Opportunities and Challenges for the

Nanometric Design of Post-CMOS Memories

Fabrizio Lombardi ITC Endowed Chair Professor

Dept of ECENortheastern University, Boston

CMOS: currently at 28/22nm, soon to move further down in scaling (ITRS)

New commercial markets: GPU, tablet, massive external storage (mostly portable)

Emerging paradigms: multi-value operation, non-volatile RAM, processing-in-memory

Challenges: New designs abound, but not yet a clear winner

Memory: today is already the past

CMOS is not going away any time soon More and More-Than Moore Beyond CMOS

Evolution of extended CMOS (ITRS)

More Than Moore

year

Elements

Beyond CMOS

Logic Technologies ITRS 2011

Extending MOSFETs to the End of the Roadmap

___________CNTFETsGraphene nanoribbonsIII-V Channel MOSFETsGe Channel MOSFETsNanowire FETsTunnel FET Non-conventional Geometry Devices

Unconventional FETSCharge-based Extended CMOS Devices _______________Spin FET& Spin MOSFETNegative Cg MOSFETNEMS switchExcitonic FET, Mott FETTunnel FETI-MOSSET

Non-FET, Non Charge-based ‘Beyond CMOS’ Devices

_______________

Spin Transfer Torque LogicMoving domain wall devicesPseudo-spintronic DevicesNanomagnetic (M:QCA)Negative Cg MOSFETAll Spin Logic Molecular SwitchAtomic SwitchBiSFET

Resistive Memories

Memory Technologies ITRS2011

Redox Memory−Nanoionic memory−Electrochemical memory− Fuse/Antifuse memoryMolecular Memory

Electronic Effects Memory− Charge trapping− Metal-Insulator Transition− FE barrier effects

Spin Transfer Torque MRAMNanoelectromechanical Nanowire PCMMacromolecular (Polymer) Capacitive Memory

FeFET Memory

Memory technology (ITRS2011)

ITRS+IBM: Memories

NVM cost/gigabyte ~ $1 (Intel)

CMOS vs. Post CMOS Memories PVT variations Stability (SNM) concern Power dissipation Charge diffusion and

collection in the layout Basic binary operation

(supply voltage requirements)

Inability to meet large storage needs

Likely soft errors

Avoid large capital investment, selectively use new/compatible technologies

Preferably, hybrid circuits

Multi-level (multi-bit) operation

Processing in memory (PIM)

Problematic endurance

Move to higher radix bases than binary: ternary, quad or eventually octalBases:

1. Ternary: used for CAM processing mostly in routers, but also in GPUs (cache)

2. Quaternary/Octal: increase capacity for massive storage (to replace flash memories)

Not efficiently done in CMOS (additional voltage rails and high area/power penalty)

Use radically new technologies

Multi-Level (Multi-bit) Operation

ITRS: memory has always met stated objectives in the past

Late 2014 as crucial initial milestone wrt to performance (power dissipation and density) and design fundamentals.

Discuss new (emerging) directions:

Unorthodox technologies (briefly) Material-based technologies Focus on non volatile memories

Emerging Technology Trends

Innovative operational paradigms for memory using new physics storage phenomena:

1. QCA (memory in motion); challenge is room temperature operation and CMOS compatibility for manufacturing

2. SET (controlled transfer of electrons for memory operation purposes)

Long term opportunities abound, but grand challenges tooCurrently applicable mostly to an academic investigation

Unorthodox Technologies

Exploit new materials and fabrication methods (CMOS compatible) to meet challenges

Additional criteria:1. Hybrid operation is usually sought2. Robustness to PVT variations/endurance.3. New design realms:

Multi level (resistance) for increased capacityAmbipolar operation for controlAPPLICATION: non volatile storage

Material-based technologies

Emerging Research Memory Technology Stand-Alone Embedded

Ferroelectric-gate FET X

Nanoelectromechanical RAM X X

Spin Transfer Torque MRAM X

Nanoionic or Redox Memory X X

Nanowire Phase Change Memory (PCM) X X

Electronic Effects (Charge trapping, Mott) X

Macromolecular memory X X

Molecular memory X X

2011 Memory Application (ITRS)

Also know as Resistive RAMs: add (programmable) resistive element(s) to active device(s) (usually 1T1R for simplest non-volatile cell design)

Issues:1. Resistance range (Rmax-Rmin)2. Power dissipation and leakage3. Programmability and universal memory feature4. Error/defect models (soft and drift) 5. Endurance (related to read/write operation)6. Testing

Non-Volatile Memories

FEATURE NOR NAND PCM MRAMFRAM

Capacity 256MB 16GB 32MB 2MB 1MB

Random Read Yes No Yes Yes Yes

Random Write No No Yes Yes Yes

Endurance 10^5 10^5-10^3 10^6 10^15 10^14

Management High High Mod No NoError Correction No 1-72 bits * No NoRetention(ys) 10 1-10 15 20 5-

20Read Access(ns) 60 60 10 35 60 Prog Access(us)200 200 20 35 60Erase Access(ms) 1-100 1-100 50 35 60Power Mid Mid Mid Low

LowCell size(F^2) 10 4 4 6-20 4-

15Universal Memory No No Yes Yes

Yes

Flash vs NV-RRAMs (late2012)

Roadmap (IBM 2012)

Competition

Flash memory seen as a mature technology, unable to capitalize on scaling and not meeting high density storage for mobile application

Low lifetime due to high-voltage based process

Apple and Anobit (2012) Additional players:Samsung, Micron, IBM

Moving on…..

Why resistive-based memories?Enables true crossbar structures at system-level

• Does not require many transistors or other access devices

R emove silicon requirements:• Improve density• R educe power consumption• Integrate with processors• R educe total area• Crossbar Inc (August 2013):

3D stacking, 1TByte on chip prototype (using FeRRAM)

P Cell Size = 4 F2

P itch = 2F for cross bars

Feature size = Litho node F

MEMRISTOR

dφ = M dq

1971Chua

The Memristor: Prediction

Ohm 1827

1831Faraday

Von Kleist 1745

Leon ChuaU.C. Berkeley

RESISTORdv = R di

CAPACITOR

dq = C dv

INDUCTOR

dφ = L di

i

v

q

φ

dφ/ dt = v dq / d t = i

φ v q i

Fourth Fundamental, Two-Terminal Circuit Element

Memristor Resistance depends on direction of voltage or

current across it (dϕ = M*dq) Titanium dioxide film sandwiched between

two platinum electrodes; doped operation (HP Labs), 5-10nm in length

Resistance Range• Between Ron and Roff• Roff : Highest resistance• Ron : Lowest resistance

Excellent linearity in switching Resistive range is good I-V characteristics are also very good Nanometric dimension (10nm in 2011, 5nm

in 2013): very high density potential at extremely low power consumption

Manufacturing compatibility with CMOS Problem: endurance and leakage (on read)

Memristor vs. xResistive

Ambipolar control of single memristor No standby power, no direct path from VDD

to GND, only dynamic power dissipation Less number of transistors than RAM (6T)

Memristor-Based Memory Cell

Performance of Binary Cell Memristor changes its value when reading

Roff state Refresh operation is required Write time significantly higher than read

VDD(V)32 nm 45nm 65 nm

0.9 V 1 V 0.9 V 1 V 0.9 V 1 V

Write time (ns) 160 150 195 180 235 200

Read time (ns) 0.8 0.75 0.975 0.9 1.175 1

Endurance: stuck-at-1 (HP data)

R o nR o ff

10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 610 2

10 3

10 4

Ti 1nm /Pt 100nm/TiOx 29nm/Ti4O7 100nm

Resi

stan

ce(o

hm)

sw itching cycles

R o nR o ff

Phase Change Memory Use phases of GTS (chalcogenide alloy) High current-based process for two

phases: amorphous (high R) and crystalline (low R).

No erase-write cycle as for NAND flash (at most 100,000 cycles for enterprise product)

Ron, programming (write) region: intersection of Ron curve with voltage axis is Vh (holding voltage)

Roff, read region: this can be changed by I or V pulse; Roff=Ron exp(toff/t) where t=effective recombination time (constant), toff=non programming time

Vx as intersection point of Ron curve and Rset curve, Vx=Vh x Rset/(Rset-Ron)

Typical values: Rset=7k, Rreset=200k, Ron=1k, Vh=0.45v, Rset<Roff<Rreset, t=5nsec

Resistive Features

Mobile devices (Samsung) PCM likely to a be a depository (for less

frequently accessed data) next to DRAM for processor design (IBM)

Networking/Communication systems: CAM/TCAM designs

Massive storage for data acquisition systems

Applications

ISSCC11: Samsung (1-Gbit, 58-nm manufacturing process, low-power double-data-rate nonvolatile memory interface)

ISSCC12 : Samsung (8-Gbit, 20-nm device). IEDM11: Macronix/IBM (39-nm device with

30-microamp reset current and 10^9 cycling endurance, 128-Mbit)

July 2012: Micron/Numonyx (45 nm PCM for mobile devices in 1 Gb and 512 Mb multichip packages); commercially available

Commercial news

PCM Features Low voltage and moderate current as

operational characteristics Multiple bit operation (at least 2): higher

resistance range (M ohms) than other RRAMs Read Time: 12ns; Write time: 85ns (@45nm) Soft error highly unlikely to occur for GST Good endurance (IBM: 1million cycles) and

density

Use 1T1P core for both CAM/TCAM Functionality is at support circuitry Voltage-based sensing for

comparison outcome in search Use of circuit with ambipolar properties for

comparison and control

New Cell Design

IBM (1/2 PCMs per core), current based operation

New cell (1 PCM per core), voltage based operation

Quantitative Comparison

Circuit CAM TCAM[20] Proposed [20] Proposed

Write Time (ns) 199.34 199.34 209.53 199.34

Search Time (ns) 1.326 1.092 1.346 2.447

Number of Transistors/Core

1 12

1

Number of PCM s/Core 1 1

21

PDP of Search

Operation (fJ)

46.6886 36.429648.41

43.4518

Stored Search IML (A)

0(200kΩ)

0 (VSL = 0) -1.38*10-9

1 (VSL = 0.4) -1.97*10-6

1(7kΩ)

0 (VSL = 0) -1.38*10-9

1 (VSL = 0.4) -4.15*10-5

Practical problem: drift of resistance and threshold voltage (when not read or programmed)

Related to crystalline fraction (Cx) in GST Rpcm=(1-Cx)*Ra+Rc*Cx (Ra >> Rc) Ra=Rreset Rc=Rset

But …….

Resistance Drift Level drift is more pronounced for high

resistance states and non linear wrt time Problematic for MVL storage (i.e. more than one

bit per cell) Order of resistivity for states remains the same

(short term), so avoid overlap in long term.

Use advanced modulation coding technique for solving short-term drift (analogous to NAND flash, electrons leak through thin walls of cells and create data read errors).

Apply a voltage pulse based on deviation from desired level and measure resistance. If desired level of resistance is not achieved, apply another voltage pulse and measure again – until achieve the exact level

Only suitable for binary cell storage It may reduce endurance (multiple writes)

IBM Drift Solution (short-term)

Assume cell independence in drift errors (?). Data to be encoded not in the programmed

state but in the relative order of the states in a small group of cells.

Error in encoding scheme only seen when resistivity levels of states cross each other

Software-based error correction methodologies are then applied (slow)

Reduction in capacity: from 2 bits/cell to 1.57 bits/cell

Error Codes (mid-ware)

Octal base for MVL (noise, crosstalk) and/or single vs multiple storage elements

MVL implications on error detection/correction

Dynamic models of RRAM operation in HSPICE (as related to drift evaluation and mitigation)

At system-level, improve endurance by reducing maximum number of writes to a cell

System-level application modeling (for example “normally-off instantly-on” operation: combining SRAM with PCM)

On-going PCM Investigation

Emergence of new paradigms: resistive RAMs, non-volatile operation, multi-bit storage

Nearly all future memories will utilize new phenomena away from 6T configuration

TECHNOLOGY TIME SCALE: Hybrid implementations will be dominant in

the next 5-10 years 4Q-2014/1Q-2015 as crucial time frame for

PCM

Conclusion