B A R B A R A STOLER MILLER

ON CULTIVATING THE IMMEASURABLE CHANGE OF

HEART: THE BUDDHIST BRAHMA-VIH.~RA FORMULA

True to the Buddha's enlightened insight that the cure to universal suffering lies in the cultivation of means to break through the barriers that lock people into painful egotism, Buddhists have continually explored techniques for reducing the boundaries between oneself and others. The fourfold brahma-vihara formula is an ancient Buddhist technique for effecting a radical change of heart by cultivating extraordinary feelings of love, compassion, joy, and impartiality toward all living beings - oneself, friends, strangers, and enemies. The technique involves a magical transmutation of egotistical emotions into immeasurable virtues. The origin and articulation of the brahma-vihara formula within the texts of early Buddhism seems to provide important clues to the significance of the formula itself and related techniques of meditation.

The brahma-vih~a formula, whose subject is the monk (bhikkhu), appears frequently and uniformly in the P ~ Canon:

So mett~t-sahagatena cetasa ekarh disam pharitvi vihaxati, tathi dutiyarh, tatha tatiyarh, tath~ catuttham. Iti uddham adho tiriya~h sabbadhi sabbattataya sabbavantam lokam metta-sahagatena cetasfi vipulena mahaggatena apparel, ena avere.na avyipajjhena pharitv',] viharati. Puna ca param kar~.a-sahagatena c e t a s i . . , mudit~-sahagatena ce tasa . . , upekkhi-sahagatena cetasi . . . .

Filling one quarter of the world with his heart in harmony with love, he transforms the world. In the same way he transforms the second, third, and fourth quarters of the world. Thus filling the world above, below, across, everywhere, in every case, in every way with his abundant, expansive, immeasurable, peaceful, uninjuring heart in harmony with love, he transforms the world. And again with his heart in harmony with compassion. . , with his heart in harmony with j o y . . , with his heart in harmony with impart ial i ty. . .

The formula is often followed by a coda that reads:

So ime catt~ro brahma-vihara bh~vetvi kiyassa bhedi param mara~.- sugatirh brahmalokam upapajjati. Evarh kho Do.ha htihmafio hrahmasamo hoti.

Having cultivated these four brahmanic changes of heart, after the dissolution of the body in death, he enters the happy way of the brahmanic world. Thus, Do .ha, does a brahman become equal to the brahmanic god.

Journal of Indian Philosophy 7 (1979) 209-221. 0022-1791/79/0072-0209 $01.30. Copyright © 1979 by D. Reidel Publishing Co., Dordrecht, Holland, and Boston, U.S.A.

210 BARBARA STOLER MILLER

Each of the mental attitudes that is cultivated in the fourfold brahma-vih~ra formula has power of cosmic proportions. Love (metta) arises from the wish to bring happiness and welfare to all beings. It has the power to tame wild beasts and to ward off and cure every kind of pain. Compassion (karu.~) arises from the wish to free all beings from suffering. Compassion is what distinguishes a bodhisattva from other beings; it empowers him to sacrifice himself for the good of all beings.2 Joy (mudit~) arises from the wish to rejoice in the supreme happiness of all beings. 3 Impartiality (upekkha) arises from the wish to feel love, compassion, and joy universally toward all beings, including oneself and one's enemies, irrespective of family, sexual, racial, or even species familiarities.

As each of the four mental attitudes is cultivated in the scheme of the brahma-vihara formula, the change of heart that the monk undergoes becomes more intensive and extensive. The process is cumulative, not linear. In cultivating compassion he does not discard or substitute love - rather, he opens love to the suffering of others and thereby increases its power. Likewise, joy and impartiality further intensify and extend the scope and power of love and compassion. Cultivation of all four is essential to effecting the radical change of heart that is the goal of the exercise.

The fourfold exercise, moulded into the distinctive brahma.vih~ formula, emerges in the Sutta Pi.taka in a highly developed form. This has led Mrs. Rhys Davids and others to suggest that the formula is of non-Buddhist origin. Mrs. Rhys Davids asserts that it "strikes the critical eye (and ear) as something without, exotic, much as does the upthrust of igneous rock through stratified rock. ''4 One does not have to agree totally to find the suggestion challenging.

Although the texts of pre-Buddhist Brahmanism reveal no direct source for the brahma-vihara formula, this does not mean that the formula has no antecedents in Brahmanism. It is a well-documented characteristic of early Buddhism that many of its terms and practices are reinterpretations of Brahmanic terms and ritual practices. A Brahanmic technical notion seems to underly the term brahma-vih~ra and the brahma-vih~ra formula.

In the Aitereya Brahma.na (VI. 24, 26, 28), both the noun vih~tra and the verb viharati have a technical meaning which suggests a possible conceptual basis for the Buddhist use of vihSra in the compound brahma-vihara. Viharati means to 'transpose' or 'exchange'; vihara means 'transposition', i.e. the transposition or exchange of padas or verses within a hymn and of hymns with V-alakhily~s in order to achieve specific results in the Soma sacrifice. The use of 'transposition' is clearly magical:

THE BRAHMA-VIH,~RA FORMULA 211

In that he transposes for the f~st time the six hymns of the V~lakhily~s, verily thus he transposes breath and speech; in that for the second time, thus he transposes eye and mind; in that for the third, thus he transposes ear and self. Thus is the des~e in transposition (vih~re) obtained, in the V~lakhilyis as the thunderbolt, in (the verse) of one food as the hammer of speech, in the arrangement of the breath~ For the fourth time he recites the Pra~thas without transposition; the l~a~thas ate cattle; (they serve) to win cattle. He should not here insert (the verse of) one Pada, by the hammer of speech he would strike off cattle from the sacrificer . . . . He inverts the last two hymns; this is their transposition. (VI. 24, 10-11) s

Belief in man's ability to use magic to control his inner nature as well as

external circumstances is common in the Indian traditions, to which Buddhism

offers no exception. Such magic is the essence o f the Buddhist saccakiriya, in which the mental attitude of compassion (karu.~) has magical power

to effect dramatic changes in the phenomenal world. ~ The magical power o f

love (metta), expressed in certain love-suffusion spells, can tame the wild

N'al~giri elephant or charm venomous snakes. ~ This magic is at the core of

the brahma-v//ffra concept, even in its non-formulaic presentation in the Sutta Nipata verses quoted here: s

Alone! In due season

practice love (metta) and impartiality (upekkh~) compassion (karu.~) and joy (mudit~), thereby to win release (vimutti), unthwarted by the world . /73/

Alone! Oust passion (raga), hate (dosa) delusion (moha)! Burst all bonds!

Face death intrepidly!/74/

Bhagavan: In giving, purge your heart,

till giving fills your thought

and blemishes (dosa) depart . /506/

Thus will you - calm (vitardga), with hate (dosa) expelled,

zealous by night and day -

breed an immeasurable heart o f love (mettarh cittarh btffvayath apparfff.nath )

f'dling every corner with immeasurableness./507/

Migha: . . . How, Lord of Light, can man pass hence to the

brahmanic world (brahma-loka)?/508/

212 BARBARA STOLER MILLER

Bhagavan: Let him who offers gifts with threefold success, having found a favourable recipient,

give to him liberally; such a man will attain the brahmanic world. •509/

From the Metta Sutta

Just as with her own life a mother shields from hurt her own, her only, child - let all-embracing (aparima.na) thoughts for all that lives be yours,/149/

- and all-embracing love (mett~) for all the universe

in all its heights and depths and breath, unstinted love, unmarred by hate within, not arousing enmity./150/

So, as you stand or walk, or sit, or lie, reflect with all your might on this; this is called the brahmanic change of heart.

(brahmam eterh vih~ram idha-m-ahu) / 151 /

Ignoring sophists' views,

the good (silava), f'tlled with insight (dassa), and purged of appetite (kdma) for sensuous delights, shall never see rebirth./152/

This non-formulaic, more didactic presentation helps to clarify individual elements of the process and goal involved in the brahma-vih~a practice. The verses show how the transposition of hate and love can change the heart into a heart of immeasurable love, which leads one to the brahrnanic world (brahma-loka). The Buddhist view underlying this is that even if one wants to achieve the goals of brahamanic ritual, Vedic ritual is ironically inadequate. One can achieve even the goals of Vedic ritual by practicing the brahma-vih~a,

THE BRAHMA-VIH,~RA FORMULA 213

by magically t r ansmut ing egotistical emot ions in to the four immeasurable

virtues of love, compassion, joy , and impart ial i ty. 9

The view is expressed clearly in the Tevi//a Sutta (D 1.235 ff.):

(12) Or is there then, Vase.t.tha, a single one of the teachers of the brahmans versed in the three Vedas who has seen the brahmanic god face to face?

(24-25) "Again, V~set.t.ha, if this river Aciravatiwere full of water even to the brim and overflowing. And a man with business on the other side, bound for the other side, should come up and want to cross over. And he, standing on this bank, should invoke the further bank, and say, 'come hither, O further bank! Come over to this side!'

Now what think you, V~set.t.ha? Would the further bank of the river Aciraviti, by reason of that man's invoking and praying and hoping and praising, come over to this side?"

"Certainly not, Gotama!" "In just the same way, V~sett.ha, do the brahmans versed in the three Vedas -

omitting the practice of those qualities which really make a man a brahman, and adopting the practice of those qualities which really make men non-brahmans - say thus: 'Indra we call upon, Soma we call upon, Varun.a we call u p o n . . . ' Verily, VSset.t.ha, that those brahmans versed in the three Vedas, but omitting the practice of those qualities which really make a man a brahman, and adopting the practice of those qualities which really make men non-brahmans - that they, by reason of their invoking and praying and hoping and praising, should, after death and when the body is dissolved, become united with the brahmanic god - verily such a condition of things can in no wise be!"

(38) "For I know the brahmanic god, V~set.t.ha, and the brahmanic world, and the path which leads to it. Yea, I know it even as one who has entered the brahmanic world and has been born within it."

The path men t ion ed here which leads to the brahma-loka is later revealed to

be the brahma-vih~ra, presented in the basic formula (section 78).

These Tevi/ja Sutta passages are amplified by the 'Br~amanavaggo' chapter

(XXVI) o f the Dhammapada, in which the term brahma.na is redefined: the

Vedic term brahma.na is used to indicate a Buddhist saint, one who has cast

off all fetters and who is b e y o n d all a t tachments . Not by lineage, no t by caste

does one become a brahmana; he is a brahma.na in whom there are sacca and

dhamma. Likewise, no t by Vedic ritual and sacrifice does one become a

brahmana, bu t by medi ta t ion , by the development of certain menta l at t i tudes,

and b y perfect knowledge. 1° In a similar way, the Vedic concept o f brahma- carya is redefined by the Buddhists ;11 and brahma-cariya is f requent ly

associated with the practice of the brahma-vihara in the Nik~yas. For example,

in the Mal~-sudassana Suttanta it is said that :

For eight and forty-thousand years the Great King of Glory, .Z, nanda, lived the happy life of a prince; for eight and forty thousand years he was viceroy and heir apparent; for eight

214 BARBARA STOLER MILLER

and forty thousand years he ruled the kingdom; for eight and forty thousand years he lived as a layman, the brahmanic way (brahma-cariya) in the palace of righteousness (dhamma-pJsJda). Then, having cultivated the four brahmanic changes of heart (catt~ro brahma-vih~re bh~vetva-), he died and, after the dissolution of the body, entered the brahmanic world (brah malok~pago ). (D II. 196) 12

In the many Buddhist terms in which brahma- is used as the first element of

a compound, the use of brahma- seems to be to emphasize the reinterpretation of some Vedic notion, e.g. brahma-cakka, brahma-deyya. But this technical use is not always retained, just as a Buddhist brahma na is often just a noble,

sinless man, so brahma- often means 'noble', 'pure', 'sublime', 'excellent', e.g.

brahma-bhata, an epithet of Buddha. But if brahma- is a designation of all these superlatives, what is the meaning of the term ariya-, which, in its reinterpretation from Vedic literature also comes to mean 'noble', 'good',

'sublime', e.g. ariya-sacca? Are we to see an equation in the Buddhist uses of brahma- and ariya-? The answer is 'no'; brahma- when compared to ariya- means something extraordinary and sublime, but not the ultimate ideal;

what is ultimate is designated by ariya-. This becomes clear when we examine the triad ariya-vih~ra, brahma-vihdra, dibba-vihara which is found several

times in the Pa-li Canon (e.g. D III.220, S V.326, Sn A 136, also A 1.181-184).

Of these the ariya-vih~ra is the highest and is set off from the other two.

Brahma-vihara and dibba-vih~ra are closely associated and follow similar

patterns. Dibba-vihara refers to the fourfold ]h~na (otherwise called the

]hdna-vihara, S II.273, IV.263-9); its practice leads to the production of the kusala-mula of alobha (non-greed) (Sn A 136) 13 and eventually to deva-loka (,4 II. 184). Brahma-vihara includes the four mental attitudes of mett~, karu.~, mudit~, upekkh~; its practice leads to the production of the kusa/a- mula of adosa (Sn A 136) and eventually to brahma-loka. 14

The fourfold jh~na and the fourfold brahma-vihara are associated as methods under the heading of sam~dhi or 'concentration'. Jhana, or contem- plation, is a means for transcending the impact of sensory stimuli and our normal reaction to them; there were originally four of them (later expanded to give eight), which may be described as follows: (1) One begins by

concentrating on a sense object; the first stage is achieved when one can suppress one's threefold akusala-m~la and concentrate on the chosen object. (2) Then uplifted above attention and reasoning, one experiences elation and delight of both body and mind. (3) Then even this elation is overcome and what remains is (4) pure lucidity of mind and impartiality of heart (Dhs 160f0.

THE BRAHMA-VIH,~RA FORMULA 215

Bothjhana and brahma-vih~a are essential in a monk 's career:

Monks, if even for the lasting of a finger-snap a monk should practise the first/h~na, such a one may be called a monk. Not empty of result is hisjhTma; he abides doing the Master's bidding; he is one who takes advice, and he eats the country's almsfood to some purpose. What could I not say of one who makes much of the first ihffna?

Monks, if even for the lasting of a finger-snap a monk should practice the second. . . t h i rd . . , fourth jh~na.., also love which is the heart's release (mett~ cetovimutti)... compassion which is the heart's release (karun~ cetovimuttz).., joy which is the heart's release (rnudit~ cettovimuttl3.., impartiality which is the heart's release (upekkh~ cetovimuttt3, - such may be called a monk . . . (A 1.38)

But neither jhana nor brahma-vihara practice alone leads to arahatta (or to

nibba.na); they are means Is by which one achieves a certain state of mind

without which the at tainment ofarahatta is impossible. That they are means

is illustrated by the fact that jh~na leads to deva-loka and brahma-vih~ra to

brahma-loka. Though these two realms are elaborately described (e.g. Visrn 414 ff.) as heavens, they are like all other creations insofar as they are subject

to change and destruction. These heavens are not literally places; they are

levels in the monk 's development, which he must supersede to attain arahatta. The ariya-vihara includes and is beyond these two; the result of it is

arahatta/nibb~.na. Its practice leads to the product ion of the kusala-mfda of

amoha (Sn A 136) and the destruction o f the akusala-mala ofmoha or avijj~. The opposite ofavijj~ may be vijj~ or pahh~, but is more usually h~.na, a faculty

of understanding included in and essential to pahha. The combination ha.na-

dassana (= pahha) is used in one of the recurring formulae which expresses

arahatta (e .g. S II. 171 ; III .28; IV.8; V.204 ;A 1.259; IV.56):

fi~.nafi ca pana me dassanarh udap~di akupp~ me ceto-vimutti

ayarh antim5 j~ti nat thi drmi punabbhavo.

There arose in me insight (hana,classana), the emancipation

of my heart became unshakeable, this is my last birth, there is

now no rebirth for me.

Thus, as opposed to that of dibba-vih~ra and brahma-vih&a, the practice

of ariya-vihara is directly concerned with acquisition of the knowledge

and wisdom which lead to nibb~.na. As dibba-vihara and brahma-vihara are analogous to the second stage o f

the standard 'code o f religious practice ' , sam~tdhi-kkhanda or citta-sampad& ariya-vihara is analogous to the third and highest stage, pahha-kkhanda

216 BARBARA STOLER MILLER

or vijja-sampad~ (A V.326; D 1 .62-85 ; I. 171 ft. ; etc.).16 Sam~dhi-kkhanda means the cul t ivat ion of the heart and the mind relating to impart ial i ty ,

concent ra t ion , etc; pafifia-kkhanda refers to the development of higher

wisdom and spiritual emancipa t ion culminat ing in arahatta/nibb~.na. The meaning o f the term 'brahma-vihara', is relevant to unders tanding

what it means to cultivate (bh~veti) mett& karu.n& mudit& and upekkha; it is this 'cul t ivat ion ' (bh~vana) that was most impor tan t to the early

Buddhists. (see Buddhagosa, Vista Chapt. IX; Attasalinf, Part V, Chapts.

I and XIII) . In the Metta Sutta (S V.115 ft.), after the brahma-vih~ra formula

is set forth, the Buddha cont inues:

But, friends, how is the heart's release by love (mett~cetovimuttt) cultivated (bh~vita)? What is its goal, wherein is its excellence? What is its fruit and its ending? Likewise how is the heart's release by compassion cultivated.. , e t c . . .

Herein, monks, a monk cultivates the limb of wisdom that is mindfulness (satisam- bo/jhahga), accompanied by love . . , and the other limbs of wisdom in like manner. He cultivates the limb of wisdom that is impartiality, accompanied by love, which is based on seclusion (viveka.), on dispassion (vir~ga.), on cesmtion (nirodhanissita) which ends in self-surrender (vossaggaparin.~min)... (the same formula is repeated for karu.~, mudit~, upekkh~).

Further , in the Anguttara Nikaya (I. 1 9 3 - 1 9 6 ) , the cul t ivat ion of the fourfold

brahma-vih~ra is connected with the destruct ion of the threefold akussala- m~la (lobha, which is abhijjha; dosa, which is vy~pddo ; moha which is avi/]~) and with the dest ruct ion of the ~savas. 17 Practicing the fourfold brahma- vih~a, which is the heart ' s release (-cetovimutti), one achieves knowledge

(i.e. having cult ivated these menta l a t t i tudes, one is prepared for pafif~- sampad~ or ariya-vih~ra):

There is a mean state (hinarh atthz); there is an excellent state (pa.nitath atthz); there is an escape from this realm of consciousness (sanf~gatassa; Comm: Imassa vipassan~-safzfui- sankh~tassa sann~gatassa nissara.nam nibb~arh n~ma dassetz). When he thus knows, thus sees, his mind is released (cittafn vimuccatl) from the k~m~sav~, his mind is released from the bhav~sav~, his mind is released from the avij]~sav~. To him thus released comes the knowledge that he is released, and he is assured (r~.na~h - lq.B. ri~.na is used here as opposed to par~r]~;he is prepared for par~r~, but he has not yet attained that level; his is not the arahant's wisdom of the following): ended is rebirth; lived is the brahmanic way (brahma-cariyarh); done is my task; there is no more of this state (atthi) for me. is Likewise he comes to know (pa]~n~ti used here): formerly I had greed (Iobho): that was evil (akusala). Now it exists no more; that is good (kusala)... (likewise for doso and moho).. . Thus in this very life he is free from craving, he is released, he has become cool; he, of himself, abides in the experience of happiness (sukha.pa.ffsarhvedD, by becoming a brahman (brahma-bhfftena).

THE BRAHMA-VIH.~RA FORMULA 217

This cultivation or systematized effort of self-training in brahma-vihara (or

]hana) is closely connected with the concept of mindfulness (sat/), the

specialized awareness of the brahma-vihara formula and each of its elements

in each of the four iriyapathas (walking, standing, sitting, lying) (A I. 183;

A tth I. 163). Its purpose is to destroy the threefold akusala-mala and thus

prepare the heart (citta) for wisdom, (Dhs 1007 ff.) Buddhagosa (Atth I. 163-163 , re Dhs 160 ff.) on the meaning of bhavana

in relation to ]hdna and brahma-vihara says:

Again, bh~vanff is used in the sense of producing (uppadana) and increasing (vad. d. hana), e.g.: - 'Udffyi, I have preached, to the disciples the practice according to which they develop the four applications in mindfulness' (M II.11). And such is the meaning here also. Hence it has been said that bh6veti means to beget, produce, increase. But why is the teaching here on the moral consciousness of the realm of matter (rffl~vacara) initiated by the personal agent, and not by taking the conscious state (dhamma), as in the exposition of the moral consciousness of the sensuous realm (kffmffvacarakusalacit. taniddese)? Because it should by accomplished by practice (patipadff). For the moral consciousness of this realm is to be accomplished by one or other of the four practices (pa.tipadff, Dhs 176 ff.) It does not arise without practice like that of the sensuous realm. And practice arises where there is a person to attain it. To show this meaning the Bhagavan in giving the teaching introducing first the person, has said: 'he develops (bhffveti) the path for rebirth in the sphere of form.

In this sphere of form (rapavacara), which includes the brahma-loka (Dhs 1281-1287), the notion of cultivation and practice as essential to the

attainment of a good mental or emotional attitude is stressed. An individual

man (puggala) cultivates certain mental attitudes in relation to objects and

the world of people which are conducive to the destruction of the threefold

akusala-mala, etc.

In relation to the cultivation of the fourfold brahma-vihara, Buddhagosa

amplifies (Atth 1,196):

And because a person desirous of cultivating them should first practice them on beings by way of working good, and love (metta-) has the characteristic of proceeding by way of working advantage; and because he then, pondering (sambh~vetva-) on what he has seen or heard, of beings praying for welfare when overcome by sufferings, should practice them by way of taking away suffering, and compassion (karun. Tz) has the characteristic of proceeding by way of taking away suffering; next because he, seeing the prosperity of those beings who has prayed for welfare and the removal of suffering, should practice by way of rejoicing at prosperity, and joy (mudita') has the characteristic of profuse gladness; and lastly, because he should practice them by the mode of centrality called attention owing to there being no work to be done, and impartiality (upekkha') has the characteristic of proceeding by the mode of centrality, therefore love has been

218 BARBARA STOLER MILLER

mentioned first by way of working good, etc., then compassion, joy, and impartiality - thus the order should be understood.

According to Buddhagosa, it is the sequential practice (patipad@) of each

mental at t i tude in the fourfold brahma-vihara formula that constitutes their

cultivation, To 'cult ivate ' or 'beget ' these mental at t i tudes is to 'practice '

them toward other beings.

Barnard College Columbia University

New York

NOTES

I Quoted here from DTgha Nik~ya I. 250-251. Since this study concentrates on the origin and development of the brahma-vih~ra formula in early Buddhism, the P~li terms mett~, karun~, muditJ, uppekkl~ are used throughout. Further references to the formula in Buddhist literature include the following:

THE BRAHMA-VIH,~RAS IN THE P,~LI CANON

Sutta NipEta (Sn) verses 73-74; 143-152; 507-509

DTgha Nik~ya (D) 1.235ff. (Tevijja Sutta) II.196 III.50, 78, 224, 248; 220 (tayo vilifY" ariya-, brahma-, dibba-)

Sathyutta Nik~ya (S) IV.296, 322, 251 V.115ff. (Metta Sutta).

Ma]]hima Nika-ya (M) 1.38 II.76

Anguttara Nikaya (A) 1.38, 183, 193ff. II.129, 184 III.225 V.300, 345

Therag~th~ ( Th ) 1.649 (Revata verse)

Dhammasangani (First Book of the Abhidhamma Pi.taka, Dhs) sections 250-262

Sutta Nip~ta Commentary (Parama]otik~ II, Sn A) 136

Atthasa'TinT (Commentary on the Dhammasangani, Atth )

THE BRAHMA-VIH,~,RA F O R M U L A 219

192ff. (Chapter XIII) Visuddhimagga (Vism)

293-325 (Chapter IX) 105 (Chapter III) list of 40 subjects of meditation, kammat..th~na, in which the brahma-vilmras are included.

All texts in the P~li Canon quoted refer to P~li Text Society editions and translations, except the following: Buddhagosa, Visuddhimagga ed. by H.C. Warren HOS, vol. 41 (Cambridge, Mass.,

1950) tran~ by Bhikkhu l~-an, amoli , (Colombo, Ceylon, 1956). Chalmers, Buddha's Teachings (Sutta Nip~ta), HOS , vol. 137 (Cambridge, Mass,

1932). Rhys Davids, C.A.F. Psychological Ethics (Dhammasangan. i trans.) Oriental

Translation Fund, Vol XII, 1900.

lb THE BRAHMA-VIHARAS (or APRAM.~N. AS) IN BUDDHIST SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Mahdvastu, ed. by E. Senart (Paris, 1882-97) III.105 ; 421 (Illustrative verses; to III.421 cf. Dhammapada 369)

LaHtavistara, ed. by S. Lefmann (Halle, 1902). 297.9-12: In the chapter describing the arrangements of Bodhiman. da, of the sons of

the Jinas come to pay homage to Buddha: "some come, having rendered their bodies calm like Brahm£ (brahmapra~antar~pah..) and dwell with calm spirit, perfectly calm, plunged in meditation (dhy~na)... From their pores came a voice which goes to the heart, expression of a sweetness, a patience, and of immeasurable love, equanimity, compassion, and sympathy."

45.16: Of those who axe capable of attaching themselves to a Bodhisattva, it is said: "Those who have the plan to transcend the region of desire (kjmadh~tu) and to inhabit the dwelling of Brahm~, they attach themselves to a mah~purus.a who has the splendor of the four apram~n, as.

341.1 Saddharmapun. d. aHka, ed. by K. Kern and B. Nanjo (St. Pet., 1908-12)

142.11 (Kern p. 140) Daiabhffmikasfftra, ed. by J. Rahder (Paris, 1926)

Page 34, line 18ff. ~iks.asamuccaya* ofSantideva, ed. by Bendall, Indo-Iranian Reprint (The Hague, 1957)

105.16. Used in conjunction with dhy~nas. Mah~y~na-s~tra-lafnkJra of Asariga, ed. by Sylvain L~vi (Paris, 1907).

VII.3; XVII. 17 (cf. XX-XXI.43) Bodhisattvabhffmi of Asafiga, chapters vih~ra and bhffmi given as appendix to Da~abh~mi

90.7-13 (= catv~ry aprarr~n~ni, 209.4; 236.7,241.15-16) Abhidharmako.sa*, Vasubandhu, trans, by L. de la Vall~ Poussin (Paris, 1925).

Vol. 5, pp. 196 ft. Heva/ratantra, ed. by D.L. Snellgrove (London, 1959), 2 vols.

1.111.1 2 Karu.n~ often appears in Mah£y£na texts as mah~-karun~ In verse 91 of the 4th chapter of his Ratn~valF, N£g~xjuna equates mah~-karunff with iunyat~. Robert Thurman drew this to my attention in his illuminating comments on an earlier draft of this study. The translation of upekkh~ as 'impartiality' is his.

220 B A R B A R A STOLER MILLER

3 The term mudit~ is rarely mentioned outside of the context of the brahma-vih~ra formula. The term is apparently based on the Vedic root mud, though certain scholars, such as Senart, have maintained that it is based on the root m.rd. A close examination of the passages in which forms of both roots are used seems to point to mud as the term's root and also to throw some interesting light on the way in which the term is used. Mr.d clearly has the meaning of divine 'grace' or 'mercy' e.g. " V a r u n a . . . even in the greatness of your power, have mercy." (R V 7.60.10, also 10.64.1, 10.108.8, 10.25.3, 7.89.1, 7.93.7, 7.56.17, 8.18.19, etc.). Mud repeatedly bears the meaning of ' to delight in something worthy' e.g. "Agni inhabiteth with Gods and men who offer sacrifice; he chedsheth with great delight much wisdom, as all things that be, God among Gods a d o r a b l e . . . " (R V 8.39.7, also 10.118.2, 9.71.3, 5.83.9, 10.97.3, etc.). 4 'The Unknown Co-Founders of Buddhism: A Sequel', JRAS, 1928, p. 282. Internal Buddhist evidence for the non-Buddhist origin of the brahma-vih~ra is found in the Makhadeva sutta (M #83). I am indebted to Frederick Underwood for this reference and for his perceptive comments on my earlier draft. s Aufrecht, Aitareya Br~hmana (Bonn, 1879), trans, by A. B. Keith, Hos, Vol. 25 Cambridge, Mass., 1920). It may be noted that in the Srauta S~tras, vihSra is used to mean the arrangement and disposition of the three sacrificial fires; it is also applied to the fires themselves and the space in between (in the latter case having the non-technical meaning of dwelling or place). 6 R.W. Weiler, 'The Buddhist Act of Compassion', Indological Studies in Honor o f W. N. Brown, (New Haven, 1962) pp. 238-250. 7 Vinaya Pitaka 2.109-110, translated by Warren in Buddhism in Translation, p. 302; from which I quote just the charm itself here (cf. A. II, pp. 72-73) :

Virfipakkhas, I love them all, The Er~pathas, too, I love, Chaby[puttas, I love them, too, And all Kanh[gotamakas.

Creatures without feet have my love, And likewise those that have two feet, And those that have four feet I love, And those, too, that have many feet.

May those without feet harm me not, And those with two feet cause no hurt ; May those with four feet harm me not, Nor those who many feet possess.

Let creatures all, all things that love, All Beings of whatever kind, See nothing that will bode them ill! May naught of evil come to them!

sa THE TEXT AND TRANSLATION OF Sn A 136. viharatTt~" ekar9, iriy[pathab~dhanam aparena iriy~pathena vicchinditv5 aparipat.antaro. attabhgvam harati, pavatteti ti vuttar0, hoti, divyabrahmaariyavih~rehi 2 v5 sattgnam vividhar0 hitam 3 haraff ti viharati, haraff ti upaharati 3 upaneti janeti upp~deff ti vuttar 9 hoti. Tath~ hi: yad~ satt~ k[mesu vippa.tipajjanti, tad~ kixa Bhagav~ dibbena vih~rena

THE B R A H M A - V I H A R A F O R M U L A 221

viharati tesatg, alobha-kusalamfilupp[danattham: app eva n[ma imam pit.ipattim disv[ ettha rucim, upp~detva kL, nesu virajjeyyun' ti; yadfi pana issariyattharn, sattesu vippat.ipajjanti, tad~ brahmavih~rena viharati tesarn, adosa-kusalamfilupp~danattham.: 'app eva n~rna imam. pat.ipattira, disv[ ettha ruch'9, upp~detv~ adosena dosam vfipasamey- yun' ti; yad~ pana pabbjit~ dhamm~dhikaran, am. vivadanti, tad[ ariyavih~rena viharati tesafft, amoha-kusalam~lupp~danatthar9.: 'app eva n~na imam pat.ipattim, disv[ ettha rucim upp~detv~ amohena moham vfipasameyyun' t i ; . . . so Translation of Sn A 136 on viharati. Viharati means after severing the hindrance of one iriy~patha (way of deportment) with another iriy~patha, one brings oneself to the production (aparipa.tati, paripat.ati is defined as the opposite ofsambhavati (PTSD 428), therefore aparipatati must equal sambhavatt') of one's own nature (attabh~varh); that is to say, it means 'to send forth' ( 'produce' pavatetT). Or by means of the dibba, brahma, ariya vih~ras one brings mainfold benefit to creatures. Harati ('to bring') means upaharati ('to bring or offer'); that is to say it means upanetz" ('to bring up to' or ' to conduce'),/aneti ( ' to generate'), upp~deti ('to produce'). Thus, if beings commit sins (vT-pa.tipa//ati) in worldly pleasures, then surely Bhagavan sends forth the dibba-vih~ra for the sake of the production of the kusala-m~la of alobha: "when they actually see this advantage and have produced splendor (ruci) in this, they will give up ks-ms." If again they impose their interest in rulership on beings, then Bhagavan sends forth the brahma-vih~ra for the sake of the production of the kusala-m~la of adosa: "when they actually see this advantage and have produced splendor in this, they will suppress corruption (dosa) with non- corruption". If holy men (pabbahita-) quarrel concerning the Dhamma, then surely Bhagavan sends forth the ariya-vih~ra for the sake of the production of the kusala-m~la of amoha: "when they actually see this advantage and have produced splendor in this, they will suppress delusion (moha) with non-delusion ; " . . . 9 In this context the two members of the compound brahma-vih~ra may be analyzed: brahma refers to the Vedic sacred sphere and vih~ra to the Vedic notion of transposition or exchange as a magical means of effecting change. 10 Cf.A IV. 150;Sn 303 ff. 11 See PTSD p. 494. 12 Cf. A III. 225 :

And having cultivated these four brahma-vih~ras, on the breaking up of the body after death, he arises in the well-faring brahmaloka. Thus does a brahmans become Brahm~-like (brahmasamo ).

13 See note s above. 14 Cf. brahma-vim~na DIII . 28, 29; Vista 108 and PTSD p. 494 and deva-virnffna (the palace of a deva) J I. 58; Vism 342; also the three high and broad couches at A I. 181 ft. Is D I. 36-39 . 16 Cf. Ariya-v~sa (most excellent state of mind) A V. 29 if; it includes/h~na and brahma. vih~ra. 17 Cf. Jain notion ofbh~van~, which is used to designate the different kinds of meditation by which one learns to look upon all beings with equality (samatva-) and thereby effect a conquest over r~ga and dvesa; also the bh~van~ of Yoga Sutra I. 33. is Cf. Arahatta formula cited above: n~na-dassane = pannff, whereas ti~na alone designates a lesser form of knowledge, e.g. S 1.52; II.30; V.28,442.