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Structural firefighting ensembles - accumulation andoff-gassing of combustion productsKatherine M. Kirka & Michael B. Logana
a Scientific and Research Branch, Queensland Fire and Emergency Services, GPO Box 1425,Brisbane, Queensland, Australia 4001Accepted author version posted online: 27 Jan 2015.
To cite this article: Katherine M. Kirk & Michael B. Logan (2015): Structural firefighting ensembles - accumulation and off-gassing of combustion products, Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2015.1006638
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15459624.2015.1006638
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Title: Structural firefighting ensembles - accumulation and off-gassing of combustion products
Authors: Katherine M. Kirk, Michael B. Logan
Author affiliation (both authors): Scientific and Research Branch, Queensland Fire and Emergency Services,
GPO Box 1425, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia 4001
E-mail contact for corresponding author: [email protected]
Keywords: firefighters, structural firefighting ensembles, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, volatile organic
compounds, acid gases, PAHs, protective clothing, deposition, off-gassing
Exposition word count: 3,334
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ABSTRACT
Firefighters may be exposed to toxic combustion products not only during firefighting operations and
training, but also afterwards as a result of contact with contaminated structural firefighting ensembles. This
study characterised the deposition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) onto structural firefighting
ensembles and off-gassing of combustion products from ensembles after multiple exposures to hostile
structural attack fire environments. A variety of PAHs were deposited onto the outer layer of structural
firefighting ensembles, with no variation in deposition flux between new ensembles and already
contaminated ensembles. Contaminants released from ensembles after use included volatile organic
compounds, carbonyl compounds, low molecular weight PAHs, and hydrogen cyanide. Air samples
collected in a similar manner after laundering of ensembles according to manufacturer specifications
indicated that laundering returns off-gassing concentrations of most of the investigated compounds to pre-
exposure levels. These findings suggest that contamination of firefighter protective clothing increases with
use, and that storage of unlaundered structural firefighting ensembles in small, unventilated spaces
immediately after use may create a source of future exposure to toxic combustion products for firefighting
personnel.
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INTRODUCTION
Structural firefighting ensembles are designed to provide a limited degree of protection to firefighters
from thermal radiation, hot gas convection, and direct contact with hot surfaces, as well as protection against
minor cuts and abrasions (1)
. Firefighting ensembles are not specifically designed to provide protection
against chemical and biological agents, and their effectiveness against these substances has not been well
characterised. The potential for structural ensembles to become contaminated by particulate and vapour-
phase products of combustion during firefighting is well recognised. However, the occupational exposure of
firefighters to toxic combustion products via this contamination has until recently received little attention.
Potential routes of exposure from contaminated structural ensembles include dermal absorption through skin
contact, and release of vapours and/or particulates when the firefighter is no longer wearing respiratory
protection (2-5)
.
Few studies have aimed to specifically characterise the contamination of structural firefighting
ensembles occurring as a result of firefighting operations, or its potential to cause future occupational
exposures. Three of these studies (2, 4-5)
conducted destructive testing on a variety of items of occupationally
soiled firefighter protective clothing, including gloves, coats and flash hoods. During these studies a variety
of contaminants, including phenols, phthalates, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and metals, were
identified. However, the items investigated in the studies by Stull et al. (2)
and Alexander and Baxter (4)
had
unspecified usage histories at emergency incidents. Fabian et al. (5)
investigated contamination accumulating
on new protective clothing items over a short-term period, and included the usage history of the protective
clothing items. The gloves and flashhoods in that study were worn in residential and commercial building
fires, with levels of the previously mentioned contaminants found to be approximately 100 times greater on
gloves than on flashhoods.
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The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (3)
conducted controlled experimental burns
simulating residential fires investigating both the contamination of pre-laundered structural firefighting
ensembles and post-fire off-gassing from ensembles. PAHs were identified in wipe samples collected from
various protective clothing items, while a variety of volatile organic compounds were identified in air
samples collected inside transportation cases holding structural firefighting ensembles following the
controlled burns. The deposition of a range of PAHs has also been identified on the structural firefighting
ensembles of instructors engaged in live fire training (6)
.
Comparison of contaminant concentrations between studies involving shorter (5)
and longer (4)
periods of
occupational use has led to the suggestion that contamination of firefighter protective clothing increases with
longer periods of use (4)
. However, the accumulation of contamination on individual structural firefighting
ensembles across multiple exposures to fire environments has not previously been investigated. Further,
given the wide range of combustion products that may be absorbed by structural firefighting ensembles from
various types of fire environments, the potential for off-gassing of these materials from ensembles post-fire
requires further investigation. The purpose of this study has been to characterise the accumulation of PAHs
depositing on the exterior of structural firefighting ensembles across multiple entries to fire environments, in
order to investigate whether prior contamination of ensembles with combustion products increases or
decreases future deposition flux of contaminants. This study also measures the off-gassing of volatile
organic compounds, acid gases and PAHs from ensembles post-fire, in order to quantify potential firefighter
inhalation exposures after storage of contaminated structural firefighting ensembles.
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METHOD
Study design
This study was conducted at the Queensland Combined Emergency Services Academy’s Live Fire
Campus in Brisbane, Australia. Experiments were conducted on the lower floor of a two-storey training
structure constructed from shipping containers (7)
. The fuel for each evolution (burn) consisted of
particleboard (resin-bonded wood panel product consisting of 80 to 90% wood fibres, particles or flakes by
weight) arranged vertically and horizontally at the closed end of the structure, as shown in Figure 1. Fires
were lit by the safety officer using a propane torch applied to the particleboard, and entry teams consisting of
two firefighters entered the structure during the fully developed stage of the fire to engage in hostile
structural attack activities under the supervision of a safety officer. Movement of firefighters within the
training structure was determined by the requirement to extinguish the fire, but involved remaining below the
smoke layer as much as possible. Exposure durations in these evolutions ranged from 10 to 18 minutes
(average 14 minutes). Four consecutive “hostile structural attack” evolutions were conducted on each of
three separate days in the same structure. After each evolution, the fire debris was removed, the structure
was ventilated to remove atmospheric contaminants, and the fuel reset.
Personal protective clothing and equipment
At the beginning of each day, one member of the entry team donned a new structural firefighting
ensemble (jacket and overtrousers) (Australian Defence Apparel, Coburg, Australia) constructed of a
moisture barrier consisting of a breathable polyurethane membrane, and thermal barrier of Sontara E89
quilted to Nomex/FR Viscose Scrim. Total surface areas of ensembles (jacket plus overtrousers) ranged in
from 4.51 to 4.99 m2 as calculated from pattern pieces prior to manufacture. Other components of personal
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protective clothing (firefighting gloves, flashhood) were not new, but were laundered prior to use. Self-
contained breathing apparatus was worn for the duration of all evolutions.
At the end of each evolution, firefighters removed the structural firefighting ensemble, and showered and
changed all clothing worn underneath the ensemble to reduce secondary contamination from previous
evolutions. The same structural firefighting jacket and trousers was worn for all four evolutions on the same
day. When not worn, structural ensembles remained undisturbed in an indoor environment in a separate
building from the evolutions to reduce alternative sources of deposition exposure. Following completion of
the final evolution on each day, the structural ensembles were removed immediately after doffing self-
contained breathing apparatus, and placed directly into a polyethylene bag as described below.
Measurement of cumulative PAH deposition
Deposition of PAHs on structural firefighting ensembles was sampled by attaching four 10cm × 10 cm
fabric swatches (identical to the fabric comprising the outer shell of the ensemble) to the front of the
ensemble prior to the first hostile attack evolution. All swatches were pinned at the same height (mid-torso).
At the conclusion of each evolution, prior to removal of the structural firefighting ensemble, one swatch was
removed by the attachment pins with minimal handling and sealed individually in a polythene bag. Thus,
one swatch was exposed to only the first evolution, one swatch to the first two evolutions, one swatch to the
first three evolutions and one to all four evolutions. Samples were stored at -4°C until analysis, and were
analysed using the principles of the United States Environmental Protection Agency Compendium Method
TO-13A (8)
, with a limit of reporting of 100 ng/swatch for individual compounds.
Measurement of structural ensemble off-gassing
Off-gassing tests were performed on each structural firefighting ensemble prior to being exposed to
combustion scenarios, immediately following being worn by a firefighting instructor in an experiment (four
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evolutions), and after laundering. The ensemble coat and overtrousers were laid horizontally and sealed in a
polyethylene bag (2 metres long by 0.45 metres wide when laid flat; approximate volume 0.093 m3 during
sampling) for 24 hours. During this time, AirChek ® 2000 (SKC Inc., Eighty Four, PA) variable flow
sampling pumps placed within the bag were used to continuously draw the air in the bag through a variety of
sorbent tubes, in order to measure the levels of a variety of contaminants potentially off-gassing from the
structural firefighting ensemble. Tubes were directed away from the ensembles to avoid a suction effect.
Tygon ® tubing was used to connect the sorbent tubes to the sampling pumps. Polyethylene bags remained
undisturbed during the measurement process.
Volatile organic compounds were sampled at flow rates of 75 mL/min using stainless steel tubes
supplied by Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services, containing 150 mg of Tenax ® followed by
100 mg of Carboxen ® 569. Carbonyl compounds (aldehydes and ketones) were sampled using glass
sorbent tubes packed with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine-coated silica gel and incorporating an ozone scrubber
(SKC model 226-120), at flow rates of 500 mL/min. Volatile organic compound and carbonyl samples were
analysed using the principles of United States Environmental Protection Agency Compendium Methods TO-
17 and TO-11A respectively (8)
. The limit of reporting for individual volatile organic compounds was 50
ng/tube, and for carbonyl compounds from 0.28 to 1.05 µg per tube.
Acid gases (as fluoride, chloride, bromide, nitrate, phosphate and sulfate) were sampled using glass
sorbent tubes packed with silica gel (SKC model 226-10-03) at flow rates of 200 mL/min. Hydrogen
cyanide was sampled at flow rates of 70 mL/min using glass sorbent tubes packed with soda lime (SKC
model 226-28). Samples were analysed using the principles of NIOSH Method 7903 and 6010 respectively
(9). Limits of reporting (LOR) were 0.2 µg/tube for bromide, 0.5 µg/tube for fluoride and cyanide, 1.0
µg/tube for nitrate, 2.5 µg/tube for phosphate and sulphate, and 10 µg/tube for chloride.
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PAHs were sampled at flow rates of 2000 mL/min using glass sorbent tubes filled with 76 mm of
polyurethane foam and incorporating a glass fibre pre-filter (SKC model 226-126). Samples were solvent-
extracted and analysed by using the principles of the United States Environmental Protection Agency
Compendium Method TO-13A (8)
. Results were obtained separately for PAHs in the particulate and gaseous
phase, with a limit of reporting (LOR) for each phase of 50 ng per sample for individual PAHs.
RESULTS
Table I presents the deposition flux for 16 PAHs onto structural ensemble swatches during multiple
hostile attack evolutions. Combined results for benzo[b]fluoranthene and benzo[k]fluoranthene are presented
since the analytical technique did not permit discrimination between the two. Total PAH deposition flux
ranged from 3.3 ng/cm2/min to 16 ng/cm
2/min. The maximum total PAH deposition concentration was 630
ng/cm2 (after a cumulative 52 minutes of exposure across four evolutions). Total PAH deposition
concentrations for individual swatches are plotted against duration of exposure to the firefighting
environment in Figure 2.
Concentrations of volatile organic and carbonyl compounds and PAHs measured inside the sealed
polyethylene bags containing the structural firefighting ensembles are shown in Tables II and III
respectively. Results are presented for concentrations measured over 24 hours prior to first use of the
ensembles (“pre-exposure”), after exposure of the ensembles to four consecutive hostile attack evolutions
(“post-exposure”), and after cleaning as per manufacturer’s recommendations (“post-laundering”).
With the exception of hydrogen cyanide, very few acid gases were detected in the 24-hour air samples
collected inside the sealed polyethylene bags containing the structural firefighting ensembles. Bromide was
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detected at a concentration of 0.8 µg/m3 from one ensemble in the 24 hours after exposure to four hostile
attack evolutions, and chloride and nitrate were each detected in single post-laundering samples from
separate ensembles (concentrations of 14 µg/m3 and 3.4 µg/m
3 respectively). Low concentrations of
hydrogen cyanide were noted in pre-exposure air samples for one ensemble (11 µg/m3) and in all ensembles
post-laundering (6 – 8 µg/m3). Substantially higher hydrogen cyanide levels were measured inside the
polyethylene bags containing the ensembles after exposure to four hostile attack evolutions, with
concentrations of 630 µg/m3 to 1300 µg/m
3 measured across the 24 hour period. No tests for statistically
significant differences between pre-exposure, post-exposure and post-laundering PAH concentrations were
conducted, due to small sample sizes.
DISCUSSION
The current findings show that PAHs are deposited onto the outer layer of structural firefighting
ensembles in substantial quantities. Deposition flux for PAHs was not observed to differ between new
ensembles (evolution 1) and already contaminated ensembles (evolutions 2, 3, and 4). However, the present
investigation does not cover deposition characteristics on ensembles with long-term contamination with
combustion products, or heavy contamination such as that incurred from direct contact with surfaces (5)
. Off-
gassing from ensembles used during hostile structural attack firefighting included volatile organic
compounds, carbonyl compounds, PAHs and hydrogen cyanide. Ensemble cleaning was demonstrated to be
effective in reducing contamination as measured by post-laundering off-gassing. However, the potential for
persistent contamination by low-volatility compounds (2)
was not investigated. Interpretation of the results of
this study also requires consideration of the limited statistical power due to small sample sizes.
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Total PAH deposition during a single hostile attack evolution ranged from 3.5 µg/g of fabric to 10.1
µg/g of fabric, while cumulative deposition from four evolutions ranged from 20.4 µg/g of fabric to 28.8
µg/g of fabric. These concentrations are unlikely to be uniform across the structural ensemble.
Contamination on the front and back of the ensemble may differ, particular areas may be shielded from
deposition by other protective equipment (for example self-contained breathing apparatus), and heavier
contamination loads may occur in locations which come into direct contact with surfaces inside the
firefighting environment (5)
. These values were obtained after 52 to 67 minutes of cumulative exposure to a
fire environment in which the fuel consisted entirely of particleboard. Fire environments containing different
fuels or characterised by different combustion conditions may generate greater or lesser quantities of PAHs,
as well as a variety of other compounds, for deposition on structural ensembles during firefighting.
However, a demonstrated potential exists for significant PAH accumulation on structural ensembles to occur
through recurring deposition if laundering is conducted on an infrequent basis (for example, once or twice
per year).
Deposition quantities of individual PAHs on the cloth swatches in this study were somewhat higher than
those observed for gloves and flashhoods used operationally in the study by Fabian et al. (5)
. In that study,
none of the gloves exceeded 0.02 µg/g of glove for benzo[a]anthracene, benzo[a]pyrene, chrysene or
dibenzo[a,h]anthracene, with glove concentrations approximately 100 times greater than flashhoods. The
present study found concentrations from exposure to single hostile attack evolutions of up to 0.37 µg/g of
fabric for benzo[a]anthracene, 0.22 µg/g of fabric for benzo[a]pyrene and 0.33 µg/g of fabric for chrysene.
Variance in deposition concentrations between the two studies may be due to a number of factors, including
adsorption rate differences between materials, differences in ambient combustion product concentrations
and/or profiles, variation in firefighter placement or firefighting practices within the fire environment,
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opportunity for surface contact, and sample handling differences (firefighters donning and doffing gloves in
an operational environment may dislodge a proportion of the contaminants prior to item collection).
Measurement of atmospheric contaminants inside polyethylene bags containing structural firefighting
ensembles identified a number of compounds off-gassing from the ensembles after exposed to four hostile
attack evolutions. For volatile organic compounds, concentrations of benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene,
xylene, styrene, trimethyl benzene, pentane, 2-butanone and methyl isobutyl ketone observed from one or
more ensembles post-exposure appeared elevated as compared with pre-exposure. Benzene, xylenes,
styrene, toluene and 2-butanone concentrations both pre-exposure and post-exposure were comparable with
those measured by National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (3)
. However, there were several
differences between the methods in the two studies: the volume of the enclosure used in this study was
approximately half that used by National Insitute for Occupational Safety and Health, ensembles were sealed
in the enclosures more rapidly after removal in this study, and sampling in this study occurred over a longer
time period (24 hours as opposed to 15 minutes). The main carbonyl compound with concentrations which
appeared consistently higher post-exposure than pre-exposure was benzaldehyde, with acetaldehyde,
propionaldehyde, crotonaldehyde and butyraldehyde also detected on single ensembles. Formaldehyde
concentrations appeared to be greatest in off-gassing from new ensembles, which may be as a result of the
formaldehyde used to manufacture the thermally resistant fibres from which structural firefighting ensembles
are made (10)
. Of the acid gases measured, only hydrogen cyanide was consistently present in post-exposure
air samples. Post-exposure concentrations of eight PAH compounds appeared higher than concentrations
observed pre-exposure, however no PAH compounds with molecular weights greater than 202 were detected
above reportable limits. Naphthalene was among the PAH compounds detected in apparently higher
concentrations in post-exposure off-gassing samples as compared with pre-exposure samples, despite not
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being detectable in deposition samples. This may be attributable to its greater volatility compared with other
PAHs, and indicate loss of naphthalene from sample swatches during transport or storage prior to analysis. It
should be noted that detection of the majority of compounds (such as methyl phenols and methoxyphenols)
to which “burnt smells” have been previously attributed (11-12)
were outside the scope of the analyses in this
study.
Off-gassing concentrations of all substances from the ensembles which were exposed to four hostile
attack evolutions were below the relevant exposure standards for the individual compounds. The compound
most closely approaching its exposure standard was hydrogen cyanide, with a maximum off-gassing
concentration of 1.3 mg/m3 (as compared with the Australian eight-hour time weighted average exposure
standard of 11 mg/m3). It should be noted that this concentration value (as with all off-gassing values in this
study) are averaged over 24 hours of measurement. Shorter-term exposure concentrations (for example eight
hour time weighted average or peak exposures) to the more volatile off-gassing compounds may be
underestimated by these results, as off-gassing of these compounds may be expected to be greatest at the
beginning of the measurement time frame. Although some PAHs are known human carcinogens (e.g.
benzo[a]pyrene), the majority of PAH compounds found in the off-gassing air samples are currently
considered “not classifiable as to their carcinogenicity to humans” (13)
. Naphthalene, however, is classified as
“possibly carcinogenic to humans” (14)
. It should be noted that the observed off-gassing concentrations
occurred in the context of recently-contaminated structural ensembles enclosed in a small unventilated space
without prior opportunity for airing. This indicates that storage of unlaundered structural firefighting
ensembles in kit bags or unventilated storage lockers immediately after use may create an unanticipated
(albeit brief) source of exposure for personnel when this container is next opened. Exposures from off-
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gassing ensembles in larger and/or more ventilated areas (such as inside appliance cabins, personal vehicles
or open ensemble storage spaces) would be generally lower due to dilution effects.
Post-laundering measurements for volatile organic and carbonyl compounds generally reduced to pre-
exposure levels, indicating that the laundering process was effective in returning concentrations to
approximately pre-exposure levels. The exception to this was one ensemble which appeared to retain
toluene. The same ensemble exhibited apparently elevated values of n-decane pre-exposure and post-
laundry, indicating that these readings may be intrinsic to this particular ensemble. While post-laundering
concentrations appeared substantially lower than post-exposure concentrations, for several of these
compounds the levels appeared to remain above observed pre-exposure levels. However, the small number
of samples meant that no statistical conclusions could be drawn regarding the completeness of the laundering
process in the removal of PAHs.
CONCLUSIONS
A number of studies (2-5)
have considered contamination of structural firefighting ensembles during
operational use or experimental fire scenarios. However, the characteristics of the accumulation of PAHs
depositing on the exterior of individual structural firefighting ensembles across multiple entries to fire
environments has not been previously measured. The results of this study indicate that for ensembles
without contamination from direct contact with surfaces, deposition of PAHs occurs at similar flux rates for
new and previously exposed ensembles for hostile attack firefighting evolutions. Total PAH deposition
across four evolutions for this type of firefighting environment reached levels of up to 28.8 µg/g of fabric.
These results support the suggestion that contamination of firefighter protective clothing increases with use.
Previous measurement of off-gassing of combustion products from ensembles after firefighting (3)
had
been limited to volatile organic compounds. This study has found similar concentrations of volatile organic
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compounds as measured in the previous study, but also found hydrogen cyanide and low molecular weight
PAHs from ensembles post-fire. All concentrations of measured compounds were below relevant exposure
standards for individual compounds. However, these results highlight the potential for off-gassing from
structural ensembles to be a source of later exposure to toxic combustion products, particularly when stored
in small unventilated spaces immediately after use.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Prompt laundering of protective clothing after use in firefighting operations and training is
recommended to reduce contamination loads and the potential for exposure to toxic combustion products
through dermal transfer or inhalation of gases and vapours. Further research relating to the potential impacts
of more frequent laundering on the long-term integrity of personal protective equipment, and hence its
lifespan, may be required.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the significant contributions made by the firefighters of Queensland
Fire and Emergency Services who participated in this study, especially the instructors of the Live Fire
Campus of the Queensland Combined Emergency Services Academy. They would also like to recognise the
assistance of Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services for the analysis of all samples.
This study was funded by the Queensland Fire and Rescue Service, now Queensland Fire and
Emergency Services. It involved monitoring of employees in the workplace environment, and was therefore
exempt from the requirement for institutional review board approval.
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13. International Agency for Research on Cancer: Some Non-heterocyclic Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbons and Some Related Exposures. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to
Humans, Volume 92. World Health Organisation, 2010.
14. International Agency for Research on Cancer: Some Traditional Herbal Medicines, Some
Mycotoxins, Naphthalene and Styrene. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to
Humans, Volume 82. World Health Organisation, 2002.
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FIGURE 1 Composite photograph of arrangement of particleboard fuel within hostile structural attack training structure
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FIGURE 2 Total PAH deposition concentrations (ng/cm2) for individual swatches by duration of exposure to the
firefighting environment (minutes) Dow
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TABLE I Deposition flux (ng/cm2/min) of PAHs onto structural firefighting ensembles during multiple hostile attack
evolutions
PAH compound Deposition fluxes
1 evolution (n = 3) 2 evolutions (n =
3)
3 evolutions (n
= 2) A
4 evolutions (n = 3)
Naphthalene < 0.08 < 0.04 < 0.03 < 0.02 – 0.05
Acenaphthylene 0.13 – 1.1 0.12 – 0.52 0.05 – 0.64 0.07 – 1.23
Acenaphthene < 0.08 < 0.04 < 0.03 < 0.02
Fluorene 0.10 – 0.63 0.09 – 0.31 0.04 – 0.38 0.07 – 0.59
Phenanthrene 1.9 – 6.8 1.4 – 3.9 0.41 – 4.1 1.7 – 3.5
Anthracene 0.34 – 1.5 0.28 – 0.79 0.08 – 0.94 0.32 – 0.94
Fluoranthene 0.86 – 3.1 1.3 – 2.2 0.69 – 3.1 1.6 – 2.1
Pyrene 0.83 – 3.0 1.3 – 1.9 0.71 – 2.6 1.6 – 2.0
benz[a]anthracene < 0.06 – 0.55 0.23 – 0.31 0.21 – 0.79 0.29 – 0.33
Chrysene < 0.06 – 0.49 0.20 – 0.32 0.21 – 0.71 0.25 – 3.5
benzo[b+k]fluoranthene 0.11 – 0.54 0.23 – 0.40 0.36 – 0.89 0.32 – 0.44
Perylene < 0.08 < 0.04 < 0.02 – 0.08 < 0.02 – 0.05
benzo[a]pyrene 0.09 – 0.33 0.12 – 0.25 0.21 – 0.58 0.21 – 0.29
benzo[e]pyrene < 0.06 – 0.16 < 0.04 – 0.11 0.12 – 0.28 0.13 – 0.14
indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene < 0.08 < 0.04 – 0.11 0.09 – 0.24 0.08 – 0.13
dibenz[a,h]anthracene < 0.08 < 0.04 < 0.03 < 0.02
benzo[g,h,i]perylene < 0.06 – 0.15 < 0.04 – 0.10 0.14 – 0.29 0.10 – 0.20
Total PAH 4.3 – 16 5.8 – 10 3.3 – 16 6.7 - 12
A One swatch became dislodged during firefighting operations
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TABLE II Concentrations (µg/m3) of volatile organic and carbonyl compounds pre-exposure
and post-exposure to four hostile attack evolutions, as well as post-laundering
Compound Pre-exposure
(n = 3)
Post-exposure
(n = 3)
Post-laundering
(n = 3)
benzene 0.6 – 4.4 13 – > 88 A < 0.4 – 0.7
toluene 4.3 – 4.9 38 – 80 1.3 - > 18 A
ethyl benzene 1.1 – 2.1 1.7 – 15 0.9 – 2.4
xylenes (total) 3.0 – 7.3 7.7 – 20 3.6 – 7.9
styrene 2.1 – 3.5 41 - > 88 A 1.3 – 3.9
trimethyl benzenes (total) 1.8 – 3.9 7.9 – 27 3.0 – 3.4
pentane < 0.4 – 1.4 < 0.7 – 16 < 0.4 – 1.6
n-hexane 2.9 – 6.9 < 0.7 – 4.4 0.5 – 5.8
n-heptane 1.2 – 5.5 0.9 – 1.4 < 0.6 – 2.6
n-octane 0.9 – 1.6 < 0.4 – 2.9 < 0.4 – 1.2
n-nonane < 0.5 – 1.4 0.8 – 5.8 0.6 – 1.5
n-decane < 0.5 – 19 < 0.4 – 26 < 0.6 - > 18 A
methyl cyclohexane 0.8 – 6.1 < 0.7 < 0.4 – 3.3
dichloromethane < 0.4 – 1.5 < 0.7 < 0.4 – 0.8
trichloromethane < 0.5 < 0.7 < 0.4 – 3.0
1,1,1-trichloroethane < 0.5 < 0.7 < 0.6
trichloroethene 1.1 – 3.1 < 0.7 – 2.0 < 0.6
1,1,2-trichloroethane < 0.5 < 0.7 < 0.4 – 0.9
tetrachloroethylene < 0.4 - 1 < 0.7 < 0.6
2-butanone 1.8 – 4.3 3.8 - > 88 A < 0.4 – 1.5
ethyl acetate 3.2 – 4.6 < 0.7 – 2.5 < 0.4 – 0.8
methyl methacrylate < 0.4 – 1.8 0.8 – 3.5 < 0.4 – 1.1
methyl isobutyl ketone 1.2 – 1.5 2.4 - 15 < 0.4 – 0.8
formaldehyde 23 – 51 14 – 26 8 – 22
acetaldehyde 10 – 16 4 – 160 20 – 25
acetone 2 – 5 < 4 2 – 14
propionaldehyde 1 – 3 < 3 – 20 2 – 4
crotonaldehyde < 1 1 – 11 < 1
methacrolein < 2 < 2 – 2 < 2
butyraldehyde 2 – 4 < 2 – 13 3 – 4
benzaldehyde 2 – 4 20 – 90 1 – 3
valeraldehyde 2 – 3 < 9 < 3 – 3
p-tolualdehyde < 1 – 1 < 3 < 1
hexaldehyde 8 – 10 1 – 7 10 – 15
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A Result exceeded calibration range of instrument
Results are presented for concentrations measured over 24 hours prior to first use of the
ensembles (“pre-exposure”), after exposure of the ensembles to four consecutive hostile attack
evolutions (“post-exposure”), and after cleaning as per manufacturer’s recommendations (“post-
laundering”).
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TABLE III Concentrations (µg/m3) of PAHs pre-exposure and post-exposure to four hostile
attack evolutions, as well as post-laundering
PAH Pre-exposure
(n = 2)
Post-exposure
(n = 3)
Post-laundering
(n = 3)
naphthalene 0.10 – 0.11 1.12 – 2.38 0.04 – 0.21
acenaphthylene < 0.02 – 0.02 1.16 – 2.70 0.11 – 0.43
acenaphthene < 0.02 0.12 – 0.19 < 0.02 – 0.04
fluorene 0.02 0.44 – 0.83 0.05 – 0.13
phenanthrene 0.03 – 0.04 0.91 – 1.44 0.09 – 0.18
anthracene < 0.02 0.20 – 0.31 0.02 – 0.04
fluoranthene < 0.02 0.10 – 0.22 0.02 – 0.03
pyrene < 0.02 0.08 – 0.18 0.02 – 0.03
Results are presented for concentrations measured over 24 hours prior to first use of the
ensembles (“pre-exposure”), after exposure of the ensembles to four consecutive hostile attack
evolutions (“post-exposure”), and after cleaning as per manufacturer’s recommendations (“post-
laundering”).
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