Optimization of concurrent mining and reclamation plans for single coal seam: a case study in northern Anhui, China

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O R I G I N A L A R T I C L E

Optimization of concurrent mining and reclamation plansfor single coal seam: a case study in northern Anhui, China

Zhenqi Hu • Wu Xiao

Received: 1 September 2011 / Accepted: 2 July 2012 / Published online: 19 July 2012

Springer-Verlag 2012

Abstract The extraction of underground ore body inev-

itably causes a large amount of land subsidence. Currentreclamation technologies in China mainly focus on stable

subsided land, which means most of the affected lands are

submerged into water because of the high groundwater

table in some areas, leading to the loss of soils and inef-

ficient reclamation. Therefore, a new technology for

reclaiming unstable subsiding land is being studied for

restoring farmland as much as possible, based on a case

study in northern Anhui, China. In consideration of the

mining plan, subsidence processes in various stages were

analyzed and some related factors such as vertical subsi-

dence, post-mining slope, water area, and land use condi-

tion were also simulated. Due to mining activities, useful

farmland has gradually decreased to merely 14.4 % of the

pre-mining area. In this study, the following stages were

modeled from pre-mining to post-mining: (1) percentage of

farmland was 100 % in stage (a) (pre-mining), (2) 72.5 %

in stage (b), (3) 67.3 % in stage (c), and (4) 14.4 % in stage

(d) (post-mining). The results show that 86.6 % of culti-

vated land was submerged into water and lost its capacity

for cultivation after coal mining. Reclamation plans for

stages (b), (c), and (d) were made by a traditional recla-

mation method called ‘‘Digging Deep to Fill Shallow’’.

Based on scenario simulation of reclamation, the farmland

reclamation percentages were improved to 78.3, 73.3, and

40.70 %, respectively. Taking the percentage of reclaimed

farmland as the preferred standard, concurrent mining and

reclamation for stage (b) and (c) could increase farmland

reclamation percentages to 37.6 and 32.6 %, respectively,

compared with the farmland reclamation percentage of post-mining [reclaiming the land in stage (d)]. The results

reveal that optimum reclamation time should be at stage

(b). Therefore, under current technical conditions, con-

current mining and reclamation could enhance the quantity

of cultivated land and provide better land protection and

food security in the mined areas with high groundwater

table.

Keywords Mining subsidence Concurrent mining and reclamation Land protection Subsidence prediction Planning scheme Optimization

Introduction

China is the number one coal production and consumption

country. The coal outputs exceeded 3 billion tons in 2010,

accounting for 42 % of the global production (Wang 2009).

However, mining and utilization of coal may cause serious

environmental impacts such as coal waste disposal, poi-

sonous gas emissions, land subsidence, landscape change,

etc. Comparatively, land subsidence seems to be one of the

most prominent problems in China, because 92 % of the

coal output comes from underground mining, with thou-

sands of underground long wall panels. Underground

mining activities disturb the surface severely, and this sit-

uation is even more prominent in east and northeast China

(Xiao et al. 2009), which are both main coal and agricul-

tural production regions (called ‘‘Overlap Region’’). The

Overlap Region covers 40 % of the total farmland in China

and contains 58 % of national coal production and 45 %

of food production (Hu and Luo 2006). High-intensity

extraction of underground coal results in large-scale

Z. Hu (&) W. XiaoInstitute of Land Reclamation and Ecological Restoration,

China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing),

Beijing 100083, China

e-mail: [email protected]

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Environ Earth Sci (2013) 68:1247–1254

DOI 10.1007/s12665-012-1822-9


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ground settlement, barren farmland, and a decrease in

cultivated land. It is estimated that the subsidence area

extends from 0.2 to 0.33 ha, when 10,000 tons of coal are

extracted underground. Subsidence is expected to expand

2 9 104 ha annually throughout China (Hu 1996). Thou-

sands of hectares of affected land lost the capacity of

cultivation because of extraction of a thick coal seam and

high groundwater table. The depth of ponding water on the

ground surface could reach 13 m (Wang et al. 2009). Thus,

farmland loss and degradation caused by underground

mining activities is serious in China. In fact, coal mine

production increased over the past 10 years and reached its

peak with 18.35 % growth rate in 2003 (Fig. 1). It is pre-

dictable that mining production will continue to expand in

the foreseeable future, because of rapid economic growth.

Thus, the quantity of subsided agricultural land will con-

tinue to rise.

According to the Annual Bulletin issued by the Ministry

of Land and Resource (MLR) in 2008, cultivated land was

decreased to 1.22 9 108 ha at the end of December 2008,

with merely 0.09 ha farmland per capita (Fig. 2). Conse-

quently, the Chinese government also retains the amount of

1.2 9 108 ha farmland as a base red line to ensure food

security in 2020. How the limited cultivated land resources

are protected is particularly important at this stage of rapid

economic growth.

Abandoned mine site hazards assessment (Kim et al.

2006, 2009) and mine land reclamation have been exten-

sively studied by many scholars (Bascetin 2007; Wu et al.

2009; Xiao et al. 2011). Approximately, 60 % of theworld’s coal production comes from underground mines,

and China accounts for much of the worldwide under-

ground operations (Table 1). Comparatively, the other four

main coal production countries such as USA, India,

Australia, and Russia adopt less underground mining.

Therefore, farmland subsidence and related reclamation are

relatively less of a concern in these countries (Bell et al.

2005). The impact of subsidence may vary from site to site

due to differences in geology and soil conditions. For

example, Illinois, USA, also a typical coal and agricultural

production overlap region, has maximum subsidence of

about 3 m (Darmody et al. 1992; Darmody 1995), thus,making reclamation work much easier as compared to

China. In addition, reclamation strategies are much more

diverse outside of China where agricultural land resources

and population pressures are not as pressing.

Since the 1980s, China’s land reclamation has made

considerable progress in restoring subsidence land with

different methods (Hu 1994a, b); they are:

(a) ‘‘Digging Deep to Fill Shallow’’: The technology

divides the subsidence-prone area into two parts: deep

and shallow, then makes the deep area deeper by an

excavator for digging a fish pond, and the excavated

soil is moved to the shallow part for reclamation of

cultivate land. Hydraulic dredge pumping is one of

the ‘‘Digging Deep to Fill Shallow’’ methods.

(b) Directly reconditioning: If there is no water in some

shallow subsidence areas and the subsurface water

level is not very high, the method of directly

reconditioning the subsided land can be used. Usu-

ally, the subsided land is leveled by bulldozers or

often by manual work. If the slope of the subsided

land is large, terraces should be used.

Fig. 1 Coal yield and growth rate from 1990 to 2010 in China

Fig. 2 Cultivated land quantity variation from 2001 to 2008 in China

Table 1 Percentage of coal production by mining method in 2006

Country Underground (%) Surface (%) Total (Mt)

China 95 5 2,380

USA 31 69 1,054

India 19 81 447

Australia 22 78 405

Russia 309

South Africa 257

Germany 197

Indonesia 195

Poland 156

Total world 60 40 6,195

1248 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 68:1247–1254

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(c) Filling: A type of landfill method, filling subsidence

land with some filling materials such as coal wastes

and fly ash.

(d) Drainage: Establishment of a system of drains such as

a trench can make the impounded water drain away

and lower the subsurface water level so that the

subsidence land is relatively raised.

Both filling and non-filling methods are good earthwork

measures and well applied in China. However, all recla-

mation works were focused on stable subsided land, which

means subsidence reaches the final settlement condition

after the excavation of coal is completed. In this situation,

more than half of the subsided land was already submerged

in water and the fertilized topsoil was lost permanently. The

manner of reclamation is a kind of post-mining retreatment;

it leads to a low percentage of farmland reclamation and

inevitably increases the reclamation cost. Therefore, it is

necessary to develop a new technology that could take

measures for advance planning, conservation, and man-agement before land subsidence falls below the water table.

The improved plan and technology could raise the farmland

percentage and lower reclamation costs. This research takes

a colliery located on the eastern plain in China as an

example, to analyze and simulate subsidence processes

according to the geological condition and mining system,

and optimize concurrent mining and reclamation planning.

Basic information in the study area and research

methods

Basic information in the study area

The study area is located in the northern part of Anhui

Province in eastern China, covering about 24.1 ha. It is a

typical plain mining area in eastern China, with flooded

subsidence lands and densely populated villages. The nat-

ural elevation is ?30 to ?32 m above mean sea level, with

an average of ?31.0 m. The underground water table is

about 2 m below the soil surface, and the ground is flat

with a slope of 0–2. The climate is humid continental,

typical of that of eastern China, with great inter-annual

variability of precipitation. Most precipitation falls

between June and September. Because of its humid cli-

mate, abundant sunshine, and four distinct seasons, it is one

of the most important grain production areas in China.

The main coal seams in this area are named nos. 4 and 6,

with an average thickness of about 2.2 and 2.8 m, res-

pectively. The buried depths of coal seams are about

350–450 m and 380–550 m, respectively. The dip angle of

coal seams varies from 3 to 15. The overburden has

a thick alluvial strata reaching 120–160 m, and the

compaction of soil caused by the loss of water makes the

subsidence factor reach 0.96 (Table 2). A schematic of a

typical geological section is shown in Fig. 3.

The eight panels referring to no. 6 coal seam were

extracted from March 1997 to the end of 2004 leading to a

maximum subsidence depth of 2.5 m. The subsided land

was reclaimed to some fish ponds and farmlands with

original elevation in 2005. Excavation of the no. 4 coal

seam commenced in January 2007; four panels were

included and will last till September 2012. The layout of

panels and mining schedule are illustrated in Fig. 4 and

Table 3. Thus, the influence of the mining activity in the

study area could be treated as a single coal seam (no. 4)

extraction. This paper analyzed the dynamic evolution of

ground condition and land use to optimize the concurrent

mining and reclamation.

Research methods

Dynamic mining subsidence prediction and geological

information system (GIS) were used in this paper; the

process of dynamic scenario simulation was derived

according to the specific geological condition and mining

schedule in different stages. Mining subsidence prediction

Table 2 Basic parameters for surface movement and deformation

prediction

Parameters Value

Coefficient of the initial mining (q) 0.96

Coefficient of the repeated mining (q0) 1.20

Horizontal movement coefficient (b) 0.3

Influence propagation angle tangent (tgb) 1.80The displacement distance (S ) 0.03H0

Subsidence velocity factor (c) 11.6

Influence angle (h) 89

Fig. 3 Schematic of typical geological section in the study area

Environ Earth Sci (2013) 68:1247–1254 1249

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system (MSPS), developed by China University of Mining

and Technology, was chosen to analyze the mining impact,

and Arcinfo, released by Environmental Systems Research

Institute (ESRI), was chosen for ground analysis and sim-

ulation. The procedures are as follows:

1. Acquisition of original terrain data

According to the information provided by Hengyuan

colliery, the topographic map surveyed in 2005 by the total

station was adopted, which contains elevation points and

isograms.

2. Acquisition of subsidence information in various

stages

After decades of research, some useful theories and

methods of mining subsidence prediction (Konthe 1959;

Peng and Luo 1991) such as profile function, influence

function, and probability integration method have been

produced. In the recent 30 years, deterministic (mecha-

nistic) methods including finite element method and

boundary element method based on rock mechanics were

presented (Kratzsch 1983). In deterministic modeling, the

in situ mechanical properties of rocks are of particular

importance. Probability integration method, developed

from random medium theory, is the most mature andapplied prediction model in China; the software (MSPS)

used in this paper was programmed based on this theory.

Dynamic subsidence prediction was also applied, utilizing

one of the most widely used time functions proposed by

Knothe (1959):

f ð xÞ ¼ 1 ect

where t is the time that elapsed from the opening of the

cavity and c is the subsidence velocity factor, whose value

depends on the characteristics of the ground and on the

units in which the time is expressed.

3. Construction of dynamic ground subsidence model

Dynamic ground subsidence model can be constructed

in two phases: raster interpolation and superimposition.

(a) Raster interpolation

Interpolation predicts values for cells in a raster from a

limited number of sample data points. It can be used to

predict unknown values for any geographic point data:

elevation, rainfall, chemical concentrations, noise levels,

and so on. Since the obtained original terrain data and

dynamic subsidence information in step (1) and step (2)

were presented as points and isograms, interpolation was

then adopted by Arcinfo to achieve comprehensive raster

information. The vector information (points and isograms)

was converted to raster data format automatically by

Arcinfo.

(b) Superimposition

Superimposition between interpolated raster data of step

(1) and step (2) could generate a state of ground subsi-

dence. By using this method, dynamic ground subsidence

could be produced for different mining stages.

4. Analysis and monitoring

The dynamic ground subsidence model for each panel

and various stages could be determined and analyzed based

on mining plan. Temporal and spatial dynamic changes of

the ground could be monitored, including vertical subsi-

dence, extent of water area, land use change, slopes, and

aspects of surface in each mining stage. Virtual reclama-

tion schemes at different stages were produced. Finally, the

percentage of restored farmland was considered as the

preferred standard to optimize the schemes.

Fig. 4 Layout of no. 4 coal seam workface

Table 3 Mining schedule of no. 4 coal seam

Number of

panel

Mining time Average

depth (m)

Average seam

thickness (m)

452 2007.1–2007.12 280 2.2

453-1 2009.12–2010.6 280 2.3

453-s2 2010.11–2011.3 280 2.3

454 2011.9–2012.9 300 2.0

455 2008.4–2009.7 250 2.1


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Results and analysis

Scenario simulation

1. Original terrain data

The study area is 24.1 ha, with a north–south length of

about 1,100 m and east–west width of about 220 m

(Fig. 5). The surface was roughly flat before extraction of no. 4, with the elevation between 30 and 32 m and slope

between 0 and 2. The study area was good farmland with

aquaculture ponds on both sides.

2. Mining subsidence prediction at various stages

Prediction of ground subsidence associated with under-

ground mining based on the shape of the final settlement

trough of the ground surface could be insufficient. Surface

subsidence due to mining is a dynamic process which

obeys mechanical principles (Saids 1995). Particularly,

dynamic processes of land use change and water ponds

distribution in temporal and spatial domain could provide amore intuitive and rational vision for the manager and

engineer in the coal and grain overlap region. Character-

istics and timing of mining subsidence could be monitored

through dynamic prediction. The prediction parameters are

indicated in Table 2.

In consideration of the mining schedule and layout, the

study area was divided into four stages as shown below:

(A) two panels 452 and 455 were mined completely in

July 2009,

(B) panels 452, 455, and 453-1 were mined completely in

September 2010,

(C) panels 452, 455, 453-1, and 453-2, were mined

completely in March 2011,

(D) panels such as 452, 455, 453, and 454 were all mined

completely in September 2012.

Movement and deformation at various stages were rep-resented as subsidence isograms and deformation isograms.

The study area is located in eastern China, a region with

thick alluvium on the near surface and a high underground

water table (the groundwater table is 1–3 m below the soil

surface). According to previous studies, cracks derived

from deformation have a small influence on the utility of

the cultivated land surface. The most significant impacts to

cultivated land were submergence into water caused by

vertical subsidence, and soil erosion and deterioration

caused by additional slope at the edges of the subsidence

basin (Hu et al. 1997). Therefore, dynamic vertical subsi-

dence based on temporal and spatial distributions wastreated as a major consideration for scenario simulation.

3. Scenario simulation at various stages

Based on the local conditions, the local government set

the criteria for subsidence damage: the land becomes a

permanent water area when the vertical subsidence reaches

2.0 m, and the land becomes a seasonal water area when

the vertical subsidence reaches 1.5 m. The criteria were

validated through field measurement in this research, and

ground elevations of ?29.0 and ?29.5 m were defined as

permanent and seasonal water criteria. These validated

criteria would benefit temporal and spatial analyses. Thedevelopment of ponding areas at various mining stages is

subdivided into four stages, as shown in Fig. 6.

Stage (A) (2007.1–2009.7): Excavation of coal at panels

452 and 455 were completed. Mining activities only

reached a super-critical level in strike orientation and were

sub-critical in inclination orientation because two panels,

Fig. 5 Pre-mining TIN in the study area

Fig. 6 Changes of water area at various stages


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453 and 454, were not mined. Thus, vertical subsidence on

the ground was not serious and created no ponding area.

Stage (B) (2009.8–2010.9): Excavation of panel 453-1.

In this stage, water rose in the ground and expanded

gradually until September 2010.

Stage (C) (2010.9–2011.3): After a slight break, the

extraction of panel 453-2 made the situation even worse.

However, the water area, including both perennial and

seasonal, changed slowly.

Stage (D) (2011.4–2012.10): Panel 454 was the final

panel in this mining area. Its excavation led to a severe water

expansion in the ground, because the mining reached a super-

critical level both in inclination and strike orientation.

According to dynamic ground subsidence simulation,

land use change was analyzed (Fig. 7). (a), (b), (c), and

(d) correspond to the four mining stages of (A), (B), (C),

and (D). Although the excavation of panel 452 and 455

impacted the ground, it did not change the land use because

there was no water accumulation on the surface (Fig. 8).

Along with the excavation of panel 453-1, water gradually

rose in the ground and finally reached 20.6 ha, accounting

for 85.6 % of the study area; the area of cultivated land

Fig. 7 Land use changes at various stages on the ground

Fig. 8 Reclamation layout and

elevation at various stages

exception of the stage A without

reclamation work


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decreased to 3.5 ha, only accounting for 14.4 % of the

study area. The proportions of cultivated land were 100,

72.5, 67.3, and 14.4 %, respectively, corresponding to the

four mining stages. This shows that the excavation of no. 4

coal seam led to a lot of farmland loss because of water

accumulation due to mining subsidence.

Optimization of reclamation plans and analysis

Dynamic ground scenario simulation provides a vision to

understand the development of subsidence in the ground.

If reclamation work was launched after all the mining

activities had ended, a lower percentage of farmland res-

toration would be produced because most of the land would

subside into water and lack of filling materials. Further-

more, the existence of large areas of water may make the

reclamation work more difficult and increase reclamation

costs. Because of submergence of important topsoil into

water, the reclaimed land might have poor soil condition

due to lack of topsoil. Therefore, reasonable reclamationtime and the best reclamation plan seem to be particularly

important in a high underground water table area.

1. Optimization of reclamation plan

Following are the basic principles for making a con-

current mining and reclamation plan:

(a) Reclamation earthwork adopted ‘‘Digging Deep to

Fill Shallow’’ technology.

(b) Filling materials from outside of the study area for

reclaiming the subsided land were not used.

(c) Dynamic subsidence prediction for every stages wasadopted and the elevation of reclaimed land at every

reclamation stage should be rational to ensure that the

reclaimed land could withstand the impact of follow-

ing settlements.

According to the considerations above, different stages

of mining reclamation measures were taken into account.

The extraction level of panel 452 and 455 had less impact

on agriculture in stage (a); therefore, only reclamation in

stages (b), (c), and (d) was considered. The layout anddesigned elevation are shown in Fig. 8. The percentage of

reclaimed farmland reaches 78.3, 73.3 and 40.7 % at the

stage (b), (c), and (d), respectively.

2. Result analysis

Extracting a horizontal layered ore body is a continuous,

slow, and gradual subsidence process. The manner and

extent were different in various stages. Table 4 shows the

advantages, disadvantages, and the reclamation efficiency

at various stages.

If reclamation measures were taken too early (stage a),

the influence of underground extraction would not betransmitted to the ground completely or the effect may not

be sufficient to interrupt normal agricultural activities. This

means increased costs and more interruption of agricultural

activities. The reclamation project needs to accommodate

subsequent settlement, including vertical subsidence, tilts,

horizontal deformation and curvatures. Conversely, if rec-

lamation measures are taken too late (stage d), most of the

topsoil will sink below the water table and soil resources

cannot be guaranteed for reclamation. This increases both

reclamation costs and construction difficulties, and may

lead to a very low percentage of farmland reclamation and

poor farmland productivity. Therefore, the most appropri-ate stages would be stage (b) and stage (c), when panel 453

was under mining. At this stage, the land began to

Table 4 Optimization and comparison of reclamation plans in various stages

Stages Mining condition Condition before

reclamation

Advantages Disadvantages Percentage

of reclaimed

farmland

(%)

(a) 452 and 455 Start of subsidence,

no water area

Most of the topsoil resources

available, high percentage

of reclaimed farmland

High reclamation costs, occupying

the land for so long a period

influences normal agricultural

work, more residual subsidence

–

(b) 452, 455, and 453–1 Water area rise, with

less area

More topsoil could be

protected, high percentage of

reclaimed farmland

High reclamation costs, partial

residual subsidence influence

78.3

(c) 452, 455, and 453 Subsidence increases,

water area expands,

but with a low

proportion

More topsoil could be

protected, high percentage of

reclaimed farmland

High reclamation costs, partial

residual subsidence influence

73.3

(d) 452, 455, 453, and

454

Most of the area

submerged into water,

little farmland exists

Stable ground, less residual

settlement exists

No topsoil resource, low percentage

of reclaimed land

40.7


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submerge into water and the land reclaimed at this stage

could save a lot of soil and guarantee high percentage of

farmland reclamation.

Conclusions

1. Based on mining schedule and geological condition,dynamic scenarios of land subsidence due to coal

mining are simulated by dynamic subsidence predic-

tion and spatial analysis for a horizontal layered single

coal seam. This paper simulated three stages of land

subsidence caused by underground mining. The failure

mode, damage area, and degree of damage were ana-

lyzed quantitatively. The results revealed that: the

percentage of farmland decreased gradually from 100

to merely 14.4 % from pre-mining to post-mining due

to mining subsidence (the four stages correspond to

100, 72.5, 67.3, and 14.4 %, respectively). If recla-

mation measures were adopted until the ground sta-bilized, 86.6 % of cultivated land would submerge into

water and lead to a low percentage of reclaimed

farmland (40.7 %).

2. Based on the scenario simulation, a virtual reclamation

plan was under consideration for three mining stages.

Farmland reclamation percentages were 78.3, 73.3,

and 40.7 % corresponding to stage (b), stage (c), and

(d).

3. Taking the percentages of reclaimed farmland as the

preferred standard, the farmland reclamation percent-

ages at stages (b) and (c) could be increased to 37.6

and 32.6 %, respectively, compared against delaying

reclamation until the land stabilizes [stage (d)].

Consequently, restoring subsided land in stage (b) or

stage (c) would decrease construction difficulty, pro-

tect the topsoil maximally, and enhance farmland

reclamation percentage. The optimum reclamation

time was at stage (b).

In summary, research shows that using dynamic subsidence

prediction with reclamation scenario simulation and taking

the percentage of reclaimed farmland as the preferred

standard, the best concurrent mining and reclamation time

and plan can be obtained.

Acknowledgments The research has been supported by nonprofit

industry research and special funds provided by the Ministry of Land

and Resources in China, approval no. 200911015-03. The authors

offer their special thanks for the research and valuable assistance

provided by Anhui Wanbei Coal Group and Anhui Hengda Ecological

Construction Engineer Co., Ltd. Special thanks also go to Dr. R.G.

Darmody (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign), Dr. Richard

Barnhisel (Executive Secretary of American Society of Mining and

Reclamation), Dr. S.K. Chong (Southern Illinois University at Car-

bondale) and Mr. Steve Hewitt for their comments and editing.

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Optimization of concurrent mining and reclamation plans for single coal seam: a case study in northern Anhui, China