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NOUNS
COUNTABLE NOUNS
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
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Countable used with: a/an or numbers (one, two,
three, etc.), or plural formsEx: a cat; eleven matches
Many; several; various;few; a few; how many;fewerthanEx: several jumbo jets; afew jokes
Uncountable
CANNOT be used witha/an; numbers; in plural
forms BUT: They ordered a wine
that wasnt included in our
list. (a kind of wine)
much; how much;little; a little;lessthanEx: There was less
rainfall last year.
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a number of/ the numberofEx:- A number of peopledecided to withdraw a lot ofmoney from their account.- The number of peoplewho decided to withdraw alot of money from their
account was low.
A great number of/ alarge number of/ themajority of
Ex:- A great number ofwhales were killed for meat
Each (of)+ NEvery (of)+N+ Verb (sing.)
the amount of/ alarge amount of/ agreat deal of
Ex:A large amount offood was taken to thenorth.
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Expressions used with both count. &uncount. nouns
Some (of)Any (of)A lot ofLots of
Plenty (of)Almost (of)All (of)None (of)
Ex: - Some of the food in the fridge was spoiled.- Some children are overindulged and spoiled bytheir parents
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Some expressions used with uncount.
1. A bar of chocolate / two bars ofchocolate
2. A kilo/ a cube/ a spoon/ a jar of sugar
3. A tube of toothpaste / two tubes of .
4. A glass/ a carton/ a liter of milk
5. A packet/ a cup of flour
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Notes
Some of
All of
Any of + the/ possessive adj.+ Noun
Most ofNone of
One of
Ex: - Some comments are helpful.- Some of hercomments are helpful.
- Some of thecomments are helpful.
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IRREGULAR NOUNS
A. IS -> ESSINGULAR PLURAL
axis axes analysis analyses basis bases crisis crises
diagnosis diagnoses ellipsis ellipses hypothesis hypotheses oasis oases
paralysis paralyses parenthesis parentheses synthesis syntheses synopsis synopses thesis theses
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B. IX -> ICES
SINGULAR PLURAL
appendix appendices
index indeces /indexes
matrix matrices /matrixes
C. OUSE -> ICE
SINGULAR PLURAL
louse lice
mouse mice
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D. EAU -> EAUXSINGULAR PLURAL beau beaux bureau bureaus/bureaux tableau tableaux/tableaus
E. -> ENSINGULAR PLURALchild children
man menox oxenwoman women
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F. UM A
SINGULAR PLURAL
bacterium bacteria corpus corpora
criterion criteria
curriculum curricula datum data
genus genera
medium media
memorandum memoranda
phenomenon phenomena
stratum strata
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G. OO -> EE
SINGULAR PLURAL
foot feet goose geese
tooth teeth
H. A -> AE
SINGULAR PLURAL
antenna antennae/antennas
formula formulae/formulas nebula nebulae
vertebra vertebrae
vita vitae
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I. UNCHANGED
SINGULAR PLURAL deer deer
fish fish
means means offspring offspring
series series
sheep sheep
species species
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A hour agoAn hour ago
A honest manAn honest man
An universityA university
A one-eyed man(correct)An SAT test
(correct)
A MPAn PM
A member of Parliament(correct)
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ARTICLES A+ nouns beginning with a consonant.
An+ nouns beginning with a vowel.
BUT: A+ uniform/ one-dollar coin/
/ju/ /wn/
An+ honest person/ honorable prizeSOS signal/ MP/ anSAT test
BUT: amember of Parliament
I d fi it ti l
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Indefinite articles
When the person/ thing is not yetmentioned before or not definite.Ex: I saw apoor child begging for food in thestreets.
To talk about a job or professionEx: Jenny is ataxi driver.
As a synonym of per
Ex: 200km perhour/ anhour
To mention the quantity of people or thingsEX: Theres a/ oneslice of bread in the toasteroven.
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DEFINTE ARTICLES
When the person/ thing has already been
mentioned before or definite.Ex: Thechild was about 6 years old.
The only/ unique things: themoon, thesun
The first, the second, etc.
The corner of/ the top of / the middle of
Before a class/ species of animal:Ex: Thewhale is in danger of becoming extinct.
( Or: X Whales are in danger of extinction.)
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The+ adj: as a group of peopleEx: the poor, the rich
Before familys last name: The Smiths
Before rivers, channels, seas, oceans,
mountain ranges, deserts, hotels,Ex: The Alps, the English Channel, The PacificOcean
BUT X Everest (as a single mountain)
A people:Ex: The Vietnamese/ X Vietnamese people
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Go to the cinema/ the theatre/the opera
listen to the radio
BUT: watch X TV
Have a cold/ a headache/ a backache have the flu/ the measles
DO NOT use thebefore an illness:Ex: have cancer/ have pneumonia
Abbreviations and organizations:"the UN", "the USA", "the IMF/ the WorldHealth Organization
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The + university/ college ofEx: the university of Technology
BUT: X Saigon UniversityThe university of Saigon
The of
Ex: - the top of the mountain
Tittle
Ex: - the Queen of England //
- x Queen Elizabeth
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Names of countries which contain thewords "union" or "united":
The Soviet Union
The United Kingdom
But:France, Japan.
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NO ARTICLES Nouns in general
Singular uncount.N:Ex: Milk is good.
Plural count. N:Ex: - Bananas are good.
- Whales are in danger of becomingextinct.
BUT: Man and woman were created equal.
CountriesX Vietnam/ The Socialist Republic of Vietnam
T / t/ i / f h l (/ i it / h h/ i /
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To/at/ in/ from school (/university/ church/ prison/college)Ex: - James is in hospital right now to have his eyes
checked.- Go to university
By + means of transportationEx: He often went there on foot.
Some expressions
make friends, shake hands, have faith, take part insomething, pay attention, take advantage of
something/someone, etc.
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SUBJECT-VERB Agreement
Singular Verb:
Clause + Verb + Ex:- What hes saying is unbelievable.
- Who hes making friends with makeshis parents very worried.
Indefinite pronouns as the subject (someone, something, anything,nothing, etc)Ex: Someone is standing outside.
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A sum of money/a duration of timeEx: Ten dollars isnt a big sum of money.
Some nouns (of illnesses/ subjects,etc.) ending insEx:- Physics is my favorite subject.
None of/ neither of/ either of + N (count/uncount.)
Ex: - None of the dogs belongs to us.- Neither of the employees has agreedwith me.
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The number of+ Nouns (plural) + verb
Ex: The number of tenants without heat isincreasing.
When all parts of a compound subject aresingular and refer to the same person orthing:
Ex: The head of the expedition and themajor of the village was the same person.
PLURAL VERBS
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PLURAL VERBS
(both) N1 + and N2Ex: Both Jim and John like football.
Subjects such asPeople/ those/ police/ cattle/glasses /etc.
Ex: Those who register at this hotel canget a discount.
A number of+ N (plural) + Verb
Ex: A number of tenants are in the building.
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The rich/ the poor/... + Verb (plural)Ex: The sick are taken to hospital immediately.
Trousers/ pliers/ binoculars/ etc.+ Verb(plural)
Ex: The binoculars which John bought were brand-new.
Ex: These trousers cost him $100.
But: A pair of + + V (singular)
Ex: This pair of trousers costs him $100.
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SINGULAR or PLURAL N1 + together with/ with/ as well as/
accompanied by + N2 + V (N1)Ex: John together with his children iscoming here.
Either + N1 or + N2 + V (N2)Neither nor
Ex: Either John or his children are cominghere.
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All of N (plural) + Verb-PluralSome of +Most of N (sing.) + Verb- singularEx: - All of the cake has been eaten.
- All of the cakes on the plate have beeneaten.
Collective nouns + Verb (plural orsingular)
family, jury, majority, minority, etc.Ex: The committee has been working for 3hours.
The committee have been working for three
hours.
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When the subject is a fraction or a word(half, part, plenty, rest, etc.):
Ex: Three fourths of the enemys armywaswounded.
Ex: Three fourths of the enemys soldierswere wounded.
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ONETHE OTHER
ONEANOTHERTHE OTHERS
SOMEOTHER
Mentioning 2 people or things: ONE- THE OTHER
(the restsingular meaning)
Ex: - Pat offered us two options- oneis to stay at
his home during the vacation, the otheris to stay in avery comfortable but cheap inn.
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Mentioning at least three people or thingsONEANOTHERTHE OTHERS (the rest-plural meaning)
Ex: - I saw a lot of cars in their garage- one is aMercedes, anothera Honda, and the others
Fords.(the other cars were Fords)
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SomeOther
Ex:Somepeople are calm, othersare quite easilyto lose their temper.(others means other people, doesnt mean the rest)
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I or ME
It was she who made those loud noises.It was I who broke the promise.
Preposition + Obj pronoun
Ex: Between you and me, I can share withyou some of her secrets.
NOTES about PRONOUNS
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NOTES about PRONOUNSReflexive pronouns
Did you compose the song by yourself/ on your own?
EMPHASIS
I myselfwrote that song.
Indefinite PronounsIndef.pron.+ adj
Ex: I had expected something newfrom this article but Icouldnt
Indef.Pron.+ Verb-Sing.
Ex: Somebody isknocking at the door.
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EMPHASIS On Verbs
Phil madethe announcement about his wedding.Phil did makethe announcement about his wedding.
You have certainly grown.You certainly havegrown.
On Adverb I seldomcall them.Seldom do Icall them.
We go off.Off we go.
Pete and Jane go off.Off go Pete and Jane.
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Cleft structures
John paid for the next drink.
It was John who paid for the next drink.
I need a good rest.
What I need is a good rest.
SUBJUNCTIVES
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SUBJUNCTIVES WISH
I wish you werehere now.(present)I wish you would behere tomorrow.(future)
I wish Jack had not saidanything insulting to
his colleagues. (Past)(in fact, he did say something.)
Some structures used with subjunctives
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Some structures used with subjunctives
Wish that
Would rather that
If only
As if
As though Its (high) time that
It is advisable that
Subj. + recommend/ propose/ that
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Ex: If onlyPhil had told me about theschedule changes. (He didnt say
anything)
Ex: Jane would rather thatwe came to
help her now. (We cant come now.)
Ex: Laura talked to us as ifshe had been
our boss.( She was not our boss)
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I would rather / Id rather that you wouldcometo help me.
Id rather doit on my own than ask Johnfor help.
Its time (that) we stoppedfor lunch.
Its time to stopfor lunch.
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NOTES on CONDITIONALS
Ex1:- If you had helpedme do that, I wouldhave finished it on time.= Had you helpedme do that, I would have
finished it on time.
Ex2: If she were my daughter, she wouldnt
behave as a cheater.= Were shemy daughter,.
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Ifnot = Unless
Ex: If she doesntcome, well leave without
her.= Unless she comes, well leave withouther.
Ex: Ill take the job unless the pay istoo low.= If the pay isnt too low,
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COMPARISONS
Ex: Im trying to work harder for the
coming examination. Im trying to work muchharder for the
coming exam.
The test was more difficult than I hadexpected.
The test was farmore difficult than I hadexpected.
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Ex: Alain is two years youngerthan I am.
Jack earns three times as much asI do. Or: Jack earns twice as much as/three
times more thanI do.
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E S h i iti t d
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Ex: Sarah is writing a postcard.
The postcard (be) written by
Sarah.
Ex: They will be discussing this issue at this
time tomorrow.This issue (be) discussed at
this time tomorrow.
PASSIVES
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PASSIVESFormation of Passive structures Subj + Be (tenses) + Verb (past participle)Ex: Sarah (has) returned the books to me.
The books were/ have been returned to me.
Verb + Sb + to-infinitive (v2) Verb + to be past participle (v2)
Ex1: I wanted them to inform me of theconference.
I wanted to be informed of the conference.
Verb + Sb +V-ing (v2)
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g ( ) Verb + Being- past participle (v2)
Ex2: Pete disliked them discriminating himself. Pete disliked being discriminated.
Verb (v1) + sb + bare-inf
Verb-past part. (v1) + to-inf.
Ex2: I saw him come out of the house.
He was seen to come out of the house.
S1+ V1 that S2 +V2 +
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S1+ V1- that S2 +V2 +
It + be + V1-past part.+ that S2+V2+
S2 + be + V1 + to-infinitive V2
Ex: They said that Joe was a doctor.
It was said that Joe was a doctor.Joe was said to be doctor.
This structure is often used with some verbs:say, tell, think, believe, expect, consider,rumor, etc.
Verbs with two objects.
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Verbs with two objects.
Send sth to sb/ send sb sth
Explain
Show
Give
Bring
Ex: He sent us a postcard.
or: He sent a postcard to us. We were sent a postcard.
A postcard was sent to us.
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Ex: He sent us a postcard.
or: He sent a postcard to us.
He sent it to us.He sent Kim a postcard.
Never say: - He sent us it.
P i ith iti D t d
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Passive with prepositions: Do not dropthe preposition when using passive
voice.They filled the tank with gas.
The tank was filled with gas.
What was the tank filled with?OR: Withwhat the tank filled? (formal)
They brought up the boy so well.The boy was brought up so well.
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COMPOUND SENTENCES Compound sentences
Ex: Pat is abroad right now, butshe can contact heroffice regularly.
Ex: Pat is abroad right now; however,she can contact
her office regularly.Ex: Pat is abroad right now. However,she can contact
her office regularly.
Ex: Noah has finished all his homework, sohe can goout with his friends now.
Ex: Noah has finished all his homework; therefore, hecan go out with his friends now.
Ex: Noah has finished all his homework. Therefore, he
can go out with his friends now.
E D t d ff ll th li ht i th d
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Ex: Dave turned off all the lights in the room, andthen went out.
Ex: Dave turned off all the lights in the room.Afterthat, he went out.
Complex sentences
Ex:AlthoughPat is abroad right now, she cancontact her office regularly.
Ex: Since/ BecauseNoah has finished all his
homework, he can go out with his friends now.Ex: AfterDave turned off all the lights in the room.
He went out.
Coordinating
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CoordinatingConjunctions(Conjunctive adverbs)
1. moreover; furthermore2. Besides
3. In fact
4. In other words
5. In that case
6. Otherwise; if not
7. On the other hand; in
contrast8. However; nevertheless
SubordinatingConjunctions
1. In addition to the fact
that2. N/a
3. N/a
4. N/a
5. If; provided that; as longas
6. Unless
7. Whereas; while
8. Although; even though;even if;
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9. (cause)
10. Therefore; as aresult; thus;consequently; so
11. previously;
12. Until then
13. After that;
afterwards; then14. Since then
15. For this reason
9. because, since, as,due to the fact that
10. So
11. before12. until
13. After
14. since
15. So that; in order that
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A compound sentence contains twoindependent clauses joined by a
coordinator. The coordinators are asfollows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
Ex: I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend
tried to speak English.
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A complex sentenceconsists of oneindependent clause, and one or more
dependent clauses. The clauses areconnected through either a subordinateconjunction or a relative pronoun.
Ex: As long as it isn't cold(Dependentclause) , it doesn't matter if it rains(Independent clause).
Ex: The housewhich Abraham Lincoln wasborn in is still standing.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
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ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
Defining adjective clauses
Ex: Have you ever spoken to the peoplewholivenext door? (not yet identified) (subject)
Have you ever spoken to the peoplethatlivenext door? (subject)
Ex: I dont know the manwhom/ who/ that/
(not yet identified) (Object)Jane is talking to.
The relative pronouns as the subject:
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Ex: The trees WHICH/THATat one time lined thisroad have all been cut down.
Ex: Do you like the car that/ whichis in
(not yet identified) (subject)
Johns garage?
The relative pronouns as the object:Ex: Can I borrow the CDWHICH/ THAT/ you
bought?
Ex: Theres a programon tonight which/ that/ (not yet identified) (Object)
you might like.
Non-defining Relative clauses
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Ex: This is Mr. Rogers, whois our new(definite) (subject)
manager.
BUT we cannot use THAT. It is INCORRECT.This is Mr. Rogers, THATis our new
(definite) (subject)
manager.
We cannot use THATin non-defining Relativeclauses.
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Ex: This is Mr. Rogers, whomJane
(definite) (object)
is going to marry.
But we cannot use WHO.It is INCORRECT.
This is Mr. Rogers, who Jane is going
(definite) (object)
to marry.
We cannot use THAT or WHO
or OMIT whomin non-defining Relative clauses.
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Ex: Janes house, WHICHis in District 8,has a garden.
BUT we cannotuse THATin non-definingclauses.
Y t l t h hi h th t h it
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You cannot leave out who, which, thatwhen: itis the subject of the verb in the relative clause
and in non-defining relative clauses
DEFINING CLAUSES
Person Thing Place Time Reason
Subject Who/ that Which/that
Object Who/whom/that/ Which/that / Where When Whypossession Whose Whose
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NON-DEFINING CLAUSES
Person Thing
Subject Who Which
Object Whom Whichpossession Whose Whose
WHOSE = of sth
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WHOSE = of sth
Ex: Ive just talked to the man. His houselooks over the river.
Ive just talked to the man WHOSEhouse
looks over the river.
Ex: Look at that man. His son is a pop singer.
Look at that man WHOSE SONis a popsinger.
WHERE = preposition (in/ at/ on/ etc )+ Noun of
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WHERE = preposition (in/ at/ on/ etc.)+ Noun ofplace
Ex: This is the place. I was born there/ in thatplace.
This is the place WHEREI was born
This is the place IN WHICHI was born.
Ex: - I dislike the hotel. We are going to stay at that
hotel.I dislike the hotel wherewe are going to stay.
I dislike the hotel at whichwe are going to stay.
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NOTES
Noun of place = WHICH Ex: They are going to move to Ottawa. Itis
the capital of Canada.
They are going to move to Ottawa, whichisthe capital of Canada.
Ex: He works for a spy network,about which
I know nothing.
OR: He works for a spy network (which)Iknow nothing about.
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Ex: The people with whomhe workedhave all been arrested. (Formal)
OR: The people (who)he worked withhaveall been arrested. (Informal)
We often use THAT instead of who or which
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We often use THATinstead of who or whichwhen the antecedents are the followingphrases:
All, every(thing), some(thing), any(thing),no(thing), little, few, much, only, and after
superlative structures
Ex: The onlything THATmatters is to find our wayhome.
Ex: Its the bestfilm THAThas ever been made.
NOUN CLAUSES
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NOUN CLAUSES
A Noun Clause often begins with:
that (That-clause), who, which, how, etc.Ex: HER STORY WAS NOT TRUE
(Subj.) V
Ex: - What he was sayingwasnot true.Ex: - Im not sure where he is from.
Ex: - Do you know what he is doing?
Ex: - That he is not here nowworries allof us.
A noun clause can be the subject object
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A noun clause can be the subject, object,complement.
AS THE SUBJECT:
Ex: WHAT the little boy has done
recentlyis really worrying.
Ex: THAT Jane received the scholarship
satisfied her parents.
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As the object of a verb:
Ex: - Joe asserted that he hadnt beenthere on Tuesday night.
Ex: - She never tells me where Joan lives.
Ex: Mary is not responsible for what Billydid.
As a complement:
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As a complement:
Ex: Billys mistake was that he refused totake lessons.
Ex: Everybody is sad that Billy drowned.
ADVERB CLAUSES
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ADVERB CLAUSES
Adv clauses of time:as, when, as soon as, before, after, now that, since,
while, etc.Ex: When I came, they were discussing the
meeting.
Adv clauses of manner:as if, as though, etc.
Ex: She made us work hard as if we had been herslaves.
Adv clauses of condition:unless, if, even if, whether or not, provided that, etc.
Ex: I wont tell you that secret unless youpromise not to tell it to anyone.
Adv clauses of cause and effect:
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Adv clauses of cause and effect:because, since, so that, in order that, etc.
Ex: He put on more warm clothessince it wasso cold outside.
Adv clauses of concession:although, while, though, even though, whereas, etc.
Ex: Although its raining heavily, theyre stillworking in the rain.
Adv clauses of comparison:more than, as as, etc.
Ex: Hes worked much harderthan I have.
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REPORTED SPEECH
Reported speech
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A. StatementsEx: Harry said, Im leaving for China tomorrow.
Harry said to me that he was leavingfor Chinathe next day.
B. Yes-No questions
Ex: Ted asked, Will you come tomorrow, Tom?Ted asked Tom IF/ WHETHERTom (he) would
cometomorrow.
Ex: Bill asked, Laura, are you free now?Bill asked Laura IF/ WHETHER she was free at
that moment.
C. Wh-questions
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Ex: Jack asked, Lilly, where are you going?Jack asked Lilly where she was going?
EX: Tom asked, What did you do yesterday?Tom asked me what I had donethe day before.
D. An imperative.Ex: Jim said, Go out!Jim told me to go outJim shouted at me to go out.
D. An offer/ request
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D. An offer/ request
Ex: Jane asked, Tim, can you help me move this
table?
Jane wanted Tim to help her move that table.
Jane asked Tim if he could help her move thattable.
Ex: Ted asked, Would you please come back at
10a.m.?
Ted wanted me to come there at 10a.m.Ted asked me if I would come there at 10 a.m.