wild banana ancestors in the Simmonds and Shepherd table (1955)
Species Musa acuminata Musa balbisiana
Color of pseudostem Black or grey-brown spots Unmarked or slightly marked
Petiole canal Erect edge, with scarred inferior leaves, not against the pseudostem Closed
edge, without leaves, against the pseudostem
Stalk Covered with fine hair Smooth
Pedicels Short Long
Ovum Two regular rows in the locule Four irregular rows in the locule
Elbow of the bract Tall (< 0.28) Short (> 0.30)
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Bend of the bract The bract wraps behind the opening The bract raises without bending
behind the opening
Form of the bract Lance- or egg-shaped, tapering markedly after the bend Broadly egg-shaped
Peak of the bract Acute Obtuse
Color of the bract Dark red or yellow on the outside, opaque purple or yellow on the inside
Brown-purple on the outside, crimson on the inside
Discoloration The inside of the bract is more bright toward the base The inside of the bract is
uniform
Scarification of the bract Prominent Not prominent
Free tepal of the male flower Corrugated under the point Rarely corrugated
Color of the male flower White or cream Pink
Color of the markings Orange or bright yellow Cream, yellow, or pale pink
Historical cultivation
Early cultivation
Southeast Asian farmers first domesticated bananas. Recent archaeological and
palaeoenvironmental evidence at Kuk Swamp in the Western Highlands Province of Papua New
Guinea suggests that banana cultivation there goes back to at least 5000 BCE, and possibly to 8000
BCE.[1] It is likely that other species were later and independently domesticated elsewhere in
southeast Asia. Southeast Asia is the region of primary diversity of the banana. Areas of secondary
diversity are found in Africa, indicating a long history of banana cultivation in the region.
Actual and probable diffusion of bananas during Islamic times (7001500 AD)[20]
Phytolith discoveries in Cameroon dating to the first millennium BCE[21] triggered an as yet
unresolved debate about the date of first cultivation in Africa. There is linguistic evidence that
bananas were known in Madagascar around that time.[22] The earliest prior evidence indicates that
cultivation dates to no earlier than late 6th century AD.[23] It is likely, however, that bananas were
brought at least to Madagascar if not to the East African coast during the phase of Malagasy
colonization of the island from South East Asia c400CE.[24]
The Buddhist story Vessantara Jataka briefly mention about banana, the king Vessantara has found a
banana tree (among some other fruit trees) in the jungle, that bear bananas of the size of an
elephants tusk.
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The banana may have been present in isolated locations of the Middle East on the eve of Islam.
There is some textual evidence that the prophet Muhammad was familiar with bananas. The spread
of Islam was followed by far-reaching diffusion. There are numerous references to it in Islamic texts
(such as poems and hadiths) beginning in the 9th century. By the 10th century the banana appears in
texts from Palestine and Egypt. From there it diffused into north Africa and Muslim Iberia. During the
medieval ages, bananas from Granada were considered among the best in the Arab world.[20] In650, Islamic conquerors brought the banana to Palestine. Nowadays, banana consumption increases
significantly in Islamic countries during Ramadan, the month of daylight fasting.
Bananas were introduced to the Americas by Portuguese sailors who brought the fruits from West
Africa in the 16th century.[25] The word banana is of West African origin, from the Wolof language,
and passed into English via Spanish or Portuguese.[26]
Many wild banana species as well as cultivars exist in extraordinary diversity in New Guinea,
Malaysia, Indonesia, China, and the Philippines.
There are fuzzy bananas whose skins are bubblegum pink; green-and-white striped bananas with
pulp the color of orange sherbet; bananas that, when cooked, taste like strawberries. The DoubleMahoi plant can produce two bunches at once. The Chinese name of the aromatic Go San Heong
banana means 'You can smell it from the next mountain.' The fingers on one banana plant grow
fused; another produces bunches of a thousand fingers, each only an inch long.
Mike Peed, The New Yorker[27]
Plantation cultivation
Fruits of wild-type bananas have numerous large, hard seeds.
Ripened bananas (left, under sunlight) fluoresce in blue when exposed to UV light.
In the 15th and 16th century, Portuguese colonists started banana plantations in the Atlantic Islands,
Brazil, and western Africa.[28] As late as the Victorian Era, bananas were not widely known in
Europe, although they were available.[28] Jules Verne introduces bananas to his readers with
detailed descriptions in Around the World in Eighty Days (1872).
In the early 20th century, bananas formed the basis of large commercial empires, exemplified by the
United Fruit Company, which created immense plantations especially in Central and South America.
These were usually commercially exploitative, and the term "Banana republic" was coined for states
like Honduras and Guatemala, representing the fact that these companies and their political backers
created and abetted "servile dictatorships" whose primary motivation was to protect the
companies.[29]
Modern cultivation
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All widely cultivated bananas today descend from the two wild bananas Musa acuminata and Musa
balbisiana. While the original wild bananas contained large seeds, diploid or polyploid cultivars
(some being hybrids) with tiny seeds are preferred for human raw fruit consumption.[30] These are
propagated asexually from offshoots. The plant is allowed to produce 2 shoots at a time; a larger
one for immediate fruiting and a smaller "sucker" or "follower" to produce fruit in 68 months. The
life of a banana plantation is 25 years or longer, during which time the individual stools or plantingsites may move slightly from their original positions as lateral rhizome formation dictates.
Cultivated bananas are parthenocarpic, which makes them sterile and unable to produce viable
seeds. Lacking seeds, propagation typically involves removing and transplanting part of the
underground stem (called a corm). Usually this is done by carefully removing a sucker (a vertical
shoot that develops from the base of the banana pseudostem) with some roots intact. However,
small sympodial corms, representing not yet elongated suckers, are easier to transplant and can be
left out of the ground for up to 2 weeks; they require minimal care and can be shipped in bulk.
It is not necessary to include the corm or root structure to propagate bananas; severed suckers
without root material can be propagated in damp sand, although this takes somewhat longer.
In some countries, commercial propagation occurs by means of tissue culture. This method is
preferred since it ensures disease-free planting material. When using vegetative parts such as
suckers for propagation, there is a risk of transmitting diseases (especially the devastating Panama
disease).
As a non-seasonal crop, bananas are available fresh year-round.
Cavendish
Cavendish bananas are the main commercial banana cultivars sold in the world market.
In global commerce, by far the most important cultivars belong to the triploid AAA group of Musa
acuminata, commonly referred to as Cavendish group bananas. They account for the majority of
banana exports.[30] The cultivars Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain (Chiquita Banana) gained
popularity in the 1950s after the previous mass-produced cultivar, Gros Michel (also an AAA group
cultivar), became commercially unviable due to Panama disease, a fungus which attacks the roots of
the banana plant.[30]
Ease of transport and shelf life rather than superior taste make the Dwarf Cavendish the main export
banana.
Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultivation, Gros Michel is not extinct and is still
grown in areas where Panama disease is not found.[citation needed] Likewise, Dwarf Cavendish and
Grand Nain are in no danger of extinction, but they may leave supermarket shelves if disease makes
it impossible to supply the global market. It is unclear if any existing cultivar can replace Cavendish
bananas, so various hybridisation and genetic engineering programs are attempting tocreate a
disease-resistant, mass-market banana.[30]
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Ripening
Export bananas are picked green, and ripen in special rooms upon arrival in the destination country.
These rooms are air-tight and filled with ethylene gas to induce ripening. The vivid yellow color
normally associated with supermarket bananas is in fact a side effect of the artificial ripening
process.[citation needed] Flavor and texture are also affected by ripening temperature. Bananas are
refrigerated to between 13.5 and 15 °C (56 and 59 °F) during transport. At lower temperatures,
ripening permanently stalls, and turns the bananas gray as cell walls break down. The skin of ripe
bananas quickly blackens in the 4 °C (39 °F) environment of a domestic refrigerator, although the
fruit inside remains unaffected.
"Tree-ripened" Cavendish bananas have a greenish-yellow appearance which changes to a brownish-
yellow as they ripen further. Although both flavor and texture of tree-ripened bananas is generally
regarded as superior to any type of green-picked fruit,[citation needed] this reduces shelf life to only
710 days.
Bananas can be ordered by the retailer "ungassed", and may show up at the supermarket fully
green. "Guineo Verde", or green bananas that have not been gassed will never fully ripen beforebecoming rotten. Instead of fresh eating, these bananas are best suited to cooking, as seen in
Mexican culinary dishes.
A 2008 study reported that ripe bananas fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light. This property is
attributed to the degradation of chlorophyll leading to the accumulation of a fluorescent product in
the skin of the fruit. The chlorophyll breakdown product is stabilized by a propionate ester group.
Banana-plant leaves also fluoresce in the same way. Green bananas do not fluoresce. Thestudy
suggested that this allows animals which can see light in the ultraviolet spectrum (tetrachromats and
pentachromats) to more easily detect ripened bananas.[31]
Storage and transport
Bananas must be transported over long distances from the tropics to world markets. To obtain
maximum shelf life, harvest comes before the fruit is mature. The fruit requires careful handling,
rapid transport to ports, cooling, and refrigerated shipping. The goal is to prevent the bananas from
producing their natural ripening agent, ethylene. This technology allows storage and transport for 3
4 weeks at 13 °C (55 °F). On arrival, bananas are held at about 17 °C (63 °F) and treated with a low
concentration of ethylene. After a few days, the fruit begins to ripen and is distributed for final sale.
Unripe bananas can not be held in home refrigerators because they suffer from the cold.[citation
needed] Ripe bananas can be held for a few days at home. They can be stored indefinitely frozen,
then eaten like an ice pop or cooked as a banana mush.
Recent studies have suggested that carbon dioxide (which bananas produce) and ethylene
absorbents extend fruit life even at high temperatures.[32][33][34] This effect can be exploited by
packing the fruit in a polyethylene bag and including an ethylene absorbent, e.g., potassium
permanganate, on an inert carrier. The bag is then sealed with a band or string. This treatment has
been shown to more than double lifespans up to 34 weeks without the need for refrigeration.
Trade
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Top 10 banana producing nations
(in million metric tons)
India* 26.2
Philippines 9.0
China 8.2
Ecuador 7.6
Brazil 7.2
Indonesia 6.3
Mexico* 2.2
Costa Rica 2.1
Colombia 2.0
Thailand 1.5
World Total 95.6
Source: 2009 data, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations[3]
* Countries use 2008 FAO data
Bananas and plantains constitute a major staple food crop for millions of people in developing
countries. In most tropical countries, green (unripe) bananas used for cooking represent the main
cultivars. Bananas are cooked in ways that are similar to potatoes. Both can be fried, boiled, baked,
or chipped and have similar taste and texture when served. One banana provides about the same
calories as one potato.
In 2009, India led the world in banana production, representing approximately 28% of the worldwide
crop, mostly for domestic consumption. The six leading exporting countries (Table, right) together
accounted for about two-thirds of exports, each contributing more than 6 million tons, according to
Food and Agriculture Organization statistics.
Most producers are small-scale farmers either for home consumption or local markets. Because
bananas and plantains produce fruit year-round, they provide an extremely valuable food source
during the hunger season (when the food from one annual/semi-annual harvest has beenconsumed, and the next is still to come). Bananas and plantains are therefore critical to global food
security.
Bananas are among the most widely consumed foods in the world. Most banana farmers receive a
low price for their produce as grocery companies pay discounted prices for buying in enormous
quantity. Price competition among grocers has reduced their margins, leading to lower prices for
growers. Chiquita, Del Monte, Dole, and Fyffes grow their own bananas in Ecuador, Colombia, Costa
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Rica, Guatemala, and Honduras. Banana plantations are capital intensive and demand significant
expertise. The majority of independent growers are large and wealthy landowners in these
countries. Producers have attempted to raise prices via marketing them as "fair trade" or Rainforest
Alliance-certified in some countries.
The banana has an extensive trade history beginning with the founding of the United Fruit Company
(now Chiquita) at the end of the 19th century. For much of the 20th century, bananas and coffee
dominated the export economies of Central America. In the 1930s, bananas and coffee made up as
much as 75% of the region's exports. As late as 1960, the two crops accounted for 67% of the
exports from the region. Though the two were grown in similar regions, they tended not to be
distributed together. The United Fruit Company based its business almost entirely on the banana
trade, because the coffee trade proved too difficult to control. The term "banana republic" has been
applied to most countries in Central America, but from a strict economic perspective only Costa Rica,
Honduras, and Panama had economies dominated by the banana trade.
The European Union has traditionally imported many of their bananas from former European
Caribbean colonies, paying guaranteed prices above global market rates. As of 2005, these
arrangements were in the process of being withdrawn under pressure from other major trading
powers, principally the United States. The withdrawal of these indirect subsidies to Caribbean
producers is expected to favour the banana producers of Central America, in which American
companies have an economic interest.
The United States produces few bananas. A mere 14,000 tonnes (14,000 LT; 15,000 ST) were grown
in Hawaii in 2001.[35] Bananas were once grown in Florida and southern California.[36]
Pests, diseases, and natural disasters
Main article: List of banana and plantain diseases
Banana bunches are sometimes encased in plastic bags for protection. The bags may be coated with
pesticides.
While in no danger of outright extinction, the most common edible banana cultivar Cavendish
(extremely popular in Europe and the Americas) could become unviable for large-scale cultivation in
the next 1020 years. Its predecessor 'Gros Michel', discovered in the 1820s, suffered this fate. Like
almost all bananas, Cavendish lacks genetic diversity, which makes it vulnerable to diseases,
threatening both commercial cultivation and small-scale subsistence farming.[37][38] Some
commentators remarked that those variants which could replace what much of the world considers
a "typical banana" are so different that most people would not consider them the same fruit, and
blame the decline of the banana on monogenetic cultivation driven by short-term commercial
motives.[29]
Panama Disease
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Panama disease is caused by a fusarium soil fungus (Race 1), which enters the plants through the
roots and travels with water into the trunk and leaves, producing gels and gums that cut off the flow
of water and nutrients, causing the plant to wilt, and exposing the rest of the plant to lethal amounts
of sunlight. Prior to 1960, almost all commercial banana production centered on 'Gros Michel', which
was highly susceptible.[39] Cavendish was chosen as the replacement for Gros Michel because,
among resistant cultivars, it produces the highest quality fruit. However, more care is required forshipping the Cavendish, and its quality compared to Gros Michel is debated.
According to current sources, a deadly form of Panama disease is infecting Cavendish. All plants are
genetically identical, which prevents evolution of disease resistance. Researchers are examining
hundreds of wild varieties for resistance.[39]
Tropical Race 4
TR4 is a reinvigorated strain of Panama disease first discovered in 1993. This virulent form of
fusarium wilt has wiped out Cavendish in several southeast Asian countries. It has yet to reach the
Americas; however, soil fungi can easily be carried on boots, clothing, or tools. This is how Tropical
Race 4 travels and is its most likely route into Latin America. Cavendish is highly susceptible to TR4,and over time, Cavendish is almost certain to disappear from commercial production by this disease.
Unfortunately, the only known defense to TR4 is genetic resistance.
Black Sigatoka
Black sigatoka is a fungal leaf spot disease first observed in Fiji in 1963 or 1964. Black Sigatoka (also
known as black leaf streak) has spread to banana plantations throughout the tropics from infected
banana leaves that were used as packing material. It affects all main cultivars of bananas and
plantains, impeding photosynthesis by blackening parts of the leaves, eventually killing the entire
leaf. Starved for energy, fruit production falls by 50% or more, and the bananas that do grow ripen
prematurely, making them unsuitable for export. The fungus has shown ever-increasing resistance totreatment, with the current expense for treating 1 hectare (2.5 acres) exceeding $1,000 per year. In
addition to the expense, there is the question of how long intensive spraying can be environmentally
justified. Several resistant cultivars of banana have been developed, but none has yet received
commercial acceptance due to taste and texture issues.
In East Africa
With the arrival of Black sigatoka, banana production in eastern Africa fell by over 40%. For example,
during the 1970s, Uganda produced 15 to 20 tonnes (15 to 20 LT; 17 to 22 ST) of bananas per
hectare. Today, production has fallen to only 6 tonnes (5.9 LT; 6.6 ST)per hectare.
The situation has started to improve as new disease-resistant cultivars have been developed by the
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and the National Agricultural Research Organisation of
Uganda (NARO), such as FHIA-17 (known in Uganda as the Kabana 3). These new cultivars taste
different from the Cabana banana, which has slowed their acceptance by local farmers. However, by
adding mulch and manure to the soil around the base of the plant, these new cultivars have
substantially increased yields in the areas where they have been tried.
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The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and NARO, funded by the Rockefeller Foundation
and CGIAR have started trials for genetically modified bananas that are resistant to both Black
sigatoka and banana weevils. It is developing cultivars specifically for smallholder and subsistence
farmers.
Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV)
This virus jumps from plant to plant using aphids. It stunts leaves, resulting in a "bunched"
appearance. Generally, an infected plant does not produce fruit, although mild strains exist which
allow some production. These mild strains are often mistaken for malnourishment, or a disease
other than BBTV. There is no cure; however, its effect can be minimized by planting only tissue-
cultured plants (in vitro propagation), controlling aphids, and immediately removing and destroying
infected plants.
Uses
Food and cooking
Fruit
Peeled, whole, and longitudinal section
Banana, raw, edible parts
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 371 kJ (89 kcal)
Carbohydrates 22.84 g
Sugars 12.23 g
Dietary fiber 2.6 g
Fat 0.33 g
Protein 1.09 g
Vitamin A equiv. 3 g (0%)
Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.031 mg (2%)
Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.073 mg (5%)
Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.665 mg (4%)
Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.334 mg (7%)
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Vitamin B6 0.367 mg (28%)
Folate (Vit. B9) 20 g (5%)
Vitamin C 8.7 mg (15%)
Calcium 5 mg (1%)
Iron 0.26 mg (2%)
Magnesium 27 mg (7%)
Phosphorus 22 mg (3%)
Potassium 358 mg (8%)
Zinc 0.15 mg (1%)
One banana is 100150 g.
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient database
Bananas are the staple starch of many tropical populations. Depending upon cultivar and ripeness,
the flesh can vary in taste from starchy to sweet, and texture from firm to mushy. Both skin and
inner part can be eaten raw or cooked. Bananas' flavor is due, amongst other chemicals, to isoamyl
acetate which is one of the main constituents of banana oil.
During the ripening process, bananas produce a plant hormone called ethylene, which indirectly
affects the flavor. Among other things, ethylene stimulates the formation of amylase, an enzyme
that breaks down starch into sugar, influencing the taste of bananas. The greener, less ripe bananascontain higher levels of starch and, consequently, have a "starchier" taste. On the other hand, yellow
bananas taste sweeter due to higher sugar concentrations. Furthermore, ethylene signals the
production of pectinase, an enzyme which breaks down the pectin between the cells of the banana,
causing the banana to soften as it ripens.[40][41]
Bananas are eaten deep fried, baked in their skin in a split bamboo, or steamed in glutinous rice
wrapped in a banana leaf. Bananas can be made into jam. Banana pancakes are popular amongst
backpackers and other travelers in South Asia and Southeast Asia. This has elicited the expression
Banana Pancake Trail for those places in Asia that cater to this group of travelers. Banana chips are a
snack produced from sliced dehydrated or fried banana or plantain, which have a dark brown color
and an intense banana taste. Dried bananas are also ground to make banana flour. Extracting juice isdifficult, because when a banana is compressed, it simply turns to pulp. Bananas feature
prominently in Philippine cuisine, being part of traditional dishes and desserts like maruya, turrón,
and halo-halo. Most of these dishes use the Saba or Cardaba banana cultivar. Pisang goreng,
bananas fried with batter similar to the Filipino maruya, is a popular dessert in Malaysia, Singapore,
and Indonesia. A similar dish is known in the United States as banana fritters.
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Plantains are used in various stews and curries or cooked, baked or mashed in much the same way
as potatoes.
Seeded bananas (Musa balbisiana), one of the forerunners of the common domesticated
banana,[42] are sold in markets in Indonesia.
Flower
Banana hearts are used as a vegetable[43] in South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine, either raw or
steamed with dips or cooked in soups and curries. The flavor resembles that of artichoke. As with
artichokes, both the fleshy part of the bracts and the heart are edible.
Leaves
Banana leaves are large, flexible, and waterproof. They are often used as ecologically friendly
disposable food containers or as "plates" in South Asia and several Southeast Asian countries.
Especially in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu in every occasion the food must be served in a
banana leaf and as a part of the food a banana is served. Steamed with dishes they impart a subtle
sweet flavor. They often serve as a wrapping for grilling food. The leaves contain the juices, protect
food from burning and add a subtle flavor.[44]
Trunk
The tender core of the banana plant's trunk is also used in South Asian and SoutheastAsian cuisine,
and notably in the Burmese dish mohinga.
Potential health effects
Along with other fruits and vegetables, consumption of bananas may be associated with a reduced
risk of colorectal cancer[45] and in women, breast cancer[46] and renal cell carcinoma.[47]
Individuals with a latex allergy may experience a reaction to bananas.[48]
Bananas contain moderate amounts of vitamin B6, vitamin C, manganese and potassium,[49]
possibly contributing to electrolyte balance.
Bananas also help increase dopamine production due to the amino acid tyrosine which is present in
the banana.[50][51]
In India, juice is extracted from the corm and used as a home remedy for jaundice, sometimes with
the addition of honey, and for kidney stones.[52]
Fiber
Textiles
The banana plant has long been a source of fiber for high quality textiles. In Japan, banana
cultivation for clothing and household use dates back to at least the 13th century. In the Japanese
system, leaves and shoots are cut from the plant periodically to ensure softness. Harvested shoots
are first boiled in lye to prepare fibers for yarn-making. These banana shoots produce fibers of
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varying degrees of softness, yielding yarns and textiles with differing qualities for specific uses. For
example, the outermost fibers of the shoots are the coarsest, and are suitable for tablecloths, while
the softest innermost fibers are desirable for kimono and kamishimo. This traditional Japanese cloth-
making process requires many steps, all performed by hand.[53]
In a Nepalese system the trunk is harvested instead, and small pieces are subjected to a softening
process, mechanical fiber extraction, bleaching and drying. After that, the fibers are sent to the
Kathmandu Valley for use in rugs with a silk-like texture. These banana fiber rugs are woven by
traditional Nepalese hand-knotting methods, and are sold RugMark certified.
In South Indian state of Tamil Nadu after harvesting for fruit the trunk (outer layer of the shoot) is
made into fine thread used in making of flower garlands instead of thread.
Paper
Main article: Banana paper
Banana fiber is used in the production of banana paper. Banana paper is used in two different
senses: to refer to a paper made from the bark of the banana plant, mainly used for artistic
purposes, or paper made from banana fiber, obtained with an industrialized process from the stem
and the non-usable fruits. The paper itself can be either hand-made or in industrial processes.
Cultural roles
Banana flowers and leaves for sale in the Thanin market in Chiang Mai, Thailand.
Coconut, banana and banana leaves used while worshiping River Kaveri at Tiruchirappalli, India.
Arts
The song "Yes! We Have No Bananas" was written by Frank Silver and Irving Cohn and originally
released in 1923; for many decades, it was the best-selling sheet music in history. Since then the
song has been rerecorded several times and has been particularly popular during banana shortages.
A person slipping on a banana peel has been a staple of physical comedy for generations. A 1910
comedy recording features a popular character of the time, "Uncle Josh", claiming to describe his
own such incident:[54]
Now I don't think much of the man that throws a banana peelin' on the sidewalk, and I don't thinkmuch of the banana peel that throws a man on the sidewalk neither ... my foot hit the bananer
peelin' and I went up in the air, and I come down ker-plunk, jist as I was pickin' myself up a little boy
come runnin' across the street ... he says, "Oh mister, won't you please do that agin? My little
brother didn't see you do it."
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The poet Bash is named after the Japanese word for a banana plant. The "bash" planted in his
garden by a grateful student became a source of inspiration to his poetry, as well as a symbol of his
life and home.[55]
The Japanese novelist Mihoko Yoshimoto changed her name to Banana Yoshimoto because she liked
banana flowers.
Symbols
Bananas are also humorously used as a phallic symbol due to similarities in size and shape. This is
typified by the artwork of the debut album of The Velvet Underground, which features a banana on
the front cover, yet on the original LP version, the design allowed the listener to 'peel' this banana to
find a pink phallus on the inside.
Religion
In Burma, bunches of green bananas surrounding a green coconut in a tray form an important part
of traditional offerings to the Buddha and the Nats.
In all the important festivals and occasions of Tamils the serving of bananas plays a prominent part.
The banana (Tamil: or ) is one of three fruits with this significance, the
others being mango and jack fruit.
East Africa
Most farms supply local consumption. Cooking bananas represent a major food source and a major
income source for smallhold farmers. In East African highlands bananas are of greatest importance
as a staple food crop. In countries such as Uganda, Burundi, and Rwanda per capita consumption has
been estimated at 45 kilograms (99 lb) per year, the highest in the world.
Other uses
Banana sap is extremely sticky and can be used as a practical adhesive.[citation needed] Sap can be
obtained from the pseudostem, from the peelings, or from the flesh.
In regions where bananas are grown, the large leaves are sometimes used as umbrellas. The
pseudostems, being floatable, can be tied together to form a floatation device.[44]
Banana sap leaves indelible dark stains on clothes.
A banana equivalent dose is used in the nuclear industry to compare radiation doses received from
radioactive materials to the dose received from the radioactivity in bananas.
See also
Banana Cultivar Groups
Ensete (false bananas)
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Musa
Musella
Musaceae
Plantain
Footnotes
^ a b "Tracing antiquity of banana cultivation in Papua New Guinea". The Australia & Pacific Science
Foundation. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
^ www.traditionaltree.org, Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry, Musa species (banana and
plantain) agroforestry.net
^ a b "FAOSTAT: ProdSTAT: Crops". Food and Agriculture Organization. 2005. Retrieved 2006-12-09.
^ Yes, we have more bananas published in the Royal Horticultural Society Journals, May 2002
^ "Banana from ''Fruits of Warm Climates'' by Julia Morton". Hort.purdue.edu. Retrieved 2009-04-
16.
^ See Greenearth, Inc., Banana Plant Growing Info. Retrieved 2008.12.20.
^ Angolo, A (2008-05-15). "Banana plant with five hearts is instant hit in Negros Occ". ABS-CBN
Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
^ James P. Smith, Vascular Plant Families. Mad River Press, 1977.
^ CRC Handbook on Radiation Measurement and Protection, Vol 1 pg. 620Table A.3.7.12, CRC Press,
1978
^ [1] Stephen Cass, Corinna Wu (2007). Everything Emits RadiationEven You: The millirems pour in
from bananas, bomb tests, the air, bedmates... Discover: Science, Technology, and the Future,
published online June 4, 2007
^ http://enochthered.wordpress.com/category/banana-dose/
^ Liberty Hyde Bailey, The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. 1916. p. 2076
^ a b Dan Keppel, Banana, Hudson Street Press, 2008; p. 44.
^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 5 Aug 2010.
^ Bailey, pp. 20762079.
^ a b Banana cultivar names and synonyms in Southeast Asia by Ramón V. Valmayor at Google Books
^ a b c "Musa paradisiaca". http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/
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^ Michel H. Porcher; Prof. Snow Barlow (19/07/2002). "Sorting Musa names". The University of
Melbourne, [2]. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
^ "Musa sapientum". http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/
^ a b Watson, p. 54
^ Evidence for banana cultivation and animal husbandry during the first millennium BC in the forest
of southern Cameroon. Mbida VM, Van Neer W, Doutrelepont H, Vrydaghs L. (2000) JOURNAL OF
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SCIENCE 27:151-162
^ Friedrich J. Zeller (2005). "Herkunft, Diversität und Züchtung der Banane und kultivierter
Zitrusarten (Origin, diversity and breeding of banana and plantain (Musa spp.))". Journal of
Agriculture and Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics.
^ "Africa's earliest bananas?". Journal of Archeological Science. 2005-06-28.[dead link]
^ Randrianja, Solofo abd Stephen Ellis: Madagascar: A Short History. University of Chicago Press,
2009.
^ "Bananas and plantains". Botgard.ucla.edu. Retrieved 2009-04-16.
^ "Online Etymology Dictionary: banana". Retrieved 02-11-2007.
^ Peed, Mike: "We Have No Bananas: Can Scientists Defeat a Devastating Blight?" The New Yorker,
January 10, 2011, pp. 28-34. Retrieved 2011-01-13.
^ a b "Phora Ltd. - History of Banana". Phora-sotoby.com. Retrieved 2009-04-16.
^ a b Big-business greed killing the banana - Independent, via The New Zealand Herald, Saturday 24
May 2008, Page A19
^ a b c d Castle, Matt (August 24, 2009). "The Unfortunate Sex Life of the Banana".
DamnInteresting.com
^ Moser, Simone; Thomas Müller, Marc-Olivier Ebert, Steffen Jockusch, Nicholas J. Turro, Bernhard
Kräutler (2008). "Blue luminescence of ripening bananas". Angewandte Chemie International Edition
47 (46): 89548957. doi:10.1002/anie.200803189. PMC 2912500. PMID 18850621. Retrieved 2008-
10-29.
^ Scott, KJ, McGlasson WB and Roberts EA (1970) Potassium Permanganate as an Ethylene
Absorbent in Polyethylene Bags to Delay the Ripening of Bananas During Storage. Australian Journal
of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 110, 237240.
^ Scott KJ, Blake, JR, Stracha n, G Tugwell, BL and McGlasson WB (1971) Transport of Bananas at
Ambient Temperatures using Polyethylene Bags. Tropical cha Agriculture (Trinidad ) 48, 163165.
^ Scott, KJ and Gandanegara, S (1974) Effect of Temperature on the Storage Life of bananas Held in
Polyethylene Bags with an Ethylene Absorbent. Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad ) 51,2326.
^ "Crop Profile for Bananas in Hawaii". Ipmcenters.org. Retrieved 2009-04-16.
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^ California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc., Banana Fruit Facts. Retrieved 2008.12.30.
^ "A future with no bananas?". New Scientist. 2006-05-13. Retrieved 09-12-2006.
^ Montpellier, Emile Frison (2003-02-08). "Rescuing the banana". New Scientist. Retrieved 09-12-
2006.
^ a b Barker, C. L. Conservation: Peeling away. National Geographic Magazine, November 2008.
^ "Fruit Ripening". Retrieved February 17, 2010.
^ "Ethylene Process". Retrieved February 17, 2010.
^ Plant Breeding Abstracts, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, 1949, p.162
^ Solomon, C (1998). Encyclopedia of Asian Food (Periplus ed.). Australia: New Holland Publishers.
ISBN 0855616881. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
^ a b "Banana". Hortpurdue.edu. Retrieved 2009-04-16.
^ Deneo-Pellegrini, H; De Stefani E; Ronco A (1996). "Vegetables, fruits, and risk of colorectal cancer:
a case-control study from Uruguay". Nutrition & Cancer 25 (3): 297304.
doi:10.1080/01635589609514453. PMID 8771572.
^ Zhang, CX; et al. (2009). "Greater vegetable and fruit intake is associated with a lower risk of breast
cancer among Chinese women". International Journal of Cancer 125 (1): 1818.
doi:10.1002/ijc.24358. PMID 19358284.
^ Rashidkhani, B; Lindblad P; Wolk A (2005). "Fruits, vegetables and risk of renal cell carcinoma: a
prospective study of Swedish women". International Journal of Cancer 113 (3): 4515.
doi:10.1002/ijc.20577. PMID 15455348.
^ Taylor, JS; Erkek E (2004). "Latex allergy: diagnosis and management". Dermatological Therapy 17
(4): 289301. doi:10.1111/j.1396-0296.2004.04024.x. PMID 15327474.
^ "Nutrition Facts for raw banana, one NLEA serving, 126 g".
^ Jerry Wong. "The Pursuit of Happiness (A.K.A. It Appears That The Writer Wrote About Bananas
After Eating A Few Too Many)". The Science Creative Quarterly, University of British Columbia,
http://www.scq.ubc.ca/. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
^ "Tyrosine". University of Maryland, Medical Center, http://www.umm.edu/. Retrieved February
20, 2011.
^ Healing Power of Foods: Nature's Prescription of Common Diseases, Pustak Mahal, 2004, ISBN 81-
223-0748-5, p.49
^ "Traditional Crafts of Japan - Kijoka Banana Fiber Cloth". Association for the Promotion of
Traditional Craft Industries. Retrieved 11-12-2006.
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^ Stewart, Cal. "Collected Works of Cal Stewart part 2". Uncle Josh in a Department Store (1910). The
Internet Archive. Retrieved 2010-11-17.
^ Matsuo Basho: the Master Haiku Poet, Kodansha Europe, ISBN 0-87011-553-7
References
Denham, T., Haberle, S. G., Lentfer, C., Fullagar, R., Field, J., Porch, N., Therin, M., Winsborough B.,
and Golson, J. Multi-disciplinary Evidence for the Origins of Agriculture from 6950-6440 Cal BP
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Nusa Dua - Bali - Indonesia ,
Phone Fax. +62 361 771555
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P AGE LAST UPD ATED January, 2008