Optical studies from the Salyut-7 orbital station and the Mir orbital complex

Optical studies from the Salyut-7 orbital station and the Mir orbital complexA. I. Lazarev and S. V. Avakyan

S. I. Vavilov State Optical Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia~Submitted April 5, 2000!Opticheski� Zhurnal68, 87–103~February 2001!

This is a brief account of the results of the optical studies and experiments from the Salyut-7orbital station in 1982–85 and from the Mir orbital complex in 1986–99. Data concerningthe crews of the main expeditions and the visiting expeditions of Salut-7 and Mir are presentedsequentially in chronological order. The main stages of the work on the internationalMir–Shuttle program are presented. It is proposed that an International Scientific–TechnicalCoordination Council be created to work on the problem of optical studies from the InternationalSpace Station. ©2001 The Optical Society of America.

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INTRODUCTION

The Salyut-7 orbital station~OS! was put into orbit onApril 19, 1982. Five main expeditions and five visiting epeditions worked on it and implemented a broad programscientific research and experiments. The crew of the fiexpedition on Salyut-7 became at the same time the crewthe first expedition on the Mir OS. Visual and instrumenoptical studies of the stars, the atmosphere, and earth’sface and water area occupied a significant place in the flprogram of the Salyut-7 crews. An x-ray telescope; devifor mapping the starry sky with electrooptic converters; phtographic, photometric, and spectrometric devices; andvices for visual observations were used for the studies.

The Mir OS was put into orbit on February 20, 198The specialized Kvant~April 9, 1987!, Kvant-2 ~December8, 1989!, Kristall ~June 10, 1990!, Spektr~June 1, 1995!, andPriroda~April 27, 1996! modules were subsequently dockto it during its operation, thereby forming the Mir orbitacomplex ~OC!, with an overall weight of more than100 Tonne. The crews of twenty-seven main expeditioworked on the Mir OC, including a number of cosmonaufrom our country and representatives of other countries.

The crews flew to and from the Mir complex not only oSoyuz TM transport space ships from our country, but aon Space Shuttle reusable transport space ships~RTSSs!. Ac-cording to the Mir–Shuttle program of joint RussianAmerican flights, nine Space Shuttle RTSSs were dockethe Mir complex and participated in joint flight:

Atlantis-14 ~June 29–July 4, 1995!,Atlantis-15 ~November 15–18, 1995!,Atlantis-16 ~March 27–29, 1996!,Atlantis-17 ~September 19–24, 1996!,Atlantis-18 ~January 15–20, 1997!,Atlantis-19 ~May 17–22, 1997!,Atlantis-20 ~September 27–October 3, 1997!,Endeavour-11~January 24–29, 1998!Discovery-24~June 4–8, 1998!.Almost all the cosmonauts from this country and t

cosmonauts of Syria, Bulgaria, Afghanistan, France, JapGreat Britain, Austria, Germany, Kazakhstan, and Slovaflew to and from the Mir complex on a Soyuz TM spaship; the American astronaut Norman Thagard flew in

148 J. Opt. Technol. 68 (2), February 2001 1070-9762/2001/02

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Soyuz TM-21. The other American astronauts flew in aout on Space Shuttle RTSSs, and the crew of the nineteexpedition ~A. Solov’ev and N. Budarin! flew in and thecrew of the eighteenth expedition~V. Dezhurov and G.Strekalov! flew out on Atlantis-14.

Optical studies and experiments were performed bycrews of all the expeditions on the Salyut-7 OS and the MOC. The cosmonauts and astronauts not only performedcontained studies but also took part in combined joint expments carried out over a number of regions simultaneoufrom space, from airborne laboratories, helicopters, and sbased and terrestrial points of observation.

VISUAL AND INSTRUMENTAL STUDIES FROM THESALYUT-7 ORBITAL STATION

The main crew~A. N. Berezovo� and V. V. Lebedev! ofthe first expedition of the Salyut-7–Soyuz-T-5–Soyuz T-Soyuz T-7 OC~May 13–December 10, 1982, 211 days! per-formed a series of visual and instrumental optical studiesouter space, of atmospheric–optical phenomena, and ofwater area and surface of the earth. The cosmonauts mvisual observations and photographed individual regionsthe earth’s surface in order to study natural resources anthe request of geologists, studied large annular structufaults of the earth’s crust, and other geological objects.

V. Dzhanibekov, A. Ivanchenkov, and French citizeJean-Loup Chre´tien participated in this work from June 26 tJuly 2, 1982, and L. Popov, A. Serebrov, and S. Savitskparticipated from August 21 to 27, 1982.

In one of the communication sessions, A. N. Berezo�and V. V. Lebedev reported that they were able to distguish the left-bank continuation of the Astrakhan arch—gentle uplift of the earth’s crust. Between the Caspian aAral Seas, the cosmonauts detected that platelets—i.e.,cific fine structures rather than separate formations—formsequential chain, which was of interest to prospectors forand gas in those regions.1

At the request of S. V. Avakyan and A. I. Lazarev, Brezovo� performed a series of observations of the stratifition of the first emission layer and determined the altitudethe second emission layer of the nighttime atmosphere.2

1480148-13$18.00 © 2001 The Optical Society of America

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The crew of the second expedition of the Salyut-Soyuz T-9 OC~V. A. Lyakhov and A. P. Aleksandrov! ~June27–November 23, 1983, 149 days! started a series of visuaand instrumental observations, including photographyspectrometry of the territory of the Soviet Union by meansthe MKF-6M and KATE-140 cameras and spectrometecreated in Bulgaria and the German Democratic RepubThe cosmonauts performed photography and spectrometthe Caspian Sea, Stavropol’ Krai, the Amur region, tCrimea, Ukraine, the Ba�kal–Amur pipeline, and, as part othe Interkosmos program, also Mongolia; they continustudies of the parameters of the atmosphere in the immedvicinity of the OC by means of the Astra mass spectromeA two-week cycle of geophysical studies including visuobservations, photography, and spectrometry of individregions of the earth was carried out in the first month offlight.3

At the beginning of September, 1983, the cosmonatook part in a combined experiment to determine the chateristics of the earth’s atmosphere. The experiment usedMKS-M spectrometers, one of which was installed onairplane, while the other was on board Salyut-7. This wacomponent of a broad research program carried out inwater area of the Black Sea as part of the Interkosmosgram. The cosmonauts performed photography and strometry of the Black Sea, made visual observations,recorded the status of the clouds and atmosphere, the colthe sea water, and the dust and smoke contamination oatmosphere.3

The cosmonauts often recorded various natural disasthey immediately noted the genesis of a typhoon or theginning of a fire and transmitted this information to the earThey observed more than once how a whirlpool brokefrom an ocean current and deep waters rose to the surUsing the Tsvet-1 colorimeter, they determined the colorsections of the surface of the dry land and the ocean, asas the change of the coloration of samples of a numbematerials after they were exposed in the escape lock uconditions of open space.3

The main crew of the third expedition of the Salyut-7Soyuz T-10–Soyuz T-11–Soyuz T-12 OC~February 8 toNovember 2, 1984, 237 days!—L. D. Kizim, V. A. Solov’ev,and O. Yu. At’kov—made visual observations and phographed the territory of India and individual regions of twater area of the Indian Ocean at the beginning of the fliat the same time as pictures were taken from an airplanefrom earth. Great attention was paid in this work to studyhard-to-reach regions of India, such as the Himalaydeserts, and semideserts, and the water resources inmountains and sections of desert suitable for agriculture wdetermined.

As part of the Terra program, the east and west coastthe Indian peninsula and the Ganges Delta and the regionthe Andaman and Nicobar Islands were surveyed in ordesearch for oil-and-gas-bearing regions in shallow water,est masses, and tree plantings.4 This work was carried oufrom April 5 to 11, 1984 with the participation of India

149 J. Opt. Technol. 68 (2), February 2001

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cosmonaut researcher Rakesh Sharma and Soviet conauts Yu. Malyshev and G. Strekalov.

Using a French camera with the Piramig electroopconverter, L. D. Kizim and V. A. Solov’ev photographeComet Crommelin and other weakly luminous objects interplanetary and interstellar space, as well as the radiatiothe nighttime atmosphere, the auroras, and noctilucclouds.4

The cosmonauts carried out several series of visualservations and photographed various regions of the SoUnion and the water area of the ocean. They continued visobservations of certain geological objects that are not visin photographs. The results of the visual observationsthese objects were recorded on specially prepared phmaps, and this substantially supplemented and broadenepossibilities of space-based remote probing methods.Dzhanibekov, S. Savitskaya, and I. Volk took part in thwork from July 19 to 29, 1984.

As part of the Interkosmos program of international claboration for peaceful purposes, the crew participated inBlack Sea combined experiment on August 28, 1984 andthe Gyunesh aerospace experiment on August 29, 1984technique for the remote probing of water surfaces wasveloped in the Black Sea experiment. Photographs of invidual regions of the Black Sea were made simultaneoufrom Salyut-7, the Kosmos-1500 specialized oceanograpsatellite, airborne laboratories, and the scientific reseavessels Mikhail Lomonosov and Professor Kolesnikov.

In the Gyunesh experiment, the photography and sptrometry from Salyut-7 was accompanied by photograpfrom airplanes and moving points of observation. The dfrom these studies made it possible ‘‘to develop a technifor determining the boundaries of forests and grazing lafrom the degree to which human activity has affected theImportant results were obtained by studying the systemsthe saline and Solonchak territories of the dry salt LaAdzhionur. . . . The distribution of suspended materialsthe Mingechaur Reservoir and how they are affected bydrodynamic processes was studied.’’4

In medical research, the visual acuity, contrast sensiity, and certain functions of color vision were determinedthe crew members.

The cosmonauts searched in the ocean for synowhirlpools, some of which were distinguished by a grecolor. In these whirlpools, the deep waters rise to the surfacausing an explosive development of biomass and turnthe ocean green. In other, adjacent whirlpools, the cosnauts see a bluish tint where water from the surface goesthe depths.

The EFO-1 photometer was used to study the densitythe atmospheric aerosol by measuring the brightness of sby the occultation method. These studies are directly assated with environmental conservation. According to A.Serebrov’s account, it is easy to see from space ‘‘how ctaminated the atmosphere is over Western Europe andindustrial regions of the USA.’’

After S. E. Saviskiaya completed a flight, she expres

149A. I. Lazarev and S. V. Avakyan

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a number of thoughts on the significance of visual obsertions from space:4

‘‘The further development of geology is impossibwithout information from space. However perfect the newautomatic apparatus is in this case, the role of visobservation—i.e., by man—is not diminished. Lookingearth from a great altitude, the cosmonaut often sees whoverlooked on the best photographs made from satellThe view from orbit of a specialist who knows a lot abogeological structures has made it possible to discover antire series of unknown features of the external structurethe earth’s crust—large annular structures, important faudried-up beds of old rivers, etc. Generalization of the resof such observations, combined with the existing data,predict occurrences of useful minerals . . .

‘‘Cosmonauts see the accumulation of plankton insea—the greenish floating spots can be clearly distinguison the background of the blue water. The plankton somtimes collects in bright green bands along the shore,emerald necklaces around islands. And where there’s platon there’s fish, as has long been known to sailors.’’

The first crew of the fourth expedition on the Salut-7Soyuz T-13–Soyuz T-14 OC~June 6–November 21, 1985168 days!—V. A. Dzhanibekov and V. P. Savinykh—werfaced with very complex tasks: most importantly, to aproach and dock with the uncontrolled Salyut-7 station,identify the malfunction, and to carry out repair workrestore the workability of the Salyut-7. The cosmonauts bliantly solved these problems.5

Before docking, the cosmonauts saw the station onbackground of the moon. Here is how Dzhanibekov dscribed this:1

‘‘We saw the station right after it left the light. It habeen heated in the sun’s rays, which were still breakthrough the atmosphere. Point by point, bit by bit it grewwe approached. The moon also fell into the field of viewwas interesting to observe how, as we got closer togetherstation made a ‘lunar landing,’ as if it settled on top of tmoon, sat for awhile, and moved further. Its crimson cogradually changed to bright white with a tinge of ivory. Thstation flamed brighter and brighter, the brilliance grew,times it was painful to look at it in the binoculars. It wasif it were not trimmed with vacuum-insulation screening tsue, but all covered with aluminum with a yellow additive—such metallic brilliance . . .

We happened to see how amazingly the water chancoloration when the sun illuminates it at different angleWhat is it associated with, what tint is most informativAnd the color of the sands in the Sahara, and the color offorest masses in the taiga? It must be important to knthese things in order to adjust a geophysical camera ointerpret space pictures. And, in the last analysis, to presthe natural riches of the earth. Its vulnerability and fragilcan be seen from space as from nowhere else. The fellinthe forest, the smoke of industrial giants, the dams, the ging lands—everything that has consequences for an ividual region and for the health of the entire planet . . . It isa shame, for example, there is no need of it in Africa but y


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fly over and every fifteen minutes you see as many as thifive or forty fires on the savanna. And what fires! The textends over the Atlantic to the shores of America.’’

Naturally, the color and brightness of the Salyut-7 stion observed by the cosmonauts are associated with theditions under which it is illuminated, while the size is assciated with the distance from which it is observed. Tchange of the station’s color is explained by the fact thawas illuminated by the rising sun and by the twilight aureowhose color gradually changed as the sun rose abovehorizon. Therefore its color was crimson at first~when thesun was low above the horizon!, and then gradually signifi-cantly brightened to an ivory color. The station became snificantly brighter than the moon, whose surface reflectais about 7% in the visible region, while that of the surfacethe station is several times as high.

On July 23, 1985, the cosmonauts took part in tKursk-85 combined experiment, in which, at the same tithat the earth’s surface was being photographed frSalyut-7, photographs were being made from satellites,borne laboratories, helicopters, and terrestrial observapoints. They made visual observations and photographbiospheric reserves on the territory of the Soviet Union.the beginning of August, 1985, the cosmonauts participain the second stage of the Kursk-85 experiment.5

On August 13, 1985, V. A. Dzhanibekov and V. PSavinykh took part in the Gyunesh-85 combined experimewhich was carried out in the region of the Caucasus–Casrange of Azerbaijan. Photography and spectrometry wcarried out simultaneously from Salyut-7, airborne laboraries, helicopters, and ground-based observation points.

At the end of July and in August, 1985, the cosmonacarried out observations, photography, and spectrometrynumber of regions of the Soviet Union that were promisifor oil and gas, irrigated lands of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistand Kherson Oblast, the mountain massifs of the PamirsTyan-Shan, and annular structures in Central Kyzylkum aother regions. They also made a series of pictures ofZaporozh’e air basin simultaneously in six sections ofvisible and near-IR regions.

The Soyuz T-14 space ship, piloted by V. V. VasyutG. M. Grechko, and A. A. Volkov, docked to the SalyutOC on September 18, 1985. The second stage of the foexpedition had begun.

In the first days of the combined flight, the cosmonacarried out experiments on the probing of the atmosphThey observed the occultation of a star with the E´FA-1 pho-tometer to measure the density of the aerosol in the atsphere, and they observed the occultation of the sun withSKIF spectrometer to measure atmospheric refraction aninvestigate the aerosol layers and ozone layer of the atsphere. On September 22, 1985, the cosmonauts took pathe Black Sea-85 combined experiment in order to devemethods for remote investigation of the hydrophysical abiological characteristics of the Black Sea. Photographyspectrometry of individual regions of the Black Sea wecarried out simultaneously from Salyut-7, specialized salites, airborne laboratories, and submarines.


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Dzhanibekov and Grechko returned to earth on Septber 26, 1985 on the descent module of Soyuz-13.

The third stage of the fourth expedition beganSalyut-7. Cosmonauts Vasyutin, Savinykh, and Volkov cotinued visual observations, photography, and spectrometrthe earth’s surface and the water area of the ocean,earth’s atmosphere, and meteor fluxes.

Savinykh on November 13, 1985 observed a unique cof the appearance and development of aerosol formationthe stratosphere, mesosphere, and mesopause after a pful eruption of the volcano Ruiz~5400 m! in Columbia.6 Asystem of clouds that extended from the earth’s surface toaltitude of the mesopause~80–85 km! was detected the nexday from on board Salyut-7. The clouds had a distinct upboundary in the region of the mesopause, and they extenabout 2500 km along the horizon. The ordinary blue aureof the daytime atmosphere was seen alongside.

In the next several days, aerosol layers were seealtitudes below 60 km. However, it is quite possible thataerosol layer in the mesopause existed even in subseqdays but was not noticeable because it had decreased insity and brightness, since the observations were made indaytime, when the brightness of the porthole exceededof ordinary noctilucent clouds.

The cosmonauts were profoundly impressed by theorful pictures of atmospheric–optical phenomena such astwilight daytime aureole of the earth’s atmosphere, poweauroras, rainbow clouds, etc. One of Savinykh’s daily repocan be given as an example:1

‘‘Outside the porthole window is a riot of colors, a comic palette of fantastic variety, and this is no exaggeratiOne color goes into another with such richness of the munexpected tints that I simply marvel. But the aurora—it’sfeast of colors. And we happened to be at the center.only red columns, but also green, blue, indigo. They roover us and stretched under us with fantastic light columthe portholes were flooded with ruby light. We pressagainst them and saw that we were being carried througsuite of rooms where luminous waves rolled, infinitely rnewed in the color gamut. The richness of the cosmic cocould not be reproduced by the artist’s brush or the mperfect and supersensitive photographic plate. Such cosimply do not exist on the earth.’’

OPTICAL STUDIES FROM THE MIR ORBITAL COMPLEX

The first expedition to the Mir OS was simultaneousthe fifth expedition to Salyut-7. The crew, consisting of L.Kizim and V. A. Solov’ev, were in space from March 13July 16, 1986~125 days! and made the flight in three stages1

They carried out geophysical studies even in the first ston the Mir–Soyuz T-15 OC~March 15–May 5, 1986!: visualobservations and photography of a number of regions ofSoviet Union.

On May 5, 1986, Soyuz T-15 with the cosmonauts serated from Mir and docked with Salyut-7, beginning the seond stage of the expedition. On May 29 and 31, 1986, Kizand Solov’ev took a spacewalk and studied the atmosp


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close to the OC. Telemetric data from the devices was tramitted by an optoelectronic apparatus installed on a porth

Soyuz T-15 with the cosmonauts was undocked frSalyut-7 on June 25, 1986 and was docked with Mir on Ju26, 1986, beginning the third stage of the expedition. Tcosmonauts transferred 400 kg of scientific apparatus, incing a spectral geophysical apparatus, the PSN astrophydevice, the Niva video set, and the KATE´ -140 topographiccamera from the Salyut-7–Kosmos-1686 OC to the Mir O

The cosmonauts continued the investigations ofearth’s natural resources and the environment at the bening of July. They photographed a number of regions ofSoviet Union, as well as making a series of surveys of invidual regions of Germany as part of the Geoe´ks-86 experi-ment. The territory of the German Democratic Republic wphotographed simultaneously from Mir, from the Kosmo1602 satellite, and from airborne laboratories. The resultsthe studies were to be used to monitor the status of theests and farmlands as well as to plan measures for envimental conservation.

The second expedition on the Mir–Soyuz TM-2Kvant–Soyuz TM-3 OC lasted 326 days~from February 6 toDecember 29, 1987!. At the beginning of the flight, Yu. V.Romanenko and A. I. Lave�kin began their investigations apart of a program to study natural resources before thecialized module Kvant arrived. They carried out visual oservations, photography, and spectrometry of individualgions of the Soviet Union, as well as experiments to stuthe upper layers of the atmosphere.

The Kvant astrophysics module, equipped with a setdevices for investigating x-ray and UV sources, was dockto Mir on April 9, 1987. At the end of April, in May, and inthe first half of June, 1987, the cosmonauts continuedobserve and photograph individual regions in order to stuthe seasonal development of agriculture and to detect fofires and meteorological phenomena in the atmosphere.July 15, 1987, they participated in the Telegeo-87 aerospexperiment as part of the international combined proj‘‘Study of the dynamics of geosystems by remote methodThey surveyed individual regions of the Polish People’s Rpublic, while a survey was made from an airborne labotory. In June, 1987, the cosmonauts started a study ofsources by means of the Glazar UV telescope.

On July 24, 1987, the Soyuz TM-3 was docked to tMir OC with an international visiting crew composed of AS. Viktorenko, A. P. Aleksandrov, and Syrian citizen Mhammed Faris. As they flew over the territory of Syria, tcosmonauts carried out the Evfrat experiment: a seriesvisual observations, photography, and spectrometry of itsritory. It included a search for useful minerals and waresources in the Afro–Asiatic fault, as well as an investigtion of the forest resources of Syria, its internal reservoand cartography of the country’s territory. Syrian specialisimultaneously carried out subsatellite experiments on eand from helicopters and airplanes.

The international crew also performed a series of msurements as part of the program of the Basra experimwhose goal was to investigate the physics of the upper at


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sphere and ionosphere. The Basra experiment used asensitivity apparatus developed by Soviet and Syrian speists.

The international visiting crew of ViktorenkoLave�kina, and Faris returned to earth on July 30, 1987the descent module of the Soyuz TM-2. RomanenkoAleksandrov remained on board to continue visual obsetions, photography, and spectrometry of the surface ofdry land and the ocean.

The following analysis of the use of photographsearth from the Mir OC and other spacecraft, by V. Yaschenko, the founder of GUGK as part of SM SSSR, appeain Pravdaon October 23, 1987:

The materials of space surveys have made it possiblfill in the ‘‘white spots’’ in the region of the Pamirs anTyan-Shan. This not only provides a detailed map of thinaccessible regions, but also reveals previously unknoplaces for pasturage, for constructing tourist centers, andlocating recreation areas. Space surveys have helped to mmaps of the Chukchi area, Novaya Zemlya, the KurIslands, and the deserts of Central Asia.

Using thematic space maps and synthesized multizophotographs in the semidesert of the Aral region, speciahave discovered a thick lens of fresh water in a territorysand dunes. Drilling will confirm whether the water suppliare suitable for providing pasturage . . .

Remote probing makes it possible to investigate the sfloor relief at definite depths, its geological structure, arwhere plants grow, currents, and water contamination.periments using a number of space-based instrumentsshown that, for a certain water transparency, choice of filtand subsequent special processing, photographic imageunderwater relief at great depths can be obtained.

Space surveys make it possible to determine the stand development dynamics of the road network and howaffects the agricultural use of lands, to detect damage ofsoil cover as a result of mining and drilling work and thstrip mining of useful minerals, to establish from indiresigns changes in the ground-water regime caused by eneering and construction work, to detect discharges of pcessing wastes of industrial plants into water reservoirs,to reveal how harmful industrial discharges into the atmsphere affect the development of timber.

Studying the earth and the surrounding world, mapmers took centuries to draw continents, seas, countries,various geographical objects on the map. Now this candone from a few orbits of a spacecraft. . . .

Yuri� Romanenko, Aleksandr Lave�kin, and AleksandrAleksandrov have surveyed part of Antarctica. Using spphotographs, GUGK is now creating topographic mapsthis continent on a scale of 1:200 000. Such maps simcould not be made at such a scale by other methods.’’

A communication from TASS~Izvestiya, November 23,1987! described the detection of underground lakes of driable water in the Gissar Valley of Tadzhikistan fromanalysis of photographs from space. A study of this quesshowed that the Gissar Valley consists of several plateloose rock, so that water percolates to the lowest layers.


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answered the question of the disappearance of a great pathe Kafirnigan River that flows into these regions: It turout that the water escapes into these underground reserv

In August, 1987, the cosmonauts were actively involvin a research program using apparatus installed on the Kastrophysics module. On August 10, x-ray telescopes onKvant module for the first time recorded a strong x-ray sptrum in the region of the supernova in the Great MagellaCloud. Subsequent observations confirmed that the sourcthis radiation is a supernova. The Glazar telescope was uto study UV radiation from galaxies and sources in the cstellations Puppis, Grus, Pavo, Orion, Ursus Major, CariPiscis Austrinus, the regions near the stars Alpha PavoAlpha Eridani, and the supernova in the Great MagellaCloud.

In September and October, 1987, the crew usedEFO-1 photometer for several cycles of measurements ofbrightness of the stars as they passed through the atmospat the earth’s horizon. The purpose of these experimentsto investigate the optical characteristics of the earth’s atmsphere and to study the height profile of the aerosol distrition.

At the end of December, 1987, the crews of the mexpeditions changed places directly on board the Mir OCthe first time in the history of manned flights. The SoyTM-4 space ship, piloted by the crew of the third expeditioconsisting of Vladimir Georgievich Titov, Musa Khiramanovich Manarov, and Anatoli� Semenovich Levchenkowas put into orbit on December 21, 1987 and docked wthe Mir OC on December 23, 1987. The five cosmonabegan to work on board the Mir OC. Three of themRomanenko, Aleksandrov, and Levchenko—returnedearth six days later, on December 29, 1987, on the desmodule of the Soyuz TM-3 space ship. The main crew ofthird expedition—Titov and Manarov—remained on boathe Mir OC.

The main crew of the third expedition on the MirKvant–Soyuz TM-4–Soyuz TM-5–Soyuz TM-6–SoyuTM-7 OC ~V. G. Titov and M. X. Manarov! investigatedatmospheric–optical phenomena during the entire flight,most 1 yr~from December 23, 1987 to December 21, 198!,as part of a program of visual observations developedLazarev and Avakyan. The cosmonauts sketched and win logs the results of observations of the emission ofnighttime atmosphere, the zodiacal light, the auroras,8 nocti-lucent clouds, stratospheric aerosol layers,9 cyclones and ty-phoons, thunderstorm phenomena, etc. They also obseocean currents and whirlpools and the deep-water reliesea and ocean floors.

Using the Pegas UV camera, the cosmonauts performa series of surveys of equatorial noctilucent clouds inspectral region around 0.28mm on the background of thedaytime earth at equatorial latitudes.7

In the second half of April, 1988, Titov and Manarocarried out several series of visual observations and phgraphed the near-Caspian lowlands, the Caucasus, WeKazakhstan, the Far East, Povolzhe, and the CenChernozem Region. The purpose was to study the seas


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development of vegetation, to collect data on the ecologsituation in regions of intense industrial activity, to deteforest fires, and to observe meteorological processes inatmosphere. In May, 1988, the cosmonauts continued obvations and surveys of individual regions of our country,particular the forests of the Carpathians and the Caucathe farmlands of Odessa Oblast, Krasnodar Krai, and Tumeniya. Observations and surveys were also made ofsouthwestern regions of the Soviet Union and of individsections of the water areas of the ocean.

In mid-January, 1988, using the Glazar UV telescothe cosmonauts began and periodically continued duringentire flight surveys of individual regions of the starry skythe constellations Orion, Puppis, Carina, Columba, Ursanor and Major, and the supernova in the Great MagellaCloud. Surveys were made in the constellations Virgo, LLupus, Aquila, Cygnus, and Ophiuchus in May–Augu1988 and in the constellations Scorpio, Taurus, Perseus,siopeia, Piscis Austrinus, Canis Major, and VelaSeptember–November.

At the beginning of February, 1988, Titov and Manarcontinued the experiments started by the crew of the secexpedition to determine the optical characteristics of themosphere, using the Czechoslovakian E´FO-1 photometer tomeasure the brightness of stars when their rays pass thrthe dense layers of the atmosphere at the earth’s horizo

The Soyuz TM-5 space ship was put into near-earth oon June 7, 1988, piloted by an international visiticrew consisting of Anatoli� Yakovlevich Solov’ev, ViktorPetrovich Savinykh, and a citizen of the People’s Repubof Bulgaria, Aleksandr Panayotov Aleksandrov. Soyuz TMwas docked to the Mir OC on the side of the Kvant astphysics module on June 9, 1988.

During the flight of the international crew, the cosmnauts carried out the Georesurs experiment, which involveseries of photographic surveys and spectrometry of the ttory of Bulgaria, as well as measurements of the optical chacteristics of the atmosphere. The natural resources ofgaria were studied simultaneously at several levinvolving airplanes and terrestrial observation points. Tocrease the effectiveness of the surveys and measurementhe short time of flight over Bulgaria, several photographmotion-picture, and spectral devices operated simultaneoon board the OC through all the portholes. Spectra ofunderlying surface were recorded from space by meanthe new Spektr-256 device, which had 256 channels, rathan the 15 in the Spektr-15.

The international crew began work with the Rozhen aparatus. This is an apparatus with a sensitive CCD arraya controlling on-board computer with a capacious memoAn image in the Rozhen apparatus can be transmitted inform of graphic or digital information on the computescreens both on board the station and in the Flight ConCenter. The emission spectra of the nighttime atmosphthe auroras, and other weak radiation sources can be intigated by using the Rozhen apparatus and the ParallZagorka spectrometer. In particular, the Rozhen apparwas used to take pictures of the engine exhaust when


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station was being adjusted. On June 15, 1988, as the OCover Japan, Savinykh observed noctilucent clouds oAlaska.

On June 17, 1988, the international visiting crew, cosisting of Anatoli� Solov’ev, Viktor Savinykh, and Bulgariancitizen Aleksandr Aleksandrov returned to earth on thescent module of the Soyuz TM-4 space ship.

The cosmonauts participated in studies for the prograof the Tyan-Shan–Interkosmos-88 international aerospexperiment and the Kuban’-88 aerospace experiment insecond half of August, 1988. The goal of the Tyan-ShaInterkosmos-88 experiment, performed in the interestsgeology, was, in particular, to perfect remote methods afacilities for studying the earth’s seismic danger zones. Tcosmonauts completed several series of photo surveysspectrometry of the territory of our country near the citiesDushanbe and Frunze and in the region of the ToktoReservoir.

The goals of the Kuban’-88 experiment were, in particlar, to study the near-shore regions and arable lands subto wind erosion, to reveal sections of farmlands supersarated with mineral fertilizers, and to estimate the extentwhich the estuaries of the Sea of Azov are overgrownwater vegetation. To do this, the crew photographedmeasured the spectra of the territory of Krasnodar aStavropol Krais, and the water area of the Sea of Azov.

The Soyuz TM-6 space ship, piloted by an internationvisiting crew consisting of Vladimir Afanas’evich LyakhovValeri� Vladimirovich Polyakov, and Abdul Ahad Mohmand, a citizen of the Republic of Afghanistan, was launchinto near-earth orbit on August 29, 1988. Two days later,Soyuz TM-6 was docked to the Mir OC from the side of tKvant astrophysics module.

The joint flight involved studies for the program of thShamshad~Lotos! experiment, which included visual obsevations, photography, and spectroscopy of the territory ofRepublic of Afghanistan. During the work of the interntional crew, the flight path of the station passed overterritory of Afghanistan on nine orbits: six short passacross and three long passes along the territory, lasting f30 sec to 3 min. The long passes in this case were onnighttime side of the earth. The cosmonauts carried outsual observations, photography, and spectrometry of motainous and inaccessible regions of Afghanistan that areinterest for prospecting for useful minerals, as well as wthe goal of revealing lands suitable for exploitation, evaluing the seismic conditions of the territory, searching forand gas, and searching for underground water supplies.

The international visiting crew of Lyakhov and Mohmand returned to earth on September 7, 1988 on the desmodule of the Soyuz TM-5 space ship. Polyakov remainon board Mir until April 27, 1989.

In September, 1988, the crew performed a cycle ofperiments to develop methods for detecting plankton fieldthe water area of the ocean and detecting regions wherecontaminated and carried out an alternating series of survof individual regions of dry land and the water area of tocean in narrow sections of the spectrum.


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The Soyuz TM-7 space ship, launched on November1988, was piloted by an international crew comprising Aksandr Aleksandrovich Volkov, Serge� KonstantinovichKrikalev, and French citizen Jean-Loup Chre´tien. The SoyuzTM-7 docked with the Mir OC on November 28, 1988.

On December 19, 1988, Volkov and Krikalev madeseries of surveys of individual regions of the territoof Armenia, which was suffering from the earthquakeDecember 7, 1988.

Titov, Manarov, and Chre´tien returned to earth on thdescent module of the Soyuz TM-6 space ship on Decem21, 1988.

The main crew of the fourth expedition on the MirKvant–Soyuz TM-6–Soyuz TM-7 OC~Volkov, Krikalev,and Polyakov! used the Glazar UV telescope in JanuarMarch, 1989 to make several series of surveys in the cstellations Auriga, Carina, Cassiopeia, Orion, Vela, GemMonoceros, Crux, and Coma Berenices.

On January 13, 1989, the cosmonauts carried out anvestigation of physical processes in the ionosphere andupper atmosphere by means of the Rozhon astronomcomplex and the Parallaks-Zagorka spectrophotometer.January 24–27, 1989, the cosmonauts used a holograrecorder to monitor the status of the portholes in orderevaluate their optical characteristics. At the end of Februthe crew performed a series of experiments to determinestructure and optical characteristics of the atmosphere bying the EFO-1 photometer to record the brightness of the sAlpha Aurigae as its rays passed through the dense layethe horizon of the earth. The Spektr-256 apparatus was uin the second half of March, 1989 to study the optical chacteristics of the earth’s atmosphere.

In the second half of February, 1989, as part of the pgram of the Kuban’-89 aerospace experiment, the cosnauts carried out photography and spectrometry of the tetory of the Crimea and the Krasnodar and Stavropol KraThe goal of these was to evaluate the status of the arlands and rangelands, to reveal sections of farmlands suto erosion and supersaturation with mineral fertilizers, andobtain data on the status of the winter plantings. The stufrom space were accompanied with a simultaneous sufrom airborne laboratories and from ground-based measment facilities. Individual regions of Ukraine, Central Chenozem, Povolzhe, and the republics of Central Asia wphotographed at the end of February in order to determthe status of the winter plantings. The crew carried out seral series of visual observations and photography of theritory of the Soviet Union in April, with the goal of estimating atmospheric contamination in the regions of tindustrial centers of Ukraine, the Black Sea region, andVolga Basin.

Volkov, Krikalev, and Polyakov returned to earth oApril 27, 1989 on the descent module of the Soyuz TM-7

The crew of the fifth expedition on the Mir—KvantKvant-2–Soyuz TM-8 OC~September 6, 1989–February 11990!—A. S. Viktorenko and A. A. Serebrov—used thGlazar telescope in the second half of September, 1989at the end of October, 1989 to survey the starry sky in


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In October, 1989, they used the MKS-M and Spektr-2spectrometers and the KATE´ -140 camera to perform a serieof experiments on the optical characteristics of the earatmosphere, in particular, its ozone layer in the tropics,part of the combined international Soviet–Cuban experimAtlantika-89. In mid-November, 1989 and on February 11990, they used the E´FO-1 photometer to perform a seriesexperiments to evaluate the optical characteristics of themosphere by measuring the brightness of stars when trays pass through dense layers of the atmosphere.

In mid-October, 1989, they photographed and madtelevision survey of the territory of the Ukraine, Krasnodand Stavropol Krais, Turkmeniya, and Moldava. During texperiment, a technique was developed for directly transmting television images to consumers in various regions ofSoviet Union.

As part of the international Soviet–Cuban experimeAtlantika-89, several series of surveys of individual sectioof the water areas of the Atlantic Ocean were carried outhe beginning of November, 1989. As part of the interntional program ‘‘Man and the Biosphere,’’ the cosmonaucarried out several series of surveys and visual observatin the second half of November, 1989 with the goal of studing and ecologically evaluating the state of the soils avegetation of biospheric reserves located in various regiof the terrestrial sphere. This is necessary for the study ofdynamics of natural processes and to predict the ecologsituation on the planet. On December 14, 1989, on their ohundredth day in orbit, the cosmonauts held a press conence from on board the Mir OC. Answering the journalisquestions, Serebrov, in particular, said ‘‘The view of tearth often grieves us. We see, for example, how the Aradying. It already has separated into two parts and will sobreak up even further. While no water at all is visibleother deserts, there are many oases. Hence, it is possiblive even there, only it is necessary to consume the watea reasonable rate.’’

On December 8, 1989, the Kvant-2 module, whose sentific apparatus included a spectral complex with a remocontrol stabilized platform and the MKF-6MA multizonacamera, was docked to the Mir OC. During their third spawalk ~there were five of them in all!, on January 26, 1990the cosmonauts installed a sealed unit with a Japanesevision camera on the external stabilized platform, intendfor the study of the surface of the dry land and the water aof the earth.

Viktorenko and Serebrov returned to earth on thescent module of the Soyuz TM-2 on February 19, 1990.

The crew of the sixth expedition—A. Ya. Solov’ev anA. I. Balandin—on the Mir–Kvant–Kvant-2–Kristal–SoyuTM-9 OC ~February 11–August 9, 1990, 179 days! carriedout several series of surveys and visual observations ofindustrial centers of the southern part of the European pathe country, the region of the Karakum Canal, and a numof regions of the ocean. These studies used a spectral cplex installed on the external controllable platform


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Kvant-2 and other optical devices. Using the KAP-350 topgraphic apparatus and manual cameras, the cosmonautsveyed individual sections of the territory of the Soviet Unialong the flight path in order to evaluate the status offarmlands, water basins, and forest masses in the republiCentral Asia, Kazakhstan, and Eastern Siberia.

The Kristall module, on which was mounted thPriroda-5 high-resolution photographic complex, was docto the Mir OC on June 10, 1990. Using the spectral aphotographic apparatus installed on the complex, the cosnauts carried out several remote-probing series of the ttory of the Soviet Union and the water areas of the seasoceans. The goal of these experiments was to obtain datthe status of the plant cover, the bioproductivity of the swaters, and large-scale ocean currents. Ship-borne studithe northwest part of the Black Sea were carried out in pallel with the surveys from space.

Using the Glazar UV telescope, the cosmonauts pformed several series of surveys in the region of the conslation Crux and other constellations.

Solov’ev and Balandin returned to earth on August1990.

The crew of the sixth expedition—G. M. Manakov anG. M. Strekalov—on the Mir–Kvant–Kvant-2–Kristall–Soyuz TM-10 OC~August 1–December 10, 1990, 131 day!used a videospectral apparatus on the Kvant-2 modulperform a series of experiments in order to obtain data onecological status of the vegetation in the southern and easregions of our country and to determine the optical charteristics of the atmosphere.

Strekalov observed an interesting phenomenonSeptember 26, 1990. Here is how he recounted it:10

‘‘I got the impression that it was a circular cloud, shinlike a Christmas-tree ornament. I thought it was a giant cored balloon. But it might be an accumulation of gas—inword, an unknown natural physical phenomenon. It wasserved for seven seconds.’’

One of the authors hypothesized that Strekalov wasfirst person to visually observe the entry of a minicomet inthe earth’s atmosphere.10

On September 18, 1990, after the ship Progress M-4undocked, artificial plasma formations injected by a soumounted on the Progress M-4 were observed and recoduring its independent flight.

The Soyuz TM-11 spaceship, piloted by the crew of teighth expedition, consisting of V. M. Afanas’ev, M. KhManarov, and Japanese citizen Tohiro Akiyama, was putorbit on December 2, 1990 and was docked to the MKvant–Kvant-2–Kristall–Soyuz TM-10 OC on December1990.

Manarov, Strekalov, and Japanese cosmonaut ToAkiyama returned to earth on the descent module ofSoyuz TM-10 on December 10, 1990.

On February, 1991, the cosmonauts made visual obvations and delivered television reports on the theatermilitary action near the Persian Gulf. To a question conceing the ecological situation in this region, they reported:

‘‘You probably saw the television show of the comb


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zone through the lenses of our station. It is hard to add athing to that in words. This is a real wound in the earth—the entire blue planet and not just one of its zones, notone section. Foul-smelling trails of burning oil wells, a siister greasy spot on the mirror of the gulf, are visible assymbol of pain and death. With all our hearts we sympathwith the people who breathe the poisoned air of wEach orbit over this region wounds us—as people,earthlings . . .

Besides that, at night we observe fires from bombraids that snuff out human lives. We therefore appeal togovernments—stop the battle operations in the Near Eas

A series of surveys of individual regions of the SoviUnion, in particular, Ukraine, Kuban, the coast of the BlaSea, and Kazakhstan, was performed, using the Prirodphotographic complex and the spectral apparatus installethe stabilized platform of the Kvant-2 module. The purpoof this work was to study the seasonal development of vetation, to obtain data needed for prospecting for useful merals, and to evaluate the ecological situation in industregions.

The crew of the ninth expedition, consisting of A. PArtsibarski�, S. K. Krikalev, and a citizen of Great BritainHelen Sharman, was put into orbit on the Soyuz TM-space ship on May 18, 1991, which docked to the MiKvant–Kvant-2–Kristall–Soyuz TM-11 OC on May 201991.

Afanas’ev, Manarov, and Sharman returned to earththe descent module of the Soyuz TM-11 on May 26, 199

At the end of May, 1991, the cosmonauts performedseries of surveys of individual sections of the earth’s surfto evaluate the development dynamics of the plant coverto determine the ecological status of the atmosphere andwater resources.

During a spacewalk on the dark side of the earth on J30, 1991, Artsibarski� and Krikalev saw a meteorite enter thearth’s atmosphere under them.

At the end of July, 1991, the cosmonauts carried ouvideo survey of the southern regions of the territory of tSoviet Union for the purpose of further developmentmethods for remote probing of the earth’s surface and ecient evaluation of the ecological status of the vegetationthe water basins. In August 1991, the crew performed aries of video surveys of the territory of Northern Kazakhstin order to obtain online data on the status of farmlanwhere salinization of the soil was observed.

The space ship Soyuz TM-13, piloted by the crew of ttenth expedition, consisting of A. A. Volkov, Toktar Aubakirov, and Austrian citizen Franz Viehboeck, was launchon October 2, 1991 and docked to the Mir–Kvant–Kvant-Kristall–Soyuz TM-12 OC two days later.

The crews of the ninth and tenth expeditions workedboard the Mir OC from October 4 to 10, 1991. Aubakiroand Viehboeck made visual observations and a photograsurvey of Austria and Kazakhstan. Aubakirov’s program aincluded participation in the Aral-91 experiment, carried osimultaneously with the space survey.

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earth on the descent module of the Soyuz TM-12 on Octo10, 1991. Krikalev remained on board Mir and, along wVolkov, continued work as part of the crew of the tenexpedition. They observed the aerosol layers formed instrato-mesosphere after the eruption of the volcano Pinoin the summer of 1991 and made visual observationsphotographed a number of regions of the Soviet Union.

The Soyuz TM-14 space ship, piloted by the crew of televenth expedition, consisting of A. Victorenko, A. Kaleand German citizen Klaus-Dietrich Flade, was put into oron March 17, 1992 and docked to the Mir–Kvant–Kvant-Kristall–Soyuz TM-13 OC after two days. While the crewof the two expeditions were working on board the OC, tcosmonauts made visual observations and used variousparatus to record a number of atmospheric–optical phenena and phenomena on the earth’s surface as part oRussian–German program Mir-92. Volkov, Krikalev, anFlade returned to earth on the descent module of the SoTM-13 on March 25, 1992.

Viktorenko and Kaleri observed a group of tropical cclones at the cyclone-storm or hurricane stage in the Paand Atlantic Oceans. Following a program developed byI. Lazarev, Kaleri carried out a large series of observationnoctilucent clouds, auroras, and upper-atmosphere emisin June and July, 1992.11 Kaleri was apparently the first toobserve the small, short-lived clouds that may be associwith the snowy cores of minicomets irrupting into the earthatmosphere.13 While observing the first emission layer of thupper atmosphere, Kaleri not only observed that it halayered structure on the nighttime side, but also detectedthe first time, while he was over the twilight zone, that it ha layered structure in the presence of direct solar radiatio11

Kaleri several times observed, as had Titov,8 pulsing aurorasshortly before sunrise at lower latitudes.11

The Soyuz TM-15 space ship, piloted by the crew of ttwelfth expedition, consisting of A. Solov’ev, S. Avdeeand French cosmonaut Michel Tognini, was put into orbitJuly 27, 1992 and docked to the Mir–Kvant–Kvant-2Kristall–Soyuz TM-14 OC two days later. Following a program drawn up by French scientists, the effect of weightleness on the human immune system was studied. ViktoreKaleri, and French cosmonaut Tognini returned to earththe descent module of the Soyuz TM-14 on August 10, 19

Cosmonauts Solov’ev and Avdeev continued visualservations, photography, and spectrometry of individualgions of the water area and surface of the earth.

The Soyuz TM-16 space ship, piloted by the crew of tthirteenth expedition, consisting of G. Manakov andPoleshchuk, was put into orbit on January 24, 1993 anddocked to the Mir–Kvant–Kvant-2–Kristall–Soyuz TM-1OC two days later. Solov’ev and Avdeev returned to earththe descent module of the Soyuz TM-15 on February1993. Cosmonauts Manakov and Poleshchuk performeseries of geophysical and technological experiments. A tvision survey of individual regions of the earth with diretransmission of the images was continued in order to devean ecological research technique. The Progress M-15 cship was used in orbit to deploy in open space a large s


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reflector in the form of a thin-film disk 20 m in diameter.The crew of the fourteenth expedition, consisting of

Tsibliev, A. Serebrov, and French cosmonaut Jean-PiHaignere was put into orbit on the Soyuz TM-17 space son June 1, 1993 and docked to the Mir–Kvant–Kvant-Kristall–Soyuz TM-16 OC two days afterwards. Followinthe program of French scientists, biomedical experimewere carried out as part of a study of human physiologicapabilities under conditions of extended flight. ManakoPoleshchuk, and French cosmonaut Haignere returneearth on the descent module of the Soyuz TM-16 on July1993.

Following an astrophysics research program, the cosnauts carried out several series of x-ray measurements ostarry sky and geophysical experiments to study UV radtion in near-earth space. Following a research programvolving the earth’s natural resources and the environmsurveys of various regions of the planet were continuWorking in open space, the cosmonauts assembled a sptruss for mounting measurement apparatus.

Space ship Soyuz TM-18, piloted by the crew of tfifteenth expedition, consisting of V. Afanas’ev, Yu. Uschev, and V. Polyakov, was put into orbit on January 8, 19and two days afterward docked to the Mir–Kvant–Kvant-2Kristall–Soyuz TM-17 OC. Tsibliev and Serebrov returnto earth on the descent module of the Soyuz TM-17 on Jaary 14, 1994.

Cosmonauts Afanas’ev and Usachev continued the asphysical and geophysical studies and experiments. Theygan preparations for joint Russian–American flights as pof the Mir–Shuttle program. Afanas’ev and Usachev workfor 182 days and returned to earth on July 9, 1994 ondescent module of the Soyuz-18. Polyakov worked on bofor 429 days until March 22, 1995 with members of thcrews of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth expeditof the Mir OC.

The Soyuz TM-19 space ship was put into orbit on Ju1, 1994, piloted by the crew of the sixteenth expedition, cosisting of Yu. M. Malenchenko and Kazakhstan cosmonTalgat Musabayev. The Soyuz TM-19 docked to the MiKvant–Kvant-2–Kristall–Soyuz TM-18 OC two days late

The cosmonauts continued to work on the remote pring of the earth. In particular, they carried out photograpand video surveys of the territory of Kazakhstan. The cmonauts performed geophysical experiments, includingstudy of noctilucent clouds, as assigned by the AstrophysInstitute of Kazakhstan.

Extra-atmospheric astronomy was studied, usingRoentgen international observatory installed on the Kvmodule. Experiments were done on the Mariya magnespectrometer to study the correlation of the flux intensityhigh-energy elementary charged particles of cosmic radiaand seismic activity on the planet.

The crew of the seventeenth expedition—A. ViktorenkE. Kondakova, and German citizen Ulf Merbold—were pinto orbit on the Soyuz TM-20 space ship on October1994 and docked to the Mir–Kvant–Kvant-2–KristallSoyuz TM-19 OC two days later. Malenchenko, Musabay


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The cosmonauts continued work on the remote probof the earth, including the territory of Germany. The effectspace flight on man continued to be studied.

The crew of the eighteenth expedition, consisting ofDezhurov, G. Strekalov, and American astronaut NormThagard was put into orbit on March 14, 1995 on the SoyTM-21 space ship. Two days later, the Soyuz TM-21 dockto the Mir–Kvant–Kvant-2–Kristall–Soyuz TM-20 OCwhere biomedical and geophysical studies and experimwere continued. Viktorenko, Kondakova, and Polyakovturned to earth on the descent module of the Soyuz TMon March 22, 1995.

Thagard, the first American astronaut on board Mir, acosmonauts Dezhurov and Strekalov made several spwalks in order to prepare Mir for docking with the Spekmodule.12 The docking occurred on June 1, 1995. TAmerican RTSS Atlantis-14, containing American astronaRobert Gibson, Charles Precourt, Ellen Baker, Gregory Hbaugh, and Bonnie Dunbar, was docked to the Mir OCJune 29, 1995. The Mir OC also contained the crew ofnineteenth expedition—A. Solov’ev and N. Budarin.

The overall weight of the Mir–Atlantis-14 complex waabout 220 tonnes. The six U.S. astronauts and the four Rsian cosmonauts worked on the complex for five days. Tcarried out biomedical experiments as part of a study ofadaptation of cosmonauts and astronauts to weightlessincluding studies of the effect of weightlessness on the mbers of the crew of the eighteenth expedition on M~Thagard, Dezhurov, and Strekalov! who had been in spacalmost 4 months~115 days!.

Undocking of Atlantis-14 and Mir took place on July 41995. This was preceded by the undocking of Soyuz TM~with cosmonauts Solov’ev and Budarin!, from which televi-sion pictures and photographs were made of the undocprocess of Mir and Atlantis-14. Soyuz TM-21 was thdocked to Mir. Atlantis-14 with the six U.S. astronauts atwo Russian cosmonauts—Dezhurov and Strekalov—lanat Cape Canaveral on July 7, 1995.

The crew of the nineteenth expedition of Mir—ASolov’ev and N. Budarin—continued work on the remoprobing of the earth. Making a spacewalk on July 21, 19the cosmonauts installed on the Spektr module the RussBelgian Miras spectrometer for remote probing of the eartatmosphere during sunrise and sunset and performed a sof such experiments.

The Soyuz TM-22 space ship, piloted by the crew of ttwentieth expedition, consisting of Yu. Gidzenko,Avdeev, and German citizen Thomas Reiter, was launcon September 3, 1995 and docked to the Mir–Kvant–Kva2–Kristall–Spektr–Soyuz TM-21 OC two days later. Tcrews of the two expeditions~the nineteenth and twentieth!began experiments with the Miras spectrometer on remprobing of the earth’s atmosphere during sunrise and sun

Solov’ev and Budarin returned to earth on the descmodule of the Soyuz-21 on September 11, 1995.

During a five-hour spacewalk on October 19, 1995,


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cosmonauts installed an apparatus for astrophysics studiethe Spektr module.

The RTSS Atlantis-15, which delivered a new transcompartment, fabricated in Russia, was docked to MirNovember 15, 1995. The American astronauts used ittransfer to the Mir OC. This compartment will be used fthe International Space Station. Eight cosmonautsastronauts—two Russian, four American, one Canadian,one German—worked on board Mir–Atlantis-15 from Nvember 15 to 18, 1995. All the members of the Atlantis-crew are military and carried out the flight as part of a Petagon program. This was the first time that the Mir OC maa joint flight with a space ship launched according to a Ptagon program.

The Atlantis-15 was undocked from Mir on Novemb18, 1995. After undocking, Atlantis-15 flew around Mtwice at a distance of about 150 m. Observations, photophy, and video taping of the hundred-tonne Atlantis-15 aMir ships were carried out as they orbited about each oth

On December 8, 1995, Gidzenko and Avdeev performan EVA in order to prepare for future docking of the Priromodule with the Mir OC.

At the end of December, 1995, the Progress cargo spship, besides the usual loads, delivered Christmas presenMir for the cosmonauts. Reiter received an unexpecpresent—a letter from American astronaut Neil Armstronthe first man to reach the surface of the moon. It wasanswer to a letter to Armstrong after his flight to the mothat Reiter wrote as an eleven-year-boy.

The crew of the twenty-first expedition—Yu. Anufrienko and Yu. Usachev—was put into orbit on the SoyTM-23 space ship on February 21, 1996, and the SoTM-23 docked to the Mir–Kvant–Kvant-2–Kristall–Spektr–Soyuz TM-22 OC two days later.

Gidzenko, Avdeev, and Reiter returned to earth ondescent module of the Soyuz TM-22 on February 29, 19

The cosmonauts carried out a series of astrophysicsperiments. The RTSS Atlantis-16, with six U.S. astronauincluding two women—Shannon Lucid and Linda Godwinwas docked to Mir on March 27, 1996. Astronauts Cliffoand Godwin made a spacewalk on March 27, 1996 andstalled devices and samples of materials on the outer surof Mir.

Atlantis-16 separated from Mir on March 29, 1996. Ater separating, Atlantis-16 flew around Mir, while photgraphs and television pictures of Mir and Atlantis-16 wemade. Anufrienko, Usachev, and Lucid stayed on boardto continue work.

The Priroda module was docked to the Mir OC on Ap27, 1996.

The crew of the twenty-second expedition—V. KorzuA. Kaleri, and French citizen Claudi Deshayes—was put iorbit on the Soyuz TM-24 space ship on August 17, 19Soyuz TM-24 docked to the Mir–Kvant–Kvant-2–KristallSpektr–Priroda–Soyuz TM-23 OC two days later.

Deshayes completed a series of biomedical experimaccording to the French program Cassiopeia. AnufrienUsachev, and Deshayes returned to earth on the des


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module of the Soyuz TM-23 on September 2, 1996.The RTSS Atlantis-17 docked with Mir on Septemb

19, 1996, and Shannon Lucid was replaced by Ameriastronaut John Blaha. The seven American astronautstwo Russian cosmonauts worked together for five daysthe Mir–Atlantis-17 OC. Atlantis-17 undocked from Mir oSeptember 24, after which it flew around Mir twice in ordto detect damage to its surface. Shannon Lucid returneearth on the Atlantis-17 on September 26, 1996, after188-day flight. She broke the flight-duration record fwomen, which had belonged to Elena Kondakova~170days!. Shannon Lucid made five space flights.

A. Yu. Kaleri carried out 194 observation sessionsnoctilucent clouds in the Southern Hemisphere from Deceber 20, 1996 to January 16, 1997,14 at which period they aremost likely to appear there. Kaleri repeatedly observed blinear formations of noctilucent clouds and short-lived smclouds. As an example, we quote the report he made duhis fortieth observation session on December 24, 199620 h 59 min 25 sec: ‘‘At just half the altitude of the twilighaureole there are clouds—interwoven lines with compstructure. Tangled, intertwined, rather bright . . . .’’ 15 Theseobservations confirm the minicomet hypothesis for the fmation of noctilucent clouds.16 The minicomet hypothesis, incombination with other experimental data obtained fromterplanetary spacecraft, has made it possible to create ahypothetical models of noctilucent clouds on Mars17 andVenus,18 as well as a hypothetical model of atmospherioptical phenomena on Venus.19

RTSS Atlantis-18 docked with Mir on January 15, 19and brought American astronaut Jerry Linenger to replJohn Blaha on board Mir. Atlantis-18 undocked from Mir oJanuary 20, 1997, and returned to earth on January 22, 1

The crew of the twenty-third expedition—V. TsiblievA. Lazutkin, and German cosmonaut Reinhold Ewald—wput into orbit on the Soyuz TM-25 space ship on Febru10, 1997. The Soyuz TM-25 docked with the Mir–KvanKvant-2–Kristall–Spektr–Priroda–Soyuz TM-24 OC twdays later. The five cosmonauts and one astronaut workeboard Mir for eighteen days. They carried out a seriesbiomedical and technological experiments, including a stuof the effect of space-flight conditions on the human braFor the German cosmonaut, this flight was a preparationflight on the International Space Station. Korzun, Kaleri, aGerman cosmonaut Ewald returned to earth on the desmodule of the Soyuz TM-24 on March 2, 1997.

The RTSS Atlantis-19 docked with Mir on May 171997, bringing Mike Foale to replace Jerry Linenger on MThe Atlantis-19 crew included Elena Kondakova, who pticipated in the scientific studies and acted as interpreter.crew of ten cosmonauts and astronauts performed a numof biomedical and technological experiments as part ofRussia–NATO program.

Atlantis undocked from Mir on May 22, 1997, and rturned to earth on May 24, 1997.

On May 25, 1997, during redocking of the ProgreM-34 cargo ship, the operating regime malfunctioned, athe tonne-and-a-half ship forcibly struck the Mir station, a


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result of which the skin was punctured, and the Spektr mule lost sealing. Cosmonauts Tsibliev and Lazutkin andtronaut Foale were in the Soyuz TM-25 at the time. Tcollision damaged four solar batteries on the Spektr modStarting on June 26, 1997, normal conditions for the cosmnauts’ life activity were maintained in all the compartmenexcept for the Spektr module. The crew constantly matained the necessary orientation to the sun in order to obthe maximum power in Mir’s power-supply system.

The Soyuz TM-26 space ship, piloted by the crew of ttwenty-fourth expedition, consisting of A. Solov’ev andVinogradov, was put into orbit on August 5, 1997. SoyTM-26 docked to the Mir–Kvant–Kvant-2–Kristall–Spektr–Priroda–Soyuz TM-25 OC two days later.

Tsibliev and Lazutkin returned to earth on the descmodule of the Soyuz TM-25 on August 14, 1997.

On August 16, 1997, Soyuz TM-26 redocked with tKvant module on the transfer compartment of Mir. Durinthe redocking, Soyuz TM-26 flew around the Mir OCSolov’ev, Vinogradov, and Foale were on board SoyTM-26 and made a visual inspection and took photograof the Spektr module.

On August 22, 1997, Solov’ev and Vinogradov enterthe unsealed Spektr module and connected cables fromktr’s solar batteries to Mir’s common power system. Thsubstantially increased Mir’s power.

Solov’ev and Foale completed a six-hour spacewalkSeptember 6, 1997 in order to make an external inspectiothe Spektr module. They inspected five sections of the pposed seven, but detected no surface damage. They corrthe position of two of Spektr’s solar batteries, which proviabout 40% of all the power to the Mir complex.

The RTSS Atlantis-20 was docked to the Mir OC oSeptember 27, 1997. Astronaut David Wolf arrived in itreplace Michael Foale on board Mir.

Atlantis-20 undocked from Mir on October 3, 1997. AAtlantis-20 flew around Mir, two unsealed sections of tsurface of the Spektr module were visually detected. Tothis, air was pumped into the Spektr module, and thesealed sections of the surface were revealed from the plwhere pieces of the vacuum-isolating screen were blown

Atlantis-20 returned safely to earth on October 7, 199On January 9, 1998, Solov’ev and Vinogradov pe

formed an EVA, closed an exit hatch on the Kvant-2 modthat had not been closed previously, and removed fromouter surface of Mir the U.S. apparatus intended to studyeffect of space conditions on the surface of materialsinstalled in April, 1997. Wolf took pictures of the EVA witha television camera. The RTSS Endeavour-11 deliveredAmerican apparatus to earth on February 1, 1998.

On January 15, 1998, Solov’ev and Wolf used an Amecan spectroreflexometer during a spacewalk to study thefect of space conditions on the external skin of the radiatothe instrumentation/cargo section of the Kvant-2 module.

This was Anatoli� Solov’ev’s sixteenth spacewalk. Hholds the record for the number of spacewalks and for thtotal duration, which equals 74 h.

The RTSS Endeavour-11 was docked to the Mir OC


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January 24, 1998, bringing American astronaut Andrew Tmas to replace David Wolf on board Mir. On January, 19Endeavour-11 undocked from Mir, separated from it150 m, and flew around Mir while photographing it at vaous resolutions.

The crew of the twenty-fifth expedition, consisting of NBudarin, Kazakhstan cosmonaut Talgat Musabaev,French cosmonaut Leopold Eyharts, was put into orbit onSoyuz TM-27 space ship on January 29, 1998. The SoTM-27 docked to the Mir–Kvant–Kvant-2–Kristall–Spektr–Priroda–Soyuz TM-26 OC two days later.

Solov’ev, Vinogradov, and French cosmonaut Eyhareturned to earth on the descent module of the Soyuz TMon February 19 , 1998.

The RTSS Discovery-24 docked to the Mir OC on Ju4, 1998. Discovery-24 undocked from Mir on June 8, 19American astronaut Thomas flew away along with the Dcovery crew. Discovery-24 returned to earth on June1998. After undocking, an experiment was carried out frDiscovery-24 to detect the site at which the Spektr modhad lost sealing, for which it was pumped full of a mixturenitrogen, acetone, and a dye.

The crew of the twenty-sixth expedition on the Mir OCconsisting of G. Padalka, S. Avdeev, and Yu. Baturin, wput into orbit on Soyuz TM-28 on August 13, 1998. ThSoyuz TM-28 docked to the Mir–Kvant–Kvant-2–KristallSpektr–Priroda–Soyuz TM-27 OC two days later.

The Soyuz TM-27, with cosmonauts Musabaev, Bdarin, and Baturin, was undocked from Mir on August 21998, and returned to earth.

The crew of the twenty-seventh expedition, consistingV. Afanes’ev, French cosmonaut Jean-Pierre Haignere,Slovakian cosmonaut Ivan Bella, was put into orbit on tSoyuz TM-29 space ship on February 20, 1999. The SoTM-29 docked to the Mir–Kvant–Kvant-2–Kristall–Spektr–Priroda–Soyuz TM-28 OC two days later. The doing was carried out for the first time by means of a napparatus that will be used on the International Spacetion. Three independent programs: Russian, French, andvakian, were carried out during the combined six-day fligof the twenty-sixth and twenty-seventh crews. PadalkoSlovakian cosmonaut Bella returned to earth on the desmodule of the Soyuz TM-28 on February 28, 1999. Avderemained on board Mir to work with the crew of the twentseventh expedition.

On April 16, 1999, Afanas’ev and Haignere completedspacewalk and carried out the Germetizator experimThey installed an experimental panel for experimental repwork to seal the hull of the Kvant-2 module and filled thcavity of the panel with a sealing mixture. This experimeallowed the cosmonauts to test a new technology—thementing of a conventional puncture in the wall on tKvant-2 module. The technology was developed for reping the punctures in the Spektr module, with which tProgress M-34 cargo ship collided in 1997.

In June and July of 1999, as reported by Avdeev,cosmonauts often saw noctilucent clouds.

Using the EFO-2 photometer, Avdeev carried out n


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merous sessions to measure the altitude distribution ofaerosol in the atmosphere from the brightness variationstars when they set on the nighttime horizon of the eaAccording to Kaleri, a decrease of the brightness of the swas recorded in a number of cases when they were obsein the direction of the perigee of the line of sight at altitudof 100–130 km. This is evidence that an attenuating laymost likely an aerosol layer, is found at these altitudes inumber of cases. We recall that circumsatellite luminescewith a maximum at altitudes of 120–130 km was detected1960–62 in experiments using IR radiometers installedpilotless spacecraft; this was explained by micrometeoerosion.20,21

On July 23 and 28, 1999, Afanas’ev and Avdeev copleted spacewalks and installed a large reflector. Theseflectors can be used for satellite communications.

On August 11, 1999, during a total solar eclipse, tcosmonauts observed the path of the moon’s shadowthe earth’s surface.

Afanas’ev, Avdeev, and French cosmonaut Haignereturned to earth on the descent module of the Soyuz TMspacecraft on August 27, 1999.

CONCLUSION

The results obtained from the Salyut-7 orbital statiothe Mir orbital complex, and other manned space ship22

demonstrate that visual observations and instrumental opstudies of the environment from space are highly effectiThe results of these investigations have been publishednumber of monographs,1,8,11,12,16,23–29 collections ofarticles,30–32and in numerous articles and reports at domeand international forums.

These investigations and experiments were performunder various programs associated with the features ofcrews and the flight tasks. Since manned flights will be ccentrated on the International Space Station, which isresult of the participation of sixteen countries, it mightexpedient in the future to create an International ScientifiTechnical Coordination Council as part of the United Ntions in order to prepare crews and research programs.tasks of the council would include the preparation ofsearch programs and experiments; the coordination of won the creation of optical apparatus for the training of cmonauts and astronauts; participation in carrying out thesearch from ground-based flight-control points; the proceing, analysis, and interpretation of the results of the studand experiments; publication of the results; developmenoptical models and calculational programs; and the creaof a database.

1A. I. Lazarev, V. V. Kovalenok, and S. V. Avakyan,Study of the Earthfrom Manned Space Ships~Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad, 1987!.

2S. V. Avakyan, A. N. Berezovo�, Ch. I. Villmannet al., ‘‘Observations ofthe nighttime luminescence of the upper atmosphere from the Salyorbital station,’’ inStudy of the Atmosphere and the Earth’s Surface frSpace~Tartu, 1988!, pp. 3–8.

3The Conquest of Space in the USSR 1983~Nauka, Moscow, 1985!.4The Conquest of Space in the USSR 1984~Nauka, Moscow, 1986!.5The Conquest of Space in the USSR 1985~Nauka, Moscow, 1987!.6A. I. Lazarev, V. I. Sevast’yanov, and V. P. Savinykh, ‘‘Noctiluce


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clouds: The view from space,’’ Priroda No. 6, 60~1991!.7A. V. Ivanov, A. A. Kamenev, V. D. Starichenkova, and L. D. Timakov‘‘Study of the radiation of equatorial noctilucent clouds in the mid-Uregion,’’ Opt. Zh.68, No. 2, 20~2001! @J. Opt. Technol.68, 93 ~2001!#.

8S. V. Avakyan, L. S. Evlashin, V. V. Kovalenoket al., Observations ofAuroras from Space~Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad, 1991!.

9A. I. Lazarev, V. N. Lebedinets, L. A. Mirzoevaet al., ‘‘Observations ofnoctilucent clouds and aerosol layers in the strato-mesosphere fromSalyut-7 orbital station,’’ Astron. Vest.26, No. 1, 115~1992!.

10A. I. Lazarev, ‘‘Minicomets in earth’s atmosphere,’’ Priroda No. 10, 1~1991!.

11V. G. Bondur, A. Yu. Kaleri, and A. I. Lazarev,Observation of the Earthfrom Space. The Mir Orbital Station in March–August 1992~Gidro-meteoizdat, St. Petersburg, 1997!.

12A. I. Lazarev, V. G. Bondur, and Yu. I. Koptevet al., Space RevealsEarth’s Secrets~Gidrometeoizdat, St. Petersburg, 1993!.

13A. Yu. Kaleri, A. I. Lazarev, V. N. Lebedinets, and V. P. Savinyk‘‘Studies of noctilucent clouds from the Mir orbital station in 1992,Astron. Vest.29, No. 1, 78~1995!.

14A. Yu. Kaleri and A. I. Lazarev, ‘‘Recording the results of observationsnoctilucent clouds carried out by A. Yu. Kaleri on the Mir orbital statiofrom December 20, 1996 to January 16, 1997,’’ Opt. Zh.66, No. 8, 117~1999! @J. Opt. Technol.66, 768 ~1999!#.

15A. Yu. Kaleri and A. I. Lazarev, ‘‘New observations of noctilucent cloufrom the Mir orbital station,’’ Opt. Zh.66, No. 4, 23 ~1999! @J. Opt.Technol.66, 300 ~1999!#.

16A. I. Lazarev and V. P. Savinykh,Noctilucent Clouds: The View fromSpace~Gidrometeoizdat, St. Petersburg, 1997!.

17A. I. Lazarev, ‘‘Noctilucent clouds on Mars,’’ Opt. Zh.66, No. 4, 38~1999! @J. Opt. Technol.66, 313 ~1999!#.

18A. I. Lazarev, ‘‘Noctilucent clouds on Venus,’’ Opt. Zh.66, No. 7, 78~1999! @J. Opt. Technol.66, 642 ~1999!#.

19A. I. Lazarev, ‘‘Atmospheric optical phenomena on Venus,’’ Opt. Zh.67,No. 5, 35~2000! @J. Opt. Technol.67, 431 ~2000!#.


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20A. I. Lazarev and N. B. Uspenski�, ‘‘Observation of the density of mi-crometeorites from a study of the heated particles that appear whmeteorite particle explodes on the surface of a spacecraft,’’ Vedomst.Gos. Opt. Inst. Ser. X No. 1, 53~1966!.

21A. I. Lazarev and N. B. Uspenski�, ‘‘Estimates of the radiation accompanying the flight of spacecraft at altitudes of 80–200 km,’’ Vedomst. SGos. Opt. Inst. Ser. X No. 2, 20~1966!.

22A. I. Lazarev, ‘‘Optical studies of Soviet cosmonauts 1961–81,’’ Opt. Z68, No. 2, 74~2001! @J. Opt. Technol.68, 138 ~2001!#.

23A. I. Lazarev, A. G. Nikolaev, and E. V. Khrumov,Optical Studies fromSpace~Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad, 1979!.

24A. I. Lazarev, V. V. Kovalenok, A. S. Ivanchenkov, and S. V. AvakyaEarth’s Atmosphere from Salyut-6~Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad, 1981!.

25A. I. Lazarev, V. V. Kovalenok, and V. P. Savinykh,Visual and instru-mental observations from Salyut-6~Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad, 1983!.

26O. B. Vasil’ev, Ch. I. Villmann, N. M. Gavrilovet al., Study of Noctilu-cent Clouds from Space~Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad, 1989!.

27A. I. Lazarev, V. N. Lebedinets, M. M. Miroshnikovet al., ‘‘Opticalstudies of the structure of natural formations from space,’’ Trudy GOpt. Inst.77, No. 211, 151~1993!.

28A. I. Lazarev and V. P. Savinykh,Achievements of Domestic ManneCosmonautics in the Study of the Environment~Gidrometeoizdat, St. Pe-tersburg, 1996!.

29Salyut-6, Soyuz, Progress. Work in Orbit~Mashinostroenie, Moscow,1983!.

30‘‘Optical studies of the emission of the atmosphere, the auroras, andtilucent clouds from on board the Salyut-4 orbital scientific stationTartu, 1977.

31‘‘Studies of atmospheric and optical phenomena from on boardSalyut-4 orbital scientific station,’’ Tartu, 1979.

32‘‘Atmospheric and optical phenomena from observations from the Saorbital scientific stations,’’ Tartu, 1981.


Documents

Optical studies from the Salyut-7 orbital station and the Mir orbital complex