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Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
Transactional Distance Model : a practical scaffold for
Classroom, Online and Blended Learning
Paul Kawachi FRSA
Open University of China
kawachi @ open-ed.net
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
Transactional Distance Model : a practical scaffold for
Classroom, Online and Blended Learning
Paul Kawachi FRSA
Open University of China
kawachi @ open-ed.net
http://www.open-ed.net / library / scaffold.ppt
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
an empirically validated model
as a practical scaffold for supporting
classrooms, blended, and online learning
that derives essentially from the distinction
between cooperative and collaborative ways
of learning in groups
overview
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
i definitions of the terms
ii theories behind the scaffold
iii the scaffold model
iv empirical validation
v on decreasing autonomy
vi on group size
vii summary
overview
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
i definitions of the terms
definitions
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
definitions of the terms :
- transactional distance
- cooperative
- collaborative
- structure
- dialogue
- autonomy
definitions
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
i definitions of the terms
ii theories behind the scaffold
iii the scaffold model
iv empirical validation
v on decreasing autonomy
vi on group size
vii summary
theories
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
ii theories behind the scaffold
theories
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
theories behind the scaffold :
- conversation theory
- transactional distance theory
- constructivism
- constructionism
- connectivism
theories
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
iii the scaffold model
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
the scaffold model :
distinct stages can be characterised by their
added Structure S+ imposed by the institution, and
added Dialogue D+ the educative transactions
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
the 4 stage theory of transactional distance :
1) Maximal Distance ( D- S- ) no teaching, and no structure
2) Less Distance ( D- S+ ) no teaching, but added purpose
3) Less Distance ( D+ S+ ) content teaching, and purpose
4) Minimal Distance ( D+ S- ) content relevant, freedom
. D = educative dialogue S = imposed structure
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
the 4 stage model of transactional distance :
1) Maximal Distance ( D- S- ) reflective, cooperative
2) Less Distance ( D- S+ ) framing in a theory, collaborative
3) Less Distance ( D+ S+ ) review other solutions, collaborative
4) Minimal Distance ( D+ S- ) adopt new way, cooperative
. D = educative dialogue S = imposed structure
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
scaffold
the transactional distance model of learning
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
the Transactional Distance Model
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
the Transactional Distance Model
example
Stage 1get input
Stage 4try out …
Stage 2create
Stage 3choosefrom all world
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
the Transactional Distance Model
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
Transactional Distance Model : Kawachi 2003
this Model recognizes that learningstarts from what someone already knows through cooperative sharing,
and proceeds through collaborative reflectionabout new not-yet-learnt information
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
decreasing
Transactional
Distance
1 S- D-
2 S+ D-
3 S+ D+
4 S- D+
cooperative sharing old
collaborative creative
collaborative disjunctive
cooperative experiential
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
Transactional Distance Model : Kawachi 2003
1 elicit needs, sharing, brainstorming
2 rationalizing, theorizing, justifying
3 consider all possible alternatives, disjunctive thinking
4 test out new way, experiential, publish
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
here we use the letters S and D to refer to :
S Structure : the educative structure imposed by the teacher, textbook or institution
D Dialogue : the educative guiding conversation ( not idle or social chat )
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
decreasing
Transactional
Distance
1 S- D-
2 S+ D-
3 S+ D+
4 S- D+
cooperative sharing old
collaborative creative
collaborative disjunctive
cooperative experiential
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
Stage 1 cooperative
Stage 2collaborative
Stage 4cooperative
Stage 3collaborative
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
Stage 1
is characterized by cooperative sharing of prior old knowledge and prior experience,eliciting views, brainstorming and divergent thinking to gather various differentframes of context
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
Stage 2
is characterised by collaborative creation and discovery of new theory rationalizing and underlying prior knowledge, developing metaphors, horizontal and lateral thinking
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
Stage 3
is characterised by collaborative testing out of hypotheses to co-discover some new potential knowledge, problem solving, vertical and disjunctive thinking
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
Stage 4
is characterised by cooperative presenting new ideain real-life, experiential,personal meaning-making,social-constructivist,dissemination, reflecting, judging, publishing
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
decreasing
Transactional
Distance
1 S- D-
2 S+ D-
3 S+ D+
4 S- D+
cooperative sharing old
collaborative creative
collaborative disjunctive
cooperative experiential
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
now the main points in thisTransactional Distance Model :
are that initially the student chats, ( not educatively, so here D- and without teaching tasks S- )to share own background, to reduce anxiety,and to become comfortable and able then to engage S+ reasoning
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
now the main points in thisTransactional Distance Model :
then the student explains to othersand must engage S+ reasoning
at this Stage 2, social interactions may be fun or desirable but is no longer needed
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
now the main points in thisTransactional Distance Model :
then the teacher engages ( D+ )and raises alternatives to be explored ( S+ ),
and finally the student tries out a new ideain her own context ( S- )with teaching guidance and assessment ( D+ )
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
this Transactional Distance Model
succeeds through bringing the student from not knowing ( greatest Transactional Distance )
to knowing something ( zero Transactional Distance )
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
Learning Transaction =requires 4 interactions
1 student’s prior knowledge and need are identified
2 the text or teacher gives an amount of information
3 the student outputs an own construction
4 the teacher or society confirms the meaning
Three encounters / passes are needed to ‘learn’
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
decreasing
Transactional
Distance
1 S- D-
2 S+ D-
3 S+ D+
4 S- D+
Cooperative sharing old
Collaborative creative
Collaborative disjunctive
Cooperative experiential
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
Four Categories in Transactional Distance Theory
less
Transactional
Distance
1 S- D-
2 S+ D-
3 S+ D+
4 S- D+
added
Structure
added
Dialogue
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
now we have the scaffold or frameworkconsisting of the four distinct Stageson which to put theessential kinds of interactions
that we need to bring about learning, through reducing the Transactional Distance
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
difficulties are reported in achieving Stage 3
Renner 1976 found only 81% of final-year law students in 2 law schools reached Stage 3
Piaget 1977 acknowledged many people never reached Formal Operations level Stage 3 even in adulthood
McKinnon 1976 found only 50% of college students at 7 colleges could reach Stage 3
Gunawardena 1997 and 2001 found in graduate students and teachersthat the Stage 3 “collaboration simply did not happen”
Meyer 2003 found only 29% of graduate students reached Stage 3and Anderson 2007 only 13% of two graduate courses
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
How do other theories such as constructivismfit with this Transactional Distance Model ?
Most theories each have their own special practice
Behaviorism, and objectivism each suitsthe cooperative Stage 1 plus Stage 4 While cognitive constructivism suits Stage 2and social constructivism suits Stage 3
Overall, constructionism suits the whole Modelinvolving all four stages in sequence
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
let’s open up these points a little . . .
Stage 1 T input : behaviourismStage 4 T-moderated output : behaviourism Stage 1 + Stage 4 : behaviourismStage 2 Ss told connections : cognitivismStage 3 Ss discuss connections : constructivism
T or S knows : cooperativeso we lack collaborative – critical thinking skills so adopt constructionism
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
in constructionism . . .
Learning is wholly within the student’s mindthrough interactions ( as in Conversation Model )
diversity helps to achieve collaborative Stage 3so adopt Transactional Distance Model
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
Stage 1 cooperative
Stage 2collaborative
Stage 4cooperative
Stage 3collaborative
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
the Transactional Distance Model is perfectly suited to early school education
the initial stage involves cooperative sharing . . .this can be from the student herself ( best ) or from other students ( suits large classes )or any source ( teacher, textbook or internet )
younger children might prefer doing some activitiesto generate own ideas to share with others
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
1 each student first expresses her own ideas or own findings or experience
2 the teacher then asks students to express why they feel or think like they do
3 and then raises other new alternatives using a textbook or the internet
4 for the students to take away and try out themselves
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
The Transactional Distance Model : Kawachi underpinned by the widely accepted
- Conversation Theory : Holmberg 1983 , Grogono 1993, Laurillard 2002
- Transactional Distance Theory : Peters 1973, Moore 1993
- Constructionism Theory : Papert 1991, Gergen 2001
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
Conversation Theory : Mitchell & Grogono 1993
- postulates that learning occurs through guiding transactions between a desirable target concept map model of knowledge and a student’s externalized model of prior understanding.
- Such transactions include asking the student to articulate and make explicit own elaborations
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
Conversation Model : learning transactions include
appropriation - whereby the teacher or a good student picks up points from weaker students and shows how they can fit into a larger picture, to model greater understanding for the weaker students to then see
elaboration - whereby conflicts, slight differences or diverging views are verbalized, and so lead to learning
justification - whereby thought processes and strategic knowledge initially implicit are made explicit through verbalization to help both the enquirer and the justifier to learn
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
Harel, I., & Papert, S. (1991). Constructionism. Norwood, NJ : Ablex.
Holmberg, B. (1983). Guided didactic conversation in distance education. Distance education : International perspectives, (pp. 114-122). London : Croom Helm.
Gergen K.J., & Wortham, S. (2001). Social construction and pedagogical practice. In K.J. Gergen (Ed.), Social construction in context, (pp. 115-136). Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage.
Laurillard, D. (2002). Rethinking university teaching : A conversational framework for the effective use of learning technologies. London : RoutledgeFalmer.
Mitchell, P.D., & Grogono, P.D. (1993). Modelling techniques for tutoring systems. Computers & Education, 20 (1), 55-61.
Moore, M. G. (1993). Theory of transactional distance. In D. Keegan (Ed), Theoretical principles of distance education, (pp. 22-38). London : Routledge.
These plus my own Kawachi 1999 – 2012 published works available from me by email
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
constructivist learning :
the distinction between
iii cooperative in a group
iv collaboratively in a group
is important for scaffolding the learning process
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
less
transactional
distance
1 S - D -
2 S+ D -
3 S+ D+
4 S - D+
cooperative sharing old
collaborative creative
collaborative disjunctive
cooperative experiential
the transactional distance model of learning
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
the transactional distance model of learning
Stage 1 cooperative
Stage 2collaborative
Stage 4cooperative
Stage 3collaborative
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
a scaffold of the interactions :
cooperative interactivity occurs in a situation
of inequality or disequilibrium
from a source (knower)
to the passive receiver
cooperative activity is limited to recall and memorisation
an active receiver questions the input in collaborative mode
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
suggested verbal expressions for the interactions :
T1 : initial input from outsiders as trigger
followed by S1 and S2 self-reflections
T2 : output and the possible T3 received by outsiders
followed by their S3 and S4 self-reflections
T4 : output from outsiders, and T5 received input
followed by self-reflections again and T6 output
these are illustrated in the following scaffold …
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
suggested verbal expressions for the interactions :
T1 : "How do you think about this idea?"
S1 "I think this is the meaning" and
S2 "I wonder if I am connecting this well"
T2 : "This is my interpretation. Is it complete?"
T3 "Please add complexity to help my understanding"
S3 "I confirm one point, and add some related others"
S4 "Show us a bigger picture of your interpretation"
T4 : "The initial idea is now input and well connected
while the other points need more clarification"
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
a scaffold of the interactions :
cooperative learning characterises
the second-level Stage 1 and Stage 4 of the
transactional distance model
in Stage 1, cooperation involves getting input
in Stage 4, cooperation involves testing out an idea
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
scaffold
cooperative input of new information in Stage 1
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
scaffold
cooperative input of feedback in Stage 4
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
collaborative learning :
used in small groups for questioning ideas
and the perspectives of the participants
in a search and research inquiry
to co-create
new non-foundational learning
learning
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
a scaffold of the interactions :
collaborative interactivity occurs in a situation
of perceived equality and equilibrium
between two pro-active partners
who do not yet know the outcome
collaborative activity questions all input and
is highly engaged and reflective
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
the turn-taking collaborative process :
involves three functional turn-taking steps A B A
between two pro-active participants A and B
which when repeated as B A B
give both participants the opportunities each
to give opinions and receive counter-opinions
empathically, as follows ;-
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
the functional turn-taking interactions :
A) ( Hello ) Affirm + ElicitationB) Opinion + Request understandingA) Confirm + Counter-opinion B) Affirm + ElicitationA) Opinion + Request understandingB) Confirm + Counter-opinion
these are illustrated in the following scaffold …
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
suggested verbal expressions for the interactions :
1 : warm affirmation “you’re okay by me”
2 : inviting open disclosure in response “please tell me what
you want to do here, so that I can see your point of view”
3 : open disclosure “here’s my own experience
and what I want to do …”
4 : inviting empathic comprehension in response
“I’d welcome knowing what you think I mean, to be sure my
feelings are accepted” or “I’d like your sense of what I mean”
5 : empathic comprehension “what I think you mean in essence is …”
6 : “my own view differs …” or “I’d like you to hear my own view”
inviting warm affirmation in response.
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
a scaffold of the interactions :
collaborative learning characterises
the second-level Stage 2 and Stage 3 of the
transactional distance model
in Stage 2, reorganising to fit into schema
in Stage 4, research with disjunctive reasoning
scaffold
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
scaffold
collaborative argument in Stage 2
search for schema
internal reorganisation
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
scaffold
collaborative argument in Stage 3
external arguments
research
the transactional distance model of learning
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
iv empirical validation
validation
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
empirical validation :
validation
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
v on decreasing autonomy
autonomy
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
on decreasing autonomy :
autonomy
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
vi on group size
group size
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
on group size :
group size
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
vii summary
summary
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
summary :
summary
Open Education Networkhttp :// www . open - ed. net
You can download these slides freely from the website
http://www.open-ed.net / library / scaffold.ppt
or by email to me at
kawachi @ open-ed.net