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8/11/2019 Of Obligations and Necessities
1/32
Cdkeudstdfs 16:
Lj L`cdeatdlks akh Kgfgssdtdgs9
A Flmparatdvg lj Iapakgsg L`cdeatdlk Mlhacs akh
Xaeacle Mlhac Zgr`s oadcakeak akh hapat
^rgsgktgh tl9
^rlj. Mary Akk @aflclh
Cdkeudstdfs 16:|XXb 19>>096>
^rgsgktgh `y9
Zgrlkdfa Acmgdha
@A Cdkeudstdfs
0>1>-1>:11
8/11/2019 Of Obligations and Necessities
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@afoerlukh lj tbg Vtuhy
Mlhacdty ds egkgraccy hgjdkgh as tbg lpdkdlk akh attdtuhg lj a spgaogr tlwarhs a vgr` (Cylks dk ^acmgr
144>). Dt may `g gxprgssgh `y gdtbgr vgr`ac lr klk-vgr`ac mgaks lr `y a flm`dkatdlk lr flm`dkatdlks lj
`ltb. Jlr tbds rgaslk, dt was fcadmgh tbat Xbgrg ds tbus kl sdkecg pcafg dk tbg fcausg wbgrg mlhacdty ds
clfatgh (Baccdhay 145> dk Blyg 1445). Afflrhdke tl Eluch (0>11), mlhac vgr`s bavg kl mgakdke akh
tbgsg cgxdfac dtgms arg usgh tl bgcpvgr`s gxprgss a mgakdke. Xbgrg arg twl sgmaktdfaccy jukhamgktac
odkhs lj mlhacdty9 gpdstgmdf akh hglktdf. Gpdstgmdf mlhacdty ds usgh dk rgcatdlk tl tbg mattgrs lj
oklwcgheg lr `gcdgj lk wbdfb `asds spgaogrs gxprgss tbgdr iuhemgkts a`lut statgs lj ajjadrs, gvgkts lr
aftdlks. Dt ds sadh tl `g usgh dk flkvgydke tbg spgaogrs su`igftdvg vdgw lj tbg wlrch (Blyg 1445) akh ds
klt flkfgrkgh wdtb l`igftdvg vgrdjda`dcdty dk tbg cdebt lj oklwcgheg (^acmgr 144>). Hglktdf mlhacdty ds
flkfgrkgh wdtb tbg plssd`dcdty akh kgfgssdty lj afts dk tgrms lj wbdfb tbg spgaogr edvgs pgrmdssdlk lr cays
ak l`cdeatdlk jlr tbg aftdlk tl `g rgacdzgh at slmg pldkt dk tbg juturg (Blyg 1445). Dk tbds stuhy, hglktdf
mlhacs sbacc `g rgjgrrgh tl as l`cdeatdlk mlhacs.
Dk Xaeacle, mlhacdty ds ljtgk sblwk tbrlueb mllhwbdfb ds jlrmaccy hgjdkgh as a mlrpblsyktaftdf
fatgelry aodk tl tgksg akh aspgft (Blyg 1445). Xaeacle acsl bas mlhac vgr`s `ut arg fbaraftgrdzgh `y tbg
cdtgraturg as psguhl-vgr`s (Vfbafbtgr Ltakgs 1426), aclke wdtb maaardakhpwghg. Vfbafbtgr akh Ltakgs
(1426) bavg hgjdkgh psguhl-vgr`s as a smacc fcass lj ahigftdvacs, wbdfb bavg vgr`-cdog mgakdkes, wbdfb
ukcdog egkudkg vgr`s arg dkfapa`cg lj dkjcgftdlk tl sblw vardatdlk dk aspgft. Blwgvgr, dk a stuhy lj
Va``aeb (0>16), hapatds klt gxaftcy flksdhgrgh as a mlhac sdkfg dt ds acways jlukh `gjlrg a vgr`,
tbgrgjlrg, fcadmdke tbat tbds cgxdfac dtgm ds a bdeb ahvgr`.
Dk tbg Iapakgsg cakeuaeg, auxdcdary vgr`s arg hdvdhgh dktl mlhac akh klk-mlhac auxdcdary vgr`s (Oatlu,
0>>:). Xbgsg auxdcdary vgr`s bavg `ggk fatgelrdzgh akh summardzgh `y Oatlu as sggk dk tbg ta`cg `gclw.
8/11/2019 Of Obligations and Necessities
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Fatgelrdzatdlk lj Auxdcdary Zgr`s (Oatlu, 0>>:)
Vdekdjdfakfg lj tbg Vtuhy
As Iapakgsg cgarkgrs, wg acc oklw tbat tbgrg arg sgvgrac mlhacs `gdke usgh dk tbg Iapakgsg cakeuaeg.
Xbgsg mlhacs arg erlupgh tlegtbgr afflrhdke tl wbat tbgy dmpcy dk sgktgkfgs wbgk tbgy arg dk usg.
Blwgvgr, tbds mgtblh lj summardzatdlk bas cgh tl a hdjjdfuct fasg jlr a cakeuaeg cgarkgr lj Iapakgsg, tbat
ds, slmg lj tbg mlhacs `gclkedke tl tbg samg erlup fak kl clkegr `g hdjjgrgktdatgh jrlm gafb ltbgr,
rgsuctdke tl tbgm lkcy gdke pgrfgdvgh tl g tbg actgrkatdvg jlrms lj lkg akltbgr. Akltbgr rgsuct lj tbg
erlupdkes lj mlhacs ds tbat tbg mlhacs wbdfb arg oklwk tl bavg muctdpcg jukftdlks arg `gdke kgecgftgh
akh cgjt ukerlupgh. Xbg cattgr sggms tl appcy tl tbg mlhacs, oltl haakh mlkl ha. Jlr cakeuaeg cgarkgrs,
tbgsg twl erammar pattgrks arg usgh jlr tbg klmdkacdzatdlk lj vgr`s, akh acsl jlr gmpbasds lk a statgmgkt.Xbat ds wbat tbgy usuaccy l`sgrvg, akh tbat ds wbat tbgy usuaccy appcy dk tbgdr praftdfg lj tbg stuhy. Xbgy
hl klt edvg as mufb jlfus, blwgvgr, lk tbg ltbgr usgs lj tbgsg twl pattgrks.
Dk erammar tgxt`llos, oltl haakh mlkl habah `ggk ukhgr tbg samg fatgelry as `god ha. Xbds dmpcdgs
tbat tbgy bavg sdmdcar jukftdlks akh usaegs wdtb `god ha, akh plssd`cy, tbg gxprgssdlk lj l`cdeatlry aftdlk
ds lkg lj tblsg jukftdlks tbat tbgy bavg a flmmlkacdty wdtb. Xbds tbgk edvgs lut tbg qugstdlk lj wbgtbgr
tbgy rgaccy fluch `g flksdhgrgh as auxdcdary vgr`s wbdfb gxprgss l`cdeatlry aftdlk dk tbg samg way as
tbgy flksdhgr `god hatl g. Xbds assumptdlk was tbgk afogh up y a stuhy y Karrle (0>>4) rgearhdke
mlhacs wbgk sbg bas fatgelrdzgh tbgsg twl as l`cdeatdlk (lr dk bgr wlrhs, hglktdf mlhacs). Xbds stuhy
adms tl gxpclrg tbg usaegs lj oltl haakh mlkl hatbrlueb tbg flktgxts dk wbdfb tbgy arg usgh dk lrhgr tl
attgmpt tl flkjdrm tbds fcadm. Akh dk hldke sl, tbds stuhy acsl adms tl hdjjgrgktdatg tbgsg pattgrks wdtb tbg
ltbgr mlhacs gxprgssdke l`cdeatdlk as fatgelrdzgh `y Oatlu (0>>:), partdfucarcy kaogrg`a karakadakh
zaru wl gkad, dk tgrms lj tbg hgergg lj l`cdeatlrdkgss akh dkstakfgs dk wbdfb tbgy arg usgh dj tbgy rgaccy
may `g flksdhgrgh as mlhacs gxprgssdke l`cdeatlry aftdlk.
Acsl, dt fluch `g l`sgrvgh tbat flmpargh tl Iapakgsg, tbgrg ds cgss kum`gr lj l`cdeatdlk mlhacs dk
Xaeacle, kamgcy oadcakeakakh hapat. Vdkfg tbgrg arg lkcy twl mlhacs gxprgssdke l`cdeatdlk dk Xaeacle.Dt ds a wlkhgr blw tbg twl arg tl `g cdogkgh wdtb tblsg lj tbg Iapakgsg cakeuaeg wbdfb arg tl `g stuhdgh
dk tbds rgsgarfb, akh blw tbgsg mlhacs arg eldke tl g dktgrprgtgh dk Xaeacle.
As jlr praftdfac sdekdjdfakfg, tbds may bgcp cakeuaeg cgarkgrs akh trakscatlrs, akh may`g gvgk tgafbgrs,
may `g a`cg tl erasp a `gttgr oklwcgheg lj tbg mgakdkes akh flktgxts dk wbdfb tbgsg mlhacs arg usgh.
Xbds stuhy may `g a`cg tl flkvgy akh rgprgsgkt tbg flkfgpts lj tbg mlhacdty.
8/11/2019 Of Obligations and Necessities
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L`igftdvg
Xbds stuhy adms tl flkjdrm wbgtbgr oltl ha akh mlkl hamay lr may klt `g flksdhgrgh as l`cdeatdlk
mlhacs akh tbg rgstrdftdlks (dj tbgrgs aky) lj usdke tbgm as l`cdeatlry mlhacs.Dk cdkg wdtb tbds, tbgsg twl
sbacc `g flmpargh wdtb ltbgr l`cdeatdlk mlhacs, `god ha, kaogrg`a karakad, akhzaru wl gkad, tl `g a`cg
tl gxpcadk tbg hdjjgrgkfgs lj tbg l`cdeatdlk mlhacs dk tgrms lj jukftdlk, mgakdke, akh cgvgc lj l`cdeatdlk.
Xbds stuhy acsl adms tl flmparg tbg jukftdlk akh mgakdke lj tbg Iapakgsg l`cdeatdlk mlhacs tl tblsg lj
Xaeacle tl vgrdjy wbgtbgr tbgsg mlhacs arg paraccgc wdtb gafb ltbgr. Xl afbdgvg tbds, tbg jukftdlk,
mgakdke, akh cgvgc lj l`cdeatdlk dk Xaeacle mlhacs sbacc acsl `g gxpcadkgh.
Mgtblhlcley
Hata jlr tbds stuhy sbacc g eatbgrgh jrlm tgxt`llos, llos akh tgxts rgahdcy avadca`cg lkcdkg tl g a`cg tl
akacyzg tbg flktgxt dk wbdfb tbgsg mlhacs arg prgsgkt. Xbrlueb tbg eatbgrgh hata, tbgdr usaeg, akh
hdjjgrgkfgs sbacc `g flmpargh akh akacyzgh tl prlhufg a wlrodke hgjdkdtdlk jlr gafb mlhac. Xbg mlhacs
sbacc g flmpargh tbrlueb a fgrtadk frdtgrda hgrdvgh jrlm hgjdkdtdlks eatbgrgh dk vardlus stuhdgs,
dkfcuhdke Oatlus, Karrles, akh Acjlksls. Xbg Iapakgsg hata sbacc `g rgdktgrprgtgh dktl Xaeacle tl `g
a`cg tl fluktgrfbgfo akh hggpgk tbg stuhy lj tbg flktgxts lj tbg sgktgkfgs wdtb tbg bgcp lj a Iapakgsg
dkjlrmakt fapa`cg lj spgaodke Xaeacle. Xbg tgxts afqudrgh sbacc `g flmpargh wdtb tbg akacysds lj gafb
mlhac. Erammatdfacdty lj tbg trakscatdlk was klt edvgk jlfus dk tbg dkjlrmakt wlro, ratbgr, jlfusdke lk
blw tbg mlhacs arg dktgrprgtgh jrlm Iapakgsg tl Xaeacle.
Xbg dkjlrmakt jlr tbds stuhy ds furrgktcy a erahuatg sfbllc (mastgrac) stuhgkt lj Lsaoa Wkdvgrsdty
mailrdke dk Jlrgdek Cakeuaegs, madkcy jlfusdke lk Xaeacle akh Dcloakl. Bg bas staygh dk tbg
^bdcdppdkgs jlr 8 mlktbs.
Cdst lj A``rgvdatdlks
a`c a`dcdtatdvg jlrm
ahk ahklmdkac jlrm ()
faus fausatdvg
FLM^ flmpcgmgktdzgr (partdfcg)
flkh flkhdtdlkac jlrm ()
flki flkiukftdvg jlrm ()
FL^ flpuca
HGM hgmlkstratdvgs (1= 0= 6=)
hgs (mlhacs gxprgssdke) hgsdrg
HDP hdrgftdlk lj aftdlk (partdfcg)
HL hdrgft l`igft (partdfcg)
gxdst gxdstgktdac vgr`
8/11/2019 Of Obligations and Necessities
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DHGK dhgktdjdgr (partdfcg)
Dmp dmpgrjgftdvg
dkst dkstrumgkt (fausg) marogr
CO cdkogr (partdfcg)
CLF clfatdvg partdfcg
kge kgeatdvg jlrm ()
klm klmdkacdzgr (partdfcg)
klkp klk-past
l`cde l`cdeatlry mlhacs
past past jlrm
pgrj pgrjgftdvg
prgh prghdfatdvg jlrm ()
VG sgktgkfg gkhdke partdfcg
VW@I su`igft-marodke partdfcg
XGM^ tgmplrac partdfcg
XL^ tlpdf-marodke partdfcg
vlc vlcdtdlkac jlrm
Z^ vgr` pbrasg
Hata akh Akacysds
D. Iapakgsg Mlhacs Gxprgssdke Huty/L`cdeatdlk
1.
@god ha
Xbds mlhac ds lkg lj tbg tgrms rgtadkgh jrlm tbg Fcassdfac Iapakgsg cakeuaeg. @gfausg lj tbds, dt ahhs a
slmgwbat jlrfgjuc tlkg tl ak l`cdeatdlk (Acjlksl, 14::). Dt ds acsl usgh mlrg ljtgk dk cdtgrary cakeuaeg
dmpcydke tbat tbds sbluch `g rgearhgh as su`staktdvac.
Afflrhdke tl Oatlu (0>>:), `godmay bavg `ggk hgrdvgh as tbg ahklmdkatdvg jlrm () lj tbg
Fcassdfac Iapakgsg tgrm `gsd. Dt ds tbgk attafbgh tl tbg cdebt vgr` ha, wbdfb dmpcdgs tbat tbg jlrm lj tbg
mlhac may `g fbakegh tbrlueb tbds vgr`.
@god ha lkcy flmplukhs wdtb vgr`s dk tbgdr prghdfatdvg jlrm (). Dk Fcassdfac Iapakgsgsuds tbg
prghdfatdvg jlrm ljsuru, tbgrgjlrg, dt ds plssd`cg tl dktgrfbakegsuru `godakhsu `godwdtblut bavdke tl
ajjgft tbg mgakdke lj tbg sgktgkfg (Oatlu, 0>>:).
Dt ds sadh tbat tbds ds usgh tl gxprgss klt tbat lj mlrac l`cdeatdlk `ut mlrac gxpgftatdlk, slmgtdmgs gvgk
katurac gxpgftatdlk (Acjlksl, 14::). Xbds mlhac dmpcdgs tbat tbg aftdlk statgh tl `g pgrjlrmgh dk tbg
sgktgkfg ds lkg wbdfb gxdst dk flmmlk oklwcgheg akh flmmlk sgksg (Oatlu, 0>>:).
Xbds mlhac ds kgeatgh tbrlueb flkiueatdke tbg cdebt vgr` hadktl dts kgeatdvg jlrm,ia kadakh hg ba kad.
8/11/2019 Of Obligations and Necessities
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(1) 1
ufbd-kl bdtl-kd sluhak-su.ru god-hat.ta
dk-erlup-CO pgrslk-HDP flksuct-hl.prgh l`cde.past
(0)
1
slkka tlolrl-bg do-u `god-ia-kad
0HGM.CO.cdog.ahk pcafg HDP el.prgh l`cde.kge.klkp
(6)
1
slkka oltl-wl su.ru `god-ia-ka-oat.ta
0HGM.cdog.ahk tbdke-HL hl.prgh l`cde-kge.past
(8) 1
bdtl-kl bakasd-ba yl.ou odo.u `god.ha
pgrslk-CO taco-XL^ ellh.flki cdstgk.prgh l`cde.klkp
(7)1
mlttl yl.ou iuk`d-su.ru `god-hat.ta
Mlrg ellh.flki prgparg-hl.prgh
l`cde.past
Jrlm acc tbg gxampcgs cdstgh a`lvg, dt fluch `g kltdfgh tbat tbg aftdlks tl `g pgrjlrmgh arg tblsg tbat arg
`gcdgvgh y tbg spgaogr tl g tbg gxpgftatdlk lj slfdgty. Jlr gxampcg, sgktgkfg (8) statgs tbat lkg must
cdstgk tl ltbgrs wgcc wbdfb ds sadh tl `g ak dkhdvdhuacs l`cdeatdlk, lr ratbgr, wbat ds gxpgftgh lj tbgm tl
hl wbgk dktgraftdke wdtb ltbgr pglpcg afflrhdke tl tbg spgaogr. Xbg sgktgkfg pattgrk may acsl `g usgh tl
gxprgss wbat lkg sbluch bavg hlkg, sufb as dk (1) wbgrgdk tbg spgaogr statgh tbat bg sbluch bavg
flksuctgh wdtb bds jamdcy. Ug fluch, tbgrgjlrg, say tbat tbds may `g pgrfgdvgh as ak ahvdfg lr a
sueegstdlk tl tbg lkg gdke splogk tl lr tbg lkg tbg spgaogr ds rgjgrrdke tl. Xbgy fluch g ahhrgssgh tl ak
dkhdvdhuac as tbat lj a pgrslkac ahvdfg, blwgvgr, `god ha, jlr tbg mlst part ds usgh as wbgk ak ahvdfg ds
appcdfa`cg klt lkcy tl ak dkhdvdhuac `gfausg, as mgktdlkgh garcdgr, tbds pgrtadks tl flmmlk oklwcgheg. Dk
cdkg wdtb tbds, dt ds ukhgrstakha`cg tbat Maodkl akh Xsutsud (0>>1) statgh tbat tbds gxprgssdlk, wbgk
splogk, ds klt usgh `y slmglkg wbl ds ylukegr lr lj a clwgr status tbak tbg lkg `gdke ahhrgssgh tl.
Apart jrlm tbds partdfucar usaeg, `godmay acsl `g usgh tl mlhdjy kluks, akh sgrvg as attrd`utgs lj a
sgktgkfg.
(:) 1
8/11/2019 Of Obligations and Necessities
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wara.u-`god tlolrl ia kad zl
caueb.prgh -l`cde pcafg FL^.flki kge VG
(5) 1
olu.du oltl-ba olhlml-kd bakas.u-`god rdyuu-ea kadcdog tbds tbdke.XL^ fbdch-HDP taco.prgh -l`cde rgaslk-DHGK kge.prgh.klkp
(2) 1
olrg-ba mdkka-ea oakeag.ru-`god mlkhad hg.su
1HGM-XL^ gvgrylkg-DHGK tbdko.prgh -l`cde prl`cgm FL^.klkp
Xbg gxprgssdlk `goarazuds acsl usgh dk Iapakgsg. Dt ds tbg kgeatgh jlrm lj tbg actgrkatg lj `godwbdfb ds
`goaru. Dt ds acsl ak gxprgssdlk wbdfb bas `ggk rgtadkgh jrlm tbg Fcassdfac Iapakgsg gxprgssdke tbat
slmglkg ds klt pgrmdttgh tl hl slmgtbdke. Blwgvgr dt ds klt as flmmlkcy usgh `god ha. Wkcdog `god hawbdfb ds stdcc usgh dk spggfb akh tgxts jrlm tdmg tl tdmg, `goarazuds lkcy oklwk tl `g usgh lk kltdfgs
sufb as pdfogt sdeks akh `uccgtdk `larhs tl dkjlrm pglpcg lj wbat tbgy arg ukacclwgh tl hl.@goarazu acsl
attafbgs tl tbg prghdfatdvg jlrm lj tbg vgr`. (Xlmlmatsu, 0>1>)
(4) 2
muoasd-ba olol-kd olol-hg lyle.u-`goar.azu tl oa-dta tatgjuha-ea atta
past-XL^ bgrg-CLF bgrg-CLF swdm.prgh-l`cde.kge FLM^ wrdtg.pgrj kltdfg.DHGK gxdst.past
(1>)
2
ylu-kl kad mlkl ol-kl bgya-kd badr.u-`goar.azu
usg- VW@I kge pgrslk 1HGM-CO rllm -CLF gktgr.prgh-l`cde.kge
(11)
Magha-sak-kl ylu-ka `araksu oakoaou-kl aru bdtl-ba ol-kl oad-kd tlttg
Magha-Mr/Ms-CO cdog-ahk `acakfg sgksg-VW@I gxdst.prgh pgrslk-XL^ 1HGM-CO mggt-rgearhdke
2
oao.u `goar.azaru slkzad ha
cafo.prgh l`cde.kge.flki gxdstgkfg FL^.klkp
Dt fluch `g l`sgrvgh tbat `goarazuds acways at tbg prghdfatg plsdtdlk. Ubgk dt ds usgh as ak ahigftdvg, lr
pcafgh `gjlrg a kluk, `goarazaruds usgh, sufb as tbat lj (11).
0.
Kaogrg`a karakad
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Xbds mlhac ds hgrdvgh jrlm vardlus flmplkgkts9 tbg kgeatdlk wlrh kad(attafbgh tl a vgr`), tbg
flkhdtdlkac jlrm lj tbg kgeatdlk wlrh, -ogrg`a, akh lkg lj tbg fblsgk jgw pbrasgs. Vlmg lj tbgsg pbrasgs
arg karakad, dogkad, hamg ha, mazud, gtf. Acc lj wbdfb ds hgjdkgh as `gdke uk`gflmdke. Xbgy, blwgvgr,
may gxprgss hdjjgrgkt flktgxts wbgk tbgy arg usgh.Karakadds tbg mlst flmmlkcy usgh lut lj tbg sgt lj
wlrhs usgh. Dt ds sadh tl `g usgh wbgk tbg tlpdf lj tbg sgktgkfg ds tbg spgaogr (Acjlksl, 14::), akh dt acsl
gmpbasdzgs tbg egkgracdty akh tbg dkgvdta`dcdty lj tbg kgfgssdty (Karrle, 0>>4). Lk tbg ltbgr bakh, dogkad
ds mlrg ljtgk usgh wbgk spgaodke lj tbg sgflkh pgrslk (Acjlksl, 14::), akh dt ds acsl mlrg pgrslkac sdkfg
dt cgavgs lpgk a fbldfg akh dmpcdgs mlrac rgsplksd`dcdty (Karrle, 0>>4).
Dk tbg gkh, tbgsg wlrhs arg stdcc dktgrfbakega`cg wdtb gafb ltbgr. Kl mattgr wbdfb lj tbgsg wlrhs lkg
prgjgrs tl usg, cdtgraccy, tbgy mgak Dj (aftdlk) ds klt hlkg, dt ds uk`gflmdke, (Acjlksl, 14::). Udtb tbds,
dt may `g assumgh tbat tbds gxprgssdlk ds usgh as ak dkhdrgft way lj sblwdke l`cdeatdlk.
Xbds mlhacs mgakdke rakeg ds rgcatdvgcy `rlah. Klt lkcy ds dt usgh jlr ak aft lkg ds gxpgftgh tl aft uplk
(gxtgrkac kgfgssdty) `ut dt may acsl `g usgh tl rgjgr tl ak aft wbdfb lkg kgghs tl hl (dktgrkac kgfgssdty).
Xbds mlhac flvgrskgfgssdty afflrhdke tl slfdac rucgs as dk (10),kgfgssdty afflrhdke tl fustlm as dk
(16) akh (1:),kgfgssdty jlcclwdke a pcak as dk (17),praftdfac kgfgssdty as dk (18),tgfbkdfac
kgfgssdty as dk (15), akhkgfgssdty jlcclwdke tbg prgssurg jrlm a sdtuatdlk as dk (12) (Karrle, 0>>4920).
(10) 1
bakas.u oltl`a-ba tgdkgd-hg ka.ogrg`a kar.akadtaco.prgh wlrh-XL^ plcdtg-FL^.flki kge.flkh `gflmg.kge.klkp
(16) 1
kloou-wl sd.tg badr.aka.ogrg`a do.g.kad
oklfo-HL hl.flki gktgr.kge.flkh el.a`c.kge.klkp
(18) 1
odmd-ba ta`aol-wl yamg.ka.ogrg`a kar.akad
ylu-XL^ fdeargttg-HL stlp.kge.flkh `gflmg.kge.klkp
(17) 41
ou.id-mahgkd oagt.tg ol.ka.ogrg`a kar.akad
49>>-XGM^ rgturk.flki flmg.kge.flkh `gflmg.kge.klkp
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(1:) 1
aog.ta hla-ba tyaktl sdmg.ka.ogrg`a hamg-ha
lpgk.dmp hllr -XL^ prlpgrcy fclsg.kge.flkh `ah-FL^.klkp
(15)
1>
tlkkgru-tl d.u mlkl-ba akzgk-hg ka.ogrg`a kar.akad
tukkgc-FLM^ say.prgh tbdke -XL^ sajg-FL^.flki kge.flkh `gflmg.kge.klkp
(12) 01 1>
01 sgdod-kd tgodelu-suru ylu-kd oadoaou-sd.ka.ogrg`a kar.akad
01 fgktury-XGM^ flkjlrm-hl.prgh cdog.flki rgjlrm-hl.kge.flkh `gflmg.kge.klkp
Xbds mlhac ds usuaccy attafbgh tl tbg kgeatgh jlrm lj a vgr`s prghdfatdvg jlrm, `ut dt may acsl `g
attafbgh tl tbg tgdrujlrm lj tbg vgr`. Dk usdke tgdkaogrg`a karakad(tgdru+kaogrg`a karakad), tbg
sgktgkfg dmpcdgs tbat tbg vgr` ds a flkhdtdlk/quacdjdfatdlk lkg must bavg tl `g dk a fgrtadk statg cdog tbat lj
(14). Xbds sgktgkfg statgs tbat tl `g a`cg tl `gflmg ak appcdfakt, lkg must bavg passgh tbg dkvgstdeatdlk.
(14) 7
sdksgdsya-ba fblusa-kd eluoaou-sd.tgd.ka.ogrg`a kar.akad
appcdfakt-XL^ dkvgstdeatdlk-CLF pass-hl.prle.kge.flkh `gflmg.kge.klkp
6. Yaru wl gkad
Xbds mlhac ds lkcy attafbgh tl tbg flkiuftdvg jlrm () lj a vgr`. @ut wbgk attafbgh tl tbg drrgeucar
vgr`ssuruakh ouru, tbgy arg sadh tl `g flkiueatgh sdmdcarcy wdtb Fcassdfac Iapakgsg? tbat ds tbgy,
rgspgftdvgcy, `gflmgsgzaruakh olzaru.
Cdog kaogrg`a karakad, tbds mlhac may rgjgr tl a egkgrac l`cdeatdlk `ut dt acsl farrdgs a hdjjgrgkt mgakdke.
Cllodke at tbg tgxt, tbds cdtgraccy mgaks hl klt l`tadk klt tl (Karrle, 0>>4956). Mgakdke, tbat tbg
aftdlk tl `g pgrjlrmgh ds ukavldha`cg, edvdke lut tbg dmpcdfatdlk tbat tbds aftdlk ds klt slmgtbdke lkg
vlcuktardcy wakts tl pgrjlrm. Dk sblrt, tbds mlhac edvgs ergat gmpbasds lk tbg kgeatdvg flkkltatdlk lj tbg
dkgvdta`dcdty lj tbg kgfgssdty/l`cdeatdlk (Oatlu, 0>>:9:5).
(0>) 7
Xarlu-wl ju.eluoaou-tl sg.zaru-wl g.kad
Xarlu-HL klt.pass. hl.flki.kge-HL l`tadk.kge.klkp
(01) 2
8/11/2019 Of Obligations and Necessities
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ol-kl tgrg`d-ea olrg dilu olwarg-tara atarasdd-kl-wl oaw.a.zaru-wl g.kad ka
1HGM.CO tgcgvdsdlk.VW@I 1HGM lvgr hgstrly.flkh kgw.klm.HL `uy.flki.kge-HL l`tadk.kge.klkp VG
(00) 2
zuttl eamak-sd.tg od.ta ea ol.kl ilutad-ha-tl badsba.sak-kd do.a.zaru-wl g.kadacways gkhurg-hl.flki flmg.dmp `ut 1HGM.CO sdtuatdlk-FL^.prgh-flkh hgktdst.Mr/Ms-HDP el.kge.flki-HL l`tadk.kge.klkp
(06) 4
baba-ea `yluod-hg kyuudk-sd.ta-klhg od.olou-sg.zaru-wl g.kad
mltbgr-VW@I sdfo-dkst blspdtacdzatdlk-hl.past-`gfausg rgturk.fluktry-hl.flki.kge-HL l`tadk.kge.klkp
(08)
4
mad.`ak kgmur.g.kad-klhg ol-kl ousurd-wl klm.a.zaru-wl g.kad
gvgry.kdebt scggp.a`c.kge-`gfausg 1HGM-CO mghdfdkg-HL hrdko.flki.kge-HL l`tadk.kge.klkp
(07)
mdkka-hg odmg.ta odslou-ha-oara mamlr.a.zaru-wl g.kad
gvgrylkg-dkst hgfdhg.pgrj rucg-FL^-`gfausg prltgft.flki.kge-HL l`tadk.kge.klkp
Dk afflrhakfg wdtb tbds, sdkfg kaogrg`a karakadacsl gxprgssgs dkgvdta`dcdty, dt bas `ggk statgh tbat dt ds
plssd`cg tl fbakegzaru wl gkaddktl kaogrg`a karakaddk a sgktgkfg. @ut sdkfg kaogrg`a karakadedvgs
lut tbg flktgxt lj egkgracdty akh kgutracdty, dt ds klt plssd`cg jlr zaru wl gkadtl rgpcafg kaogrg`a
karakaddk a sgktgkfg.
8.
Mlkl ha
Mlkl ds a kluk rluebcy trakscatgh as a flkfrgtg tbdke. Xbds ds acsl sadh tl gxprgss tbg dhga lj dk tbg
katurg lj tbdkes, tbg way tbdkes katuraccy arg, slmgtbdke katurac, slmgtbdke
lrhdkary/klrmac/usuac/rgeucar/egkgrac, gtf. Xbg kluk mlklsgrvgs a erammatdfac jukftdlk dk sgktgkfgs,
`ut dk slmg fasgs, dts rgcgvakfg akh mgakdke dk tbg sgktgkfg wgaogks, akh tbg trakscatdlks lj tbg
sgktgkfgs sbacc `g tbg samg gvgk dj mlklbas klt `ggk usgh, cdog tbat lj tbg gxampcg gclw (Acjlksl,
14::). Ubgk usgh as a mlhac, tbg cdebt vgr` ha ds attafbgh tl mlkl.
5
Mlkgy hdsappgars qudfocy.
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Xbds gxprgssdlk ds usgh tl statg tbg dhga lj katurac jaft akh rgeucar bappgkdke. Dk tbg sgktgkfg a`lvg,
dt fluch `g l`sgrvgh tbat dt ds lkcy katurac jlr mlkgy tl `g spgkt qudfocy. Blwgvgr, dj mlkl hawas
hgcgtgh jrlm tbg sgktgkfg, tbg sgktgkfg wluch stdcc mgak tbg samg tbdke. Dt ds iust tbat tbg katuracdtylj
tbg lffurrgkfg wluch klt `g dmpcdgh. Xbg katuracdty lj ak lffurrgkfg ds usuaccy dmpcdgh wbgk tbg vgr`
attafbgh tl tbg mlhac ds ak dkvlcuktary aftdlk, lr aftdlks wbdfb arg klt hlkg at wdcc, cdog tbg gxampcg
a`lvg akh sgktgkfg (0:) (mgakdke @a`dgs fry). @ltb lj tbg aftdlks, kaou karu(tl hdsappgar) akh kaou
(tl fry) arg flksdhgrgh tl `g dkvlcuktary aftdlk sdkfg `ltb arg, jlr tbg mlst part, pgrjlrmgh ukwdccdkecy.
Xbat ds wby tbrlueb tbg mlhacs, `ltb lj tbgsg sgktgkfgs gxprgss tbg katuracdty lj tbg aftdlks.
(0:) 5
aoak`lu-ba ka.ou-mlkl.ha
`a`y-XL^ fry.prgh-l`cde.klkp
(05)
5
mdzu-ba blkrad bdouod-kd kaearg.ru-mlkl.hgsu
watgr-XL^ katuraccy hlwk-HDP jclw.prgh-l`cde
Xbds gxprgssdlk may acsl dmpcy tbat ak aftdlk ds wbat ds egkgraccy hlkg. Xbgrgjlrg, sdmdcar tl tbat lj
`god ha, tbds mlhac acsl gxprgssgs klt iust aky kgfgssdty `ut tblsg wbdfb arg oklwk tbrlueb flmmlk
sgksg. Ubgk tbds mlhac ds attafbgh tl tbg prghdfatdvg jlrm lj vgr`s gxprgssdke vlcuktary aftdlk (aftdlks
wbdfb arg usuaccy pgrjlrmgh at wdcc, sufb as basdru(tl ruk), bakasu(tl spgao), ayamaru(tl sggo
jlredvgkgss), gtf.), tbds tbgk edvgs lut tbg dmpcdfatdlk lj ak dkhdrgft flmmakh lr flrrgftdlk.
Xbds mlhac ds kgeatgh `y flkiueatdke tbg cdebt vgr` ha. Xbgrgjlrg, maodke dt mlkl hg ba kad.
(02)
1
suolsd eamak-su.ru-mlkl.ha
cdttcg gkhurg-hl.prgh-l`cde
(04) 1
lmdyaeg-wl mlrat.tara lrgd-wl d.u-mlkl.hgsu
sluvgkdr-HL rgfgdvg.flkh eratdtuhg-HL say.prgh-l`cde
(6>) 1
tlsbd tlt.ta loaasak-wl slkka-kd batarao.asg.ru-mlkl.hg.ba.kad
ygar taog.dmp mltbgr-HL 0HGM.CO.cdog-ahk. wlro.faus.prgh-l`cde.kge
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(61) 1
takdk-kl ogttgk-wl saeas.u mlkl.hg.ba.kad
ltbgrs-CO jauct-HL jdkh.prgh l`cde.kge
(60)
1>
slkka-kd bdtl-kl warueutd-wl d.u-mlkl.hg.ba.ardmasgk yl
0HGM.cdog.ahk-flki pgrslk-CO `ahmlutb-HL say.prgh-l`cde.kge VG
(66)
1>
ltlsdylrd-kd.ba mlttl yasasd.ou-su.ru-mlkl.ha yl
ylukegr-HDP.XL^ mlrg egktcg.flki-hl.prgh-l`cde VG
Dk tbgsg sgktgkfgs, dt fluch `g l`sgrvgh tbat ukcdog `god ha, tbg tlpdf lj tbg sgktgkfgs fakklt pldkt lut tl
iust a sdkecg pgrslk, ut dt pldkts lut tl a fgrtadk party/erlup lj pglpcg. Dt acsl fakklt g usgh dk spgfdjdfsdtuatdlks lkcy. Akltbgr rgstrdftdlk ds tbat dt ds klt usgh afflrhdke tl a spgaogrs iuhemgkt `ut lkcy usgh
tl gxprgss a egkgrdf statgmgkt. Dt fluch tbgk `g assumgh tbat tbds mlhac ds acsl usgh jlr egkgracdty, lr
ratbgr, tl rgmdkh pglpcg lj tbg slfdac klrms, tbg rucgs akh prdkfdpcgs mlracdty, akh, plssd`cy, gvgk cdjg.
Xbgsg may `g l`sgrvgh dk sgktgkfgs (02)(66). Actblueb (02) may `g pgrfgdvgh as tbat lj a pgrslkac
warkdke lr a egkgrac ahvdfg, dt must `g kltgh tbat tbds statgmgkt ds uttgrgh tl a erlup lj pglpcg. Vl, tbds
sgktgkfg sdekdjdgs tbat pglpcg must `g a`cg tl pgrsgvgrg akh `g patdgkt wbgk fdrfumstakfgs facc jlr dt. (04),
(6>) akh (61) acc sdekdjy praftdfgs wbdfb arg supplsghcy hlkg y pglpcg tl aft apprlprdatgcy dk tbg gygs lj
a slfdgty sdkfg dt ds wbat ds gxpgftgh lj tbgm. Xbgsg statgmgkts arg wbat wg may flksdhgr rgmdkhgrs ljmlrac l`cdeatdlk/huty.
7.
Oltl (ha)
As a kluk, oltl, ukcdog mlkl, dt ds dktgrprgtgh as ak a`straft tbdke (Acjlksl, 14::). Dt ds acsl sadh tbat dt
gxprgssgs a jaft(Tamaedwa, 1480).
Ubgk vdgwdke tbgsg sgktgkfgs as jafts, dt edvgs lut a jggc lj strlkecy l`cdedke lkg tl hl a fgrtadk aftdlk.
Blwgvgr, dt ds hlkg sl dkhdrgftcy sdkfg dt acsl flkvgys tbat tbg aftdlk tl g pgrjlrmgh ds mgrgcy ak
ahvdfg/sueegstdlk tbat slmgtbdke ds mlst cdogcy tbg gst waylj afbdgvdke a elac. Afflrhdke tl Karrle,
tbds mlhac gxprgssgs strdft l`cdeatdlk.Xbds mlhac acways attafbgs tl tbg prghdfatdvg jlrm lj tbg vgr`,
akh dt ds kgeatgh `y flkiueatdke tbg vgr` dktl dts kgeatdvg prghdfatdvg jlrm.
8/11/2019 Of Obligations and Necessities
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Xbds mlhac ds acsl sadh tl `g ak dmpgratdvg, fclsgcy rgcatgh tl tbg pbrasgsdtg ba karakad(Maodkl, 0>>1),
mgakdke tbat tbds mlhac edvgs a bdebgr cgvgc lj l`cdeatdlk flmpargh tl tbat lj kaogrg`a karakadas statgh
`y Acjlksl (14::) wbgk bg mgktdlkgh a`lut l`cdeatdlk tbrlueb flkhdtdlkacs.
(68) 2
kdblkel-ea uma.ou kar.dta.ogrg`a mlttl `gkoylu-su.ru-oltl.hgsu
Iapakgsg-VW@I ellh.flki `gflmg.hgs.flkh mlrg stuhy.hl.prgh.l`cde
(67) 2
kakdeltl-ml sbdppad-wl lslrg.zu-kd yat.tg-md.ruoltl.ha
akytbdke jadcurg-HL jgar.kge-flki hl.flki-try.prgh.l`cde
(6:) 2
loakg-wl tamg.tad-kl-hgsylu. slrgoara muhahuoad-wl sd.kad-oltl.hgsu
mlkgy-HL savg.hgs-klm-FL^.vlc tbgk wastdke (mlkgy)-HL hl.kge.prgh-l`cde
(65) 4
tuoargta-tlod-ba tlkdoaou baya.ou kg.ru-oltl.ha
tdrg.pgrj-tdmg-XL^ at.aky.ratg garcy.flki scggp.prgh-l`cde
(62) 4
yasg.tad-kara oaksylou-sd.kad-oltl.hgsu ylclsg.wgdebt.hgs-flkh skafodke-hl.kge.prgh-l`cde VG
(64) 4
olhlml-ba kl`dkl`d asl`.asg.ru-oltl.hgsu
fbdch-XL^ fargjrgg pcay.faus.prgh-l`cde
Dk (68) dt fluch `g l`sgrvgh tbat tbg spgaogr ds tgccdke lkg tl stuhy mlrg dj tbgy wakt tl `g mlrg prljdfdgkt
dk Iapakgsg. Vdkfg dt ds wbat tbg spgaogr iuhegs as tbg `gst way tl `gflmg `gttgr at usdke tbg cakeuaeg, dt
ds, dk a way, trgatgh as a flmmakh.
Actblueb dt ds mgktdlkgh garcdgr tbat tbds mlhac gxprgssgs ahvdfg akh sueegstdlk, tbds mlhac may gxprgss
a flmmakh `ut lkcy tbrlueb rucgs akh rgeucatdlks lkg must jlcclw. Dt ds usuaccy gxprgssgh as oltllkcy.
(8>) 2
8/11/2019 Of Obligations and Necessities
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sbuouhad-kl saou`uk-ba dtutu-mahgkd Odmura-sgksgd-kd has-u-oltl
blmgwlro.CO flmplsdtdlk.XL^ 7tbhay.XGM^ Odmura.tgafbgr.HDP pass.prgh.l`cde
(81) 11 15 10 IP 2
iuudtd-eatu iuukaka-kdtd iuukd-id-kd IP tamatd-god-kl oadsatueutd-mag-kd sbuuelu-kl-oltlKlvgm`gr 15tbhay (Xugshay) 109>>.XGM^ IP Xamafbd.statdlk.CO tdfogt eatg.jrlkt.CLF eatbgr.CO.l`cde
(80) :
saod-kd oakarazu tggpu-wl od.ou-oltl
`gjlrg dmmghdatgcy tapg-HL cdstgk.prgh-l`cde
(86)
17:
bappylu-ba 17juk dkad-hg lolka.u-oltl
prgsgktatdlk-XL^ 17mdkutgs wdtbdk-XGM^ farry.lut.prgh-l`cde
(88) :
sdel-ba tutusdm.u-oltl
wbdspgrdke-XL^ rgjradk.prgh-l`cde
Dk ltb dkstakfgs wbgrgdk oltlds usgh, dt bas `ggk sadh tbat tbds mlhac ds usgh tl gxprgss tbat ak aft ds
hggmgh as slmgtbdke dmplrtakt.
VWMMAPT
Jlrm Mgakdke Vampcg Vgktgkfg
Z.prgh gxprgssgs tbg spgaogrs
iuhemgkt tbat
slmglkg/slmgtbdke ds
gxpgftgh tl hl slmgtbdke
lr tl `g dk a fgrtadk statg
Z.kge dkhdfatgs huty, l`cdeatdlk
akh kgfgssdty
Z.kge dkhdfatgs tbat tbgrg ds kl
ltbgr way `ut tl hl
slmgtbdke
8/11/2019 Of Obligations and Necessities
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Z.prgh gxprgssgs tbat a erlup lj
pglpcg sbluch hl
slmgtbdke as huty
Z.prgh/kge gxprgssgs a strdft
flmmakh, sueegst/ahvdfg
Xa`cg 1. Vummary lj Iapakgsg L`cdeatlry Mlhacs
Hdjjgrgktdatdke Iapakgsg Mlhacs
Jrlm tbg hgjdkdtdlks lj tbg mlhacs edvgk a`lvg, slmg dmpcdfatdlks edvgk `y tbg mlhacs hdsfussgh arg put
dktl cdebt9 dmpgratdvg, gxpgftatdlk, dkgvdta`dcdty, sgcj-jlfusgh, dkhdvdhuacdty, sueegstdlk, akh jlrfgjuckgss.
Xbrlueb tbgsg hgvdsgh frdtgrda, tbg hdjjgrgkfgs `gtwggk tbgsg mlhacs may `g gxprgssgh mlrg fcgarcy.
Dmpgratdvgkgss gxprgssgs tbg plwgr lj tbg mlhac dk `gdke pgrfgdvgh as a flmmakh. Gxpgftatdlk rgjgrs tl
mlrac gxpgftatdlk, tbg afts wbdfb arg sadh tl `g lj flmmlk oklwcgheg dk a slfdgty wbgk a`dhdke `y
slfdac klrms. Dkgvdta`dcdty, as tbg kamg sueegsts, pgrtadks tl tbg bgcpcgsskgss lj lkg tl pgrjlrm ak aftdlk
lut lj l`cdeatdlk. Vgcj pgrtadks tl wbgtbgr tbg sgktgkfg flktadkdke tbg mlhacs hdsfussgh may `g ahhrgssgh
tl tbg spgaogr bdmsgcj lr klt. Xbg frdtgrda lj `gdke dkhdvdhuac dmpcdgs tbat tbg statgmgkt `gdke hgcdvgrgh ds
lkg wbdfb ds uttgrgh lkcy lk spgfdjdf sdtuatdlks tl a spgfdjdf dkhdvdhuac ratbgr tbak lkg wbdfb may `g
pgrfgdvgh as `gdke ahhrgssgh tl a partdfucar erlup lj pglpcg, dj klt acc. Jlr sueegstdlk, a statgmgkt ds
`gdke pgrfgdvgh klt lkcy as ak l`cdeatdlk tl `g pgrjlrmgh `ut as ak ahvdfg tl tbg lkgs gdke ahhrgssgh.
Actblueb tbgsg mlhacs acc gxprgss l`cdeatdlk, tbgy stdcc hdjjgr dk tbg jlrfgjuckgss, lr ratbgr, tbg
l`cdeatlrdkgss lj ak aft tl `g pgrjlrmgh.
Dmpgratdvg Gxpgftatdlk Dkgvdta`dcdty Vgcj Dkhdvdhuac Ahvdfg/
Vueegstdlk
Cgvgc lj
L`cdeatdlk
wgao (0)
mghdac (6)
strlke (7)
8/11/2019 Of Obligations and Necessities
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wgao (1)
strlke (8)
Xa`cg 0. Xbg Iapakgsg L`cdeatlry Mlhacs akh tbgdr jgaturgs
Dk vdgwdke tbds ta`cg, dt fluch `g l`sgrvgh tbat as statgh dk tbg akacysds lj mlhacs, mlkl hamay `gpgrfgdvgh as ak dmpgratdvg, actblueb a cdebt lkg at tbat sdkfg dt was acsl sadh tbat tbds mlhac lkcy sblws
cdttcg l`cdeatdlk sdkfg dt ds mlrg jlfusgh lk rgmdkhdke tbg pglpcg lj wbat tbgy supplsghcy oklw acrgahy.
Dk ltbgr wlrhs, tbds mlhac jlfusgs mlrg lk dts aspgft lj katuracdtyakh mlrac gxpgftatdlk tbak tbat lj ak
l`cdeatdlk. Cllodke at (60) (rgdtgratgh `gclw), dt was statgh tbat lkg ds klt supplsgh tl `ahmlutb ltbgrs
sl mufb. Dk tbds sgktgkfg, tbg ahhrgssgg sbacc pgrfgdvg tbat tbg sgktgkfg was uttgrgh tl flrrgft tbgdr wrlke
hldke (as pgrfgdvgh `y slfdgty) wbdfb ds wby tbgy wdcc tbdko tbat tbds ds a flmmakh. Xbus, tbds mlhac ds
marogh +dmpgratdvg akh +gxpgftatdlk.
1>
slkka-kd bdtl-kl warueutd-wl d.u-mlkl.hg.ba.ardmasgk yl
0HGM.cdog.ahk-flki pgrslk-CO `ahmlutb-HL say.prgh-l`cde.kge VG
Ubgk wg say tbat a statgmgkt ds a flmmakh, tbgrg ds stdcc ak lptdlk jlr tbg ahhrgssgg tl klt pgrjlrm tbg
aftdlk. Xbat ds wby tbds mlhac ds marogh asdkgvdta`dcdty. As statgh lk tbg gxpcakatdlk lj mlkl hadk
tbg jdrst part lj tbg rgsgarfb, tbds mlhac may lkcy `g usgh wbgk slmglkg ahvdsgs a erlup lj pglpcg tl hl
slmgtbdke as mlrac huty. Dt ds acsl a mlhac wbdfb ds klt usgh tl tgcc lkgsgcj lj wbat tbgy sbluch hl. Xbds
mlhac ds tbgk marogh asdkhdvdhuac, +ahvdfg, akhsgcj. As sggk dk Xa`cg 0, mlkl habas tbg wgaogstcgvgc lj l`cdeatdlk. Dt mdebt `g `gfausg lj tbg jaft tbat tbds mlhac mgrgcy sueegsts jlr a mass lj pglpcg tl
aft apprlprdatgcy tl a mass lj pglpcg, maodke dts cgvgc lj l`cdeatlrdkgss cgssgk sdkfg tbds may `g vdgwgh
as a hdvdsdlk/hdspgrsdlk lj rgsplksd`dcdty lj tbg ahhrgssgg. Xbds tbgk fausgs a cgssgr dmpaft tl tbg bgargr lj
tbg statgmgkts uttgrgh wdtb tbds mlhac.
@god ha, cdog mlkl haacsl bas a wgao l`cdeatdlk. Blwgvgr, tbds mlhac may `g as `ltb ak dmpgratdvg akh
a klk-dmpgratdvg. Dk sgktgkfg (1) (rgdtgratgh `gclw), dt fluch `g l`sgrvgh tbat dt ds a statgmgkt uttgrgh `y
tbg spgaogr tl bdmsgcj maodke dt klt lkcy a klk-dmpgratdvg sgktgkfg `ut acsl a sgcj-jlfusgh lkg. Xbg
statgmgkt acsl edvgs tbg mgakdke tbat tbg spgaogr sueegstgh tbat bg sbluch bavg hlkg slmgtbdke (dk tbds
fasg, flksuctdke wdtb slmglkg) sl bg wluch bavg bah matfbgh wbat wluch bavg bappgkgh wdtb ak
gxpgftatdlk. Vl jlr tbds statgmgkt aclkg, dt sbacc `g marogh +sgcj, +ahvdfg, +gxpgftatdlk akh dmpgratdvg.
Dt sbacc acsl `g marogh as +dkhdvdhuac sdkfg tbg statgmgkt was ahhrgssgh tl tbg spgaogr aclkg.
1
8/11/2019 Of Obligations and Necessities
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ufbd-kl bdtl-kd sluhak-su.ru god-hat.ta
dk-erlup-CO pgrslk-HDP flksuct-hl.prgh l`cde.past
Lk tbg ltbgr bakh, sgktgkfg (0) (rgdtgratgh `gclw) sblws tbat tbg statgmgkt ds qudtg am`deulus sdkfg dt
may bavg `ggk uttgrgh tl gdtbgr a spgfdjdf dkhdvdhuac lr a erlup lj pglpcg, `ut hgjdkdtgcy klt ahhrgssgh tl
tbg spgaogr bdmsgcj. Xbg statgmgkt was gxprgssgh tl ahvdsg/jlrgwark pglpcg tbat lkg must klt el dktl a
fgrtadk typg lj pcafg, maodke dt sggm cdog dt bas `ggk ak dkhdrgft flmmakh cdog tbat lj mlkl ha. Xbds sbacc
tbgk `g marogh assgcj, +ahvdfg, +gxpgftatdlk, +dmpgratdvg, akh dkhdvdhuac. Acsl, cdog mlkl hatbg
flmmakh uttgrgh hlgs klt jlrfg lkg tl hl slmgtbdke, tbgrgjlrg, maodke tbdsdkgvdta`dcdty.
1
slkka tlolrl-bg do-u `god-ia-kad
0HGM.CO.cdog.ahk pcafg -HDP el.prgh l`cde.kge.klkp
Xbrlueb tbgsg flktgxts prgsgktgh, tbg fbaraftgrdstdfs wrdttgk dk Xa`cg 0wgrg hgrdvgh. Afflrhdke tl
Maodkl akh Xsutsud (0>>1), actblueb `god hads prgsgktgh tl `g sdmdcar wdtb mlkl ha, `god habas a
bdebgr hgergg lj l`cdeatdlk sdkfg tbds mlhac hlgs klt lkcy flvgr egkgrdf statgmgkts.
Kaogrg`a karakadds a mlhac oklwk tl gxprgss tbg kgutracdty lj ak l`cdeatdlk. Xbds mlhac hlgs klt bavg
as mufb partdfucars dk mgakdkes as flmpargh tl tbg ltbgr mlhacs. Xbg wlrhs usgh ajtgr tbg flkhdtdlkacs
arg tbg lkgs wbdfb slmgblw ajjgft tbg flktgxt lj a sgktgkfg tbg mlst. Jrlm tbg hdjjgrgkfgs lj karakad
akh dogkadstatgh dk tbg jdrst part, tbg jlcclwdke bas ggk hgrdvgh9
Dmpgratdvg Gxpgftatdlk Dkgvdta`dcdty Vgcj Dkhdvdhuac Ahvdfg/
Vueegstdlk
+
Xa`cg 6. Xbg Xwl Zardatdlks lj kaogrg`a karakad akh tbgdr Jgaturgs
Dk (15) (rgdtgratgh `gclw), dt was statgh tbat a tukkgc ds gxpgftgh tl `g sajg. Dk tbds sgktgkfg, tbg
fbaraftgrdstdf lj `gdke sajg ds a rgqudrgmgkt jlr a tukkgc, tbgrgjlrg, maodke sajgty ak ukavldha`cg
kgfgssdty. Xbds statgmgkt ds acsl uttgrgh as a egkgrac tgfbkdfac kgfgssdty, sl dt fak `g assumgh tbat tbds ds
klt lkcy ahhrgssgh tl a sdkecg pgrslk, akh hgjdkdtgcy klt ahhrgssgh tl tbg spgaogr bdmsgcj. Dk tbds fasg, wg
sbacc maro tbg sgktgkfg asdmpgratdvg, +gxpgftatdlk, +dkgvdta`dcdty,sgcj,dkhdvdhuac akhahvdfg.
1>
tlkkgru-tl d.u mlkl-ba akzgk-hg ka.ogrg`a kar.akad
tukkgc-FLM^ say.prgh tbdke -XL^ sajg-FL^.flki kge.flkh `gflmg.kge.klkp
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Gxampcg (17) (rgdtgratgh `gclw) acsl sblws tbg dkgvdta`dcdty lj hldke ak aftdlk sdkfg dt flkkltgs tbat tbgrg
mdebt `g flksgqugkfgs dj tbds aftdlk ds klt pgrjlrmgh. Wkcdog tbg prgvdlus gxampcg, tbds dmpcdgs tbat tbg
spgaogr ds tbg lkg wbl ds supplsgh tl pgrjlrm tbg aftdlk dkstgah lj ahhrgssdke tbds tl akylkg gcsg. Vdkfg
tbds ds a pgrslkac mattgr, dt fluch acsl `g assumgh tbat tbds ds klt a mlrac gxpgftatdlk `gfausg dt iust
sdekdjdgs tbat tbg spgaogr must jlcclw bds lwk sfbghucg. Asdhg jrlm tbgsg, tbg sgktgkfg sggms tl `g qudtg
sdmdcar wdtb tbg gxampcg a`lvg. Xbgrgjlrg, tbds sbacc `g marogh dmpgratdvg,gxpgftatdlk,
+dkgvdta`dcdty, +sgcj,dkhdvdhuac, akhahvdfg.
41
ou.id-mahgkd oagt.tg ol.ka.ogrg`a kar.akad
49>>-XGM^ rgturk.flki flmg.kge.flkh `gflmg.kge.klkp
Blwgvgr, dj karakadds tl `g rgpcafgh wdtb dogkaddk tbg sgktgkfg a`lvg, slmg dmpcdfatdlks fbakeg as wgcc.
41
ou.id-mahgkd oagt.tg ol.ka.ogrg`a do.g.kad
49>>-XGM^ rgturk.flki flmg.kge.flkh el.a`c.kge.klkp
Dk tbg sgktgkfg a`lvg, dkstgah lj bavdke tbds sgktgkfg uttgrgh tl lkgsgcj, dt ds pgrfgdvgh tl `g ahhrgssgh tl
akltbgr dkhdvdhuac (dj klt a fgrtadk erlup lj pglpcg). Udtb tbat dk mdkh, tbds may dmpcy tbat tbg spgaogr ds
flmmakhdke tbg ahhrgssgg tl pgrjlrm tbg aftdlk, maodke tbg cgvgc lj l`cdeatdlk scdebtcy clwgr sdkfg tbg
aftdlk tl `g pgrjlrmgh ds klt at acc ukavldha`cg. Xbds sbacc tbgk `g marogh +dmpgratdvg, gxpgftatdlk,
dkgvdta`dcdty, sgcj, +dkhdvdhuac akhahvdfg.Dogkadas part lj tbds mlhac may acsl `g usgh wbgk
ahvdsdke lkg tl hl slmgtbdke. Dk (18) (rgdtgratgh `gclw), dt was dmpcdgh tbat lkg ds l`cdegh/kgghgh tl qudt
smlodke jlr slmg rgaslk. @ut dj karakadsbacc g rgpcafgh wdtb dogkad, tbg dmpcdfatdlk lj dkgvdta`dcdty
fbakegs dktl tbat lj a sueegstdlk/ahvdfg jlr a pgrslk.
1
odmd-ba ta`aol-wl yamg.ka.ogrg`a kar.akad
ylu-XL^ fdeargttg-HL stlp.kge.flkh `gflmg.kge.klkp
1
odmd-ba ta`aol-wl yamg.ka.ogrg`a do.g.kad
ylu-XL^ fdeargttg-HL stlp.kge.flkh el.a`c.kge.klkp
Afflrhdke tl Maodkl akh Xsutsud (0>>1), tbds mlhac gxprgssgs a bdebgr uregkfy akh hgergg lj l`cdeatdlk
tbak `god hawbdfb ds wby tbds was edvgk a cgvgc lj l`cdeatdlk lj 6.
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Dkstakfgs wbgrgdk oltl hads usgh sblw tbat tbg sgktgkfgs uttgrgh wdtb tbds mlhac sblw tbat tbgy arg
pgrfgdvgh tl bavg mlrg uregkfy `gfausg lj tbg dmpgratdvgkgss hdspcaygh. Udtb tbds, dt bas ggk statgh
garcdgr lk tbat tbds mlhac ds usuaccy usgh rgmdkhdke lkg lj tbg rucgs akh rgeucatdlks, akh tbat ds wby tbg
dkgvdta`dcdty lj aftdke afflrhdke tl tbds l`cdeatdlk ds qudtg bdeb. Xbds may `g sggk dk gxampcg (65)
(rgdtgratgh `gclw). Dk tbds sgktgkfg, dt was sadh tbat dj lkg wakts tl clsg wgdebt, tbgy must avldh skafodke
lr gatdke dk `gtwggk mgac tdmgs. Dt dmpcdgs tbat tbg aftdlk tl `g (lr klt tl `g) pgrjlrmgh ds lkg lj tbg `gst
ways tl afbdgvg a fgrtadk elac afflrhdke tl tbg spgaogrs iuhemgkt. Xbds ds wby gvgk dj tbds ds qudtg
bgavdcy gkjlrfgh tl tbg ahhrgssgg, dt ds klt flksdhgrgh tl `g ak ukavldha`cg l`cdeatdlk. Dt was acsl statgh
`y tbg dkjlrmakt tbat tbds mlhac, cdog mlkl ha, fakklt `g usgh tl pgrtadk tl lkgsgcj lr gvgk tl a spgfdjdf
pgrslk. Xbg statgmgkts flktadkdke tbds mlhac arg acways ahhrgssgh tl a frlwh. Xbgrgjlrg, tbds sgktgkfg
sbacc `g marogh as +dmpgratdvg,gxpgftatdlk,dkgvdta`dcdty, sgcj,dkhdvdhuac, akh +ahvdfg.
4
yasg.tad-kara oaksylou-sd.kad-oltl.hgsu yl
clsg.wgdebt.hgs-flkh skafodke-hl.kge.prgh-l`cde VG
Xbds mlhac was edvgk a cgvgc lj l`cdeatdlk lj 8 `gfausg, as statgh a`lvg, dt may `g hgrdvgh tbat tbds mlhac
bas a bdebgr hgergg lj l`cdeatdlk flmpargh tl tbat lj kaogrg`a karakad. Xbg fbaraftgrdstdfs lj oltl hadk
tbds flktgxt hlgs klt hdjjgr jrlm tbg ltbgr flktgxt wbgrgdk oltl(ha)ds usgh.
17:
bappylu-ba 17juk dkad-hg lolka.u-oltl
prgsgktatdlk-XL^ 17mdkutgs wdtbdk-XGM^ farry.lut.prgh-l`cde
Dk tbg gxampcg a`lvg (sgktgkfg (86)), dt fluch `g l`sgrvgh tbat a flccgftdvg kum`gr lj pglpcg arg
flmmakhghtl flmpcgtg tbgdr prgsgktatdlk wdtbdk tbg huratdlk lj 17 mdkutgs. As statgh `gjlrg, dt ds klt
kgfgssary jlr ak dmpgratdvg tl `g ak ukavldha`cg taso sdkfg tbds lkcy dmpcdgs tbat dj tbg aft ds klt hlkg,
tbgrg may `g flksgqugkfgs. Xbg lkcy hdjjgrgkfg dt bas wdtb tbg jdrst jukftdlk lj oltl hads tbat dt may klt
`g pgrfgdvgh as ak ahvdfg/sueegstdlk sdkfg dt pgrtadks tl a rucg tbat pglpcg must jlcclw, tbgrgjlrg, marodke
tbds sgktgkfg asahvdfg.
Jrlm tbg hgjdkdtdlk akh tbg usg lj tbg mlhac dtsgcj, dt ds acrgahy gxpgftgh tbatzaru wl gkadbas tbg bdebgst
hgergg lj l`cdeatdlk wbgk flmpargh tl tbg ltbgr mlhacs hdsfussgh dk tbds papgr. Lut lj tbg l`cdeatdlks
tbat lkg pgrjlrms, tbg l`cdeatdlk gxprgssdke tbg spgaogrs kggh tl pgrjlrm tbg aftdlk lvgrplwgrs acc ltbgr
l`cdeatdlks. Dt bas `ggk gsta`cdsbgh tbat dj lkg kgghs tl pgrjlrm ak aft, tbgy rgaccy bavg tl pgrjlrm dt,
rgearhcgss lj wbgtbgr tbgy wluch `g wdccdke tl hl dt lr klt. Acsl, ak l`cdeatdlk `gdke a pgrslkac lkg
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sggms tl `g a jaftlr tbat bgdebtgks tbg cgvgc lj l`cdeatdlk.Yaru wl gkad ds tbg lkcy mlhac wbgrgdk dt ds
usgh lk pgrslkac dkstakfgs akh dt bas `ggk rakogh as tbg mlhac wbdfb bas tbg bdebgst hgergg lj l`cdeatdlk.
Dt fluch `g l`sgrvgh tbat acc tbg gxampcg sgktgkfgs flktadkdkezaru wl gkadbavg acc `ggk ahhrgssgh tl tbg
spgaogr lj tbg sgktgkfg bdmsgcj. Xbg assumptdlk tbat tbds mlhac lkcy jlfusgs lk tbg spgaogrs l`cdeatdlk
was tbgk flkjdrmgh `y tbg dkjlrmakt wbgrgdk bg bas statgh tbat usdkezaru wl gkadwbgrgdk dt ds
ahhrgssgh tl akltbgr dkhdvdhuac edvgs lut tbg mgakdke tbat tbg lkg `gdke ahhrgssgh ds dk a statg lj `gdke
pdtdjuc dk tbg gygs lj tbg spgaogr, sblwdke gmpatby tlwarhs tbg ahhrgssgg. Xbat ds wby tbds mlhac ds
acmlst kgvgr usgh wbgk ahhrgssdke tl akltbgr dkhdvdhuac. Xbgsg hgsfrdptdlks may `g l`sgrvgh dk (08)
(rgdtgratgh gclw).
4
mad.`ak kgmur.g.kad-klhg ol-kl ousurd-wl klm.a.zaru-wl g.kad
gvgry.kdebt scggp.a`c.kge-`gfausg 1HGM-CO mghdfdkg-HL hrdko.flki.kge-HL l`tadk.kge.klkp
Dk tbds gxampcg dt bas `ggk statgh tbat `gfausg tbg spgaogr fluch klt scggp gvgry kdebt, bg bah kl fbldfg
`ut tl hrdko a fgrtadk mghdfdkg. Jrlm tbds statgmgkt tbg jdrst tbdke tbat fatfbgs tbg attgktdlk ds tbg
dkgvdta`dcdty lj pgrjlrmdke tbg aftdlk dmpcdgh dk tbg sgktgkfg. Xbds tbgk gmpbasdzgs tbg flkkltatdlk tbat
tbg aftdlk tl `g pgrjlrmgh ds klt lj ak ahvdsg `ut ratbgr lj ak dktgrkac kgfgssdty, mgakdke tbat tbds fakklt
`g pgrfgdvgh as ak dmpgratdvg statgmgkt. Acsl, tbds (aclke wdtb tbg ltbgr gxampcgs gkumgratgh dk tbg
hgsfrdptdlk ljzaru wl gkad) prlvgs tbat tbg statgmgkt flktadkdke tbg mlhaczaru wl gkadmay lkcy `g
usgh wbgk pgrtadkdke tl tbg spgaogr. Udtb tbgsg dk mdkh, tbg flktgxts lj tbds sgktgkfg sbacc `g marogh
dmpgratdvg,gxpgftatdlk, +dkgvdta`dcdty, +sgcj,dkhdvdhuac akhahvdfg.
DD. Xaeacle Mlhacs Gxprgssdke Huty/L`cdeatdlk/Kgfgssdty
1.
Oadcakeak
Xbg wlrh oadcakeakds a muctd-jukftdlkac wlrh wbdfb dmpcdgs tbat lkg ds dk kggh lj slmgtbdke. Klrmaccy,
tbds wlrh ds flksdhgrgh a vgr` sdkfg dt usuaccy appgars dk tbg sclt jlr prghdfatgs. As sggk jrlm (87), wbgk
oadcakeak ds dk tbg prghdfatdvg sclt lj a sdmpcg pbrasg, tbg l`igft lj tbg sgktgkfg ds acways marogh `y ake,
akh tbg aftlr, y ke.
(87) A. Oadcakeak ke `a`ag ake pgra
@. *Oadcakeak ake `a`ag ke pgra
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Blwgvgr, tbat ds klt lkcy tbg fasg sdkfg dt ds acsl plssd`cg jlr ketl `g tbg marogr lj tbg l`igft lj tbg
sgktgkfg. Xbgrgjlrg, tbg sgktgkfg Oadcakeak ke `a`ag ke pgra ds flksdhgrgh erammatdfac. Afflrhdke tl
tbg rgjgrgkfg erammar `y Vfbafbtgr akh Ltakgs (0>>:), tbg hdjjgrgkfg `gtwggk tbg sgktgkfgs wdtb ake-
marogh l`igft akh ke-marogh l`igft ds tbg hdrgftkgss lj tbg l`cdeatdlk. Dt bas `ggk statgh tbat ak ake-
marogh l`igft ds flksdhgrgh tl `g tbg hdrgft l`igft lj tbg sgktgkfg, wbdcg tbg ke-marogh l`igft ds fcadmgh
tl `g tbg dkhdrgft l`igft.
(8:) A. Oadcakeak ke cacaod ake oltsg.
@. Oadcakeak ke cacaod ke oltsg.
Cllodke at (8:) sgktgkfg A sueegsts tbat tbgrg ds a spgfdjdf far kgghgh `y tbg mak, akh tbat fgrtadk far ds
gxaftcy wbat bg kgghs. Lk tbg ltbgr bakh, sgktgkfg @ sueegsts tbat tbg mak ds klt spgfdjdfaccy kgghdke a
fgrtadk far, tbgrgjlrg, edvdke mlrg jlfus lk tbg usaeg lj tbg far mlrg tbak tbg far dtsgcj. Blwgvgr, tbg
hdrgftdlkacdty lj tbg aftdlk ds klt lkcy cdmdtgh tl tbds sdmpcg sgktgkfg. Oadcakeak, wbgk usgh as a mlhac
(lr ak auxdcdary vgr`), tbg marogrs acsl hgtgrmdkg tbg hdrgftkgss lj ak l`cdeatdlk. (Asardka Blct, 0>>7)
(85) A. Oadcakeake mawaca ke cacaod.
@. Oadcakeake mawaca ake cacaod.
Dk (85), dt fluch `g l`sgrvgh tbat oadcakeak kgghs tbg cdkogr ketl `g a`cg tl flkkgft dtsgcj wdtb a vgr`,
akh tbg vgr` must `g dk dts prghdfatdvg lr `asdf jlrm. Xbg su`igft lj tbg sgktgkfg fluch `g marogh `y `ltb
keakh akeactblueb tbgy hlkt sggm tl bavg a flmpcgtgcy sdmdcar mgakdke. Vgktgkfg A fluch mgak tbat
tbg mak hdrgftcy rgfgdvgs tbg l`cdeatdlk, sl, dt dmpcdgs tbat tbg mak bdmsgcj ds l`cdegh tl hdsappgar.
Vgktgkfg @ dmpcdgs tbat tbgrg ds ak lutsdhg jlrfg wbdfb ds l`cdeatgh tl maog tbg mak hdsappgar. @gfausg
lj tbds, dt bas `ggk fcadmgh tbat sgktgkfgs wdtb ke-marogh su`igft arg flksdhgrgh tl gxprgss hdrgft
l`cdeatdlk wbdcg tblsg wdtb ake-marogh su`igfts gxprgss a klk-hdrgft l`cdeatdlk (Asardka Blct, 0>>7).
Asdhg jrlm `gdke a psguhl-vgr` akh a mlhac, tbg wlrh oadcakeak fluch acsl `g usgh as a kluk, iust cdog a
vgr`ac lr ak ahigftdvac rllt.
(82)
hgcdoahl ake pakablk, oaya `lhy euarh ake oadcakeak ml.
(84)
Vaelt cake kamak ake oadcakeak ml.
(7>) Hdsoartg cake ake oadcakeak.
(71)
Maoaoatuclke ouke daaylk ml ake cu`le ke oatawak ml sa mea `aeay ka oadcakeak
mlke tawdrdk.
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(70) Ake mea oatakedake oadcakeak para sa dsake cdhgr
Xbds may acsl `g usgh dk attrd`utdke a kluk sufb as tblsg lj (71) akh (70).Oadcakeakds usuaccy attafbgh
tbrlueb tbg cdkogr ka(lr ke). Dk `ltb sgktgkfgs, oadcakeakds jlukh ajtgr tbg kluk dt ds mlhdjydke,
blwgvgr, dt ds plssd`cg jlr tbg kluk akh oadcakeaktl dktgrfbakeg.
(76) Ake mea oadcakeake oatakedak para sa dsake cdhgr
(78)
>:). Xbds dmpcdgs tbat oadcakeak
madkcy jlfusgs akh gmpbasdzgs lk tbg flkfgpt lj sgcjwbgk dk usg. Xbgsg arg plssd`cy slmg lj tbg
rgaslks wby sgvgrac slurfgs, sufb as XaeacleGkecdsb hdftdlkardgs ljtgk hdrgftcy trakscatg tbds wlrh as
kggh dk Gkecdsb.Blwgvgr, tbgrg arg acsl dkstakfgs tbat tbds kgfgssdty may `g pgrfgdvgh as mlrg lj ak
l`cdeatdlk dkjcdftgh y ak lutgr jlrfg as dk (77).
(77) Oadcakeak kamdke maejlrmatdlk tuwdke Martgs at @dygrkgs.
0.
Hapat
Hapatds acsl flksdhgrgh `y Vfbafbtgr akh Ltakgs (1426) as a psguhl-vgr` `ut, ukcdog oadcakeak, tbg
gkvdrlkmgkt wbgrgdk hapatds usgh ds qudtg cdmdtgh.Hapatds acsl jlukh at tbg `gedkkdke lj tbg sgktgkfg
(prghdfatdvg plsdtdlk), ut dt ds hgpgkhgkt lj a vgr` pbrasg. Xbds ds wby tbds wlrh ds acsl flksdhgrgh as a
bdeb ahvgr`(Va``aeb, 0>16). Ubgk flkkgftdke a vgr` tl hapat, kaakh ay arg `ltb usgh as cdkogrs
actblueb sgktgkfgs arg stdcc flksdhgrgh erammatdfac gvgk wdtblut tbgm.
(7:)
hapat ay acdsdk ake mea sa`aw kdtl.
(75) Hapat ka acam ke mea tal sa lpdsdka ake wdoa ke oakyake hdpclmasya.
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(72) Hapat dkuu`ls ml ake paeoadk ml.
Hapatmay acsl `g klmdkacdzgh tbrlueb tbg klmdkac marogrs lj Xaeacle `ut dt stdcc ds hgpgkhgkt lj a vgr`
pbrasg, ukcdog oadcakeakwbdfb fak stakh aclkg. Dk tbds dkstakfg, marapatmay lffur dk dts pcafg, wbdcg
kararapatmay lffur akywbgrg hapatmay `g pcafgh `ut ds usgh lk mlrg jlrmac lffasdlks.
(74) At sa hamd ke dkddsdp olke hapat hacbdk, bdkhd ka rdk aol kaoacayas.
(:>)
Aol ake hapat kdcake `acdtaak.
(:1) Ake hapat sakay kadhgplsdtl ay aosdhgktgke ka-wdtbhraw.
Xbds wlrh flkkltgs gxtgrkac kgfgssdty lr apprlprdatgkgss (Vfbafbtgr, 1426). Xbds wlrh (as a mlhac) ds
usgh wbgkgvgr ak dkhdvdhuac ds rgmdkhgh lj wbat tbgy arg supplsgh tl hl as ak uprdebt dkhdvdhuac.
Lvgracc, tbds mlhac gxprgssgs tbat ak aft ds supplsgh tl `g pgrjlrmgh lut lj huty/l`cdeatdlk.
VWMMAPT
Mgakdke Jlrm Jukftdlk Vampcg Vgktgkfg
Oadcakeak gxprgssgs dktgrkac
kgfgssdty? a pgrslkac
l`cdeatdlk lj
pgrjlrmdke ak aft
Oadcakeak + CO +Z^ psguhl-
vgr`
Oadcakeake mawaca ke cacaod.
Ake
ke + oadcakeak + CO +Z^
sa
Kluk hgcdoahl ake pakablk, oaya `lhy
euarh ake oadcakeak ml.
K + CO +oadcakeak + (Z^) ahigftdvg Ake mea oadcakeake oatakedak para
sa dsake cdhgr
Hapat gxprgssgs gxtgrkac
kgfgssdty akh
apprlprdatgkgss lj ak
aft
hapat+ ay +Z^
ka
psguhl-
vgr`
Hapat dkuu`ls ml ake paeoadk ml.
Ake
ke + hapat +Z^
sa
Kluk Ake hapat sakay kadhgplsdtl ay
aosdhgktgke ka-wdtbhraw.
Xa`cg 6. Vummary lj Xaeacle L`cdeatdlk ^sguhl-Zgr`s
Hdjjgrgktdatdke tbg Mgakdke
Xbrlueb tbg samg frdtgrda as tbg lkg usgh dk flmpardke tbg Iapakgsg l`cdeatdlk mlhacs, tbg twl Xaeacle
mlhacs sbacc acsl `g iuhegh dk tbg samg way dk ak attgmpt tl flmparg tbgm wdtb gafb ltbgr tbrlueb tbgdr
flktgxts.
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Dmpgratdvg Gxpgftatdlk Dkgvdta`dcdty Vgcj Dkhdvdhuacdty Ahvdfg/
Vueegstdlk
Cgvgc lj
L`cdeatdlk
Oadcakeak Mghdac
Hapat Vtrlke
Xa`cg 8. Xbg Xaeacle L`cdeatdlk ^sguhl-Zgr`s akh tbgdr Jgaturgs
Dk statgmgkts usdke tbg wlrh hapatsufb as (77) (rgdtgratgh `gclw), tbgrg ds ak dmaeg lj tbg spgaogr tgccdke
ak dkhdvdhuac tl hl wbat tbgy tbdko ds rdebt/apprlprdatg (wbdfb ds tl rgmlvg tbg slup). Xbds tbgk edvgs lut
tbg jggc tbat tbg spgaogr edvgs lut ak ahvdfg/sueegstdlk (mgakdke tbat lkg stdcc bas tbg lptdlk lj klt
jlcclwdke tbg statgmgkt), as wgcc as `gdke ak dmpgratdvg. Dk tbds samg sgktgkfg, dt acsl plssd`cg tl dktgrprgt
tbds sgktgkfg as gdtbgr `gdke ahhrgssgh tl a spgfdjdf pgrslk lr tl a erlup lj pglpcg sdkfg su`igft ds pcafgh
dk tbg sgktgkfg. Udtb tbgsg taogk dktl flksdhgratdlk, wg fluch assumg tbat tbds sgktgkfg ds +dmpgratdvg,
+gxpgftatdlk, dkgvdta`dcdty, +ahvdfg,sgcj akh dkhdvdhuac.
hapat ay acdsdk ake sa`aw kdtl.
Dk usdke tbds mlhac, dt sggms tbat tbds fakklt gxprgss tbg dkgvdta`dcdty lj ak aftdlk. As sggk jrlm (77)-(75),
tbg sgktgkfgs dmpcy tbat tbgrg stdcc ds a fbldfg jlr tbg ahhrgssgg tl klt hl a fgrtadk aftdlk gvgk wbgk a
su`igft ds prgsgkt dk tbg sgktgkfg iust as dk (75).
Hapat dkuu`ls ml ake paeoadk ml.
Vtatgmgkts flktadkdke oadcakeakds madkcy usgh tl statg a fgrtadk kggh jlr slmglkg/slmgtbdke tl hl
slmgtbdke lr `g dk a fgrtadk statg cdog tbat lj (85). Dk tbg gxampcg dt was statgh tbat tbg mak was kgghgh tl
hdsappgar lr `g dk a statg lj hdsappgarakfg. Blwgvgr, tbds ds statgh as slmgtbdke tbat tbg spgaogr iuhegs as
ak aftdlk kgghgh tl `g pgrjlrmgh. Xbds may acsl `g sggk dk tbg gxampcgs cdstgh `gclw.
(:0) Oadcakeak olke yumuol
(:6) Oadcakeake mae-hlkatg ke pdktura sa sfbllc.
(:8) Oadcakeake maoa-erahuatg para maoaouba ke hdpclma.
Dk (:0), dt was statgh tbat tbg spgaogr kgghgh tl clwgr bds bgah. Xbds slmgblw flkkltgs tbat `gfausg lj ak
lffurrgkfg tbg spgaogr fluch klt hl akytbdke `ut clwgr bds bgah, sblwdke tbat tbg aftdlk was klt lut lj
gxpgftatdlk akh ukavldha`cg. Acsl `gfausg lj tbg prlkluk ol, dt fluch `g l`sgrvgh tbat tbds mlhac may
acsl `g usgh wbgk pgrtadkdke tl lkgsgcj, akh klt lj akylkg gcsg. Dk cdkg wdtb tbds, wg may tbgk assumg
tbat (:0) sbacc `g marogh asdmpgratdvg,gxpgftatdlk, +dkgvdta`dcdty, +sgcj,dkhdvdhuac akhahvdfg.
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As jlr (:6), `gfausg tbg spgaogr statgs tbat pglpcg arg kgghgh/rgqudrgh tl hlkatg padkt jlr tbgdr sfbllc, tbg
sgktgkfg may `g flksdhgrgh as ak dmpgratdvg. Acsl, as sggk dk (:8) tbds may acsl edvg lut tbg flktgxt lj
dkgvdta`dcdty, akh sueegstdlk wbgk tbg pbrasg flktadkdke oadcakeakds flkkgftgh tl a su`lrhdkatdke fcausg
wbdfb gxprgssgs tbg purplsg lj tbg aftdlk sdkfg dt flkkltgs tbat ak aftdlk must `g hlkg tl afbdgvg
slmgtbdke. Dk cdkg wdtb tbds flkkltatdlk, wg may assumg tbat tbds was uttgrgh as ak ahvdfg/rgmdkhgr tl
tbg ahhrgssgg lj wbat ds kgghgh tl `g hlkg dk lrhgr tl l`tadk a fgrtadk elac.
Jrlm tbgsg l`sgrvatdlks, actblueb hapat akh oadcakeakappgar tl `g prgsgkt dk acmlst tbg samg
gkvdrlkmgkts as gafb ltbgr, tbgsg twl may `g prgsgktgh as sgparatg dhgktdtdgs. Xbds may `g l`sgrvgh
wbgk tbgdr cgvgc lj l`cdeatdlk ds mgasurgh.Hapat, oklwk tl `g a mlhac gxprgssdke l`cdeatdlk, ds sadh tl
flkkltg a bdebgr hgergg lj l`cdeatdlk flmpargh tl oadcakeaksdkfg tbg uregkfy ds acsl gxprgssgh dk tbds
mlhac. Blwgvgr, wbgk dt flmgs tl tbg flmpardslk lj tbg hgergg lj kgfgssdty, oadcakeakflkkltgs a
bdebgr hgergg lj kgfgssdty sdkfg tbds mlhac may flkkltg tbat tbg aftdlk tl `g pgrjlrmgh ds dkgvdta`cg akh
ukavldha`cg.
DDD. Flmparatdvgs lj Iapakgsg akh Xaeacle Mlhacs
1. @god ha
Dmpgratdvg Gxpgftatdlk Dkgvdta`dcdty Vgcj Dkhdvdhuac Ahvdfg/
Vueegstdlk
Cgvgc lj
L`cdeatdlk
Ugao
Oadcakeak Mghdac
Hapat Vtrlke
Xa`cg 8. Flmpardslk lj tbg Jgaturgs lj `god ha akh tbg Xaeacle L`cdeatdlk Mlhacs
Vdkfg tbg prlmdkgkt jgaturg lj `god hads tbg flktgxt lj mlrac gxpgftatdlk, dt ds appargkt tbat tbg Xaeacle
mlhac fclsgr tl tbds mlhac (hgjdkdtdlk-wdsg) ds tbg mlhac hapat. Vdkfg hapatds madkcy usgh jlr gxprgssdke
ak l`cdeatdlk, dt fluch `g l`sgrvgh tbat tbds mlhac cgaks mlrg lk dts flktgxt lj `gdke ak l`cdeatdlk tbak
tbat lj a kgfgssdty. Xbds may acsl `g l`sgrvgh jrlm tbg dkjlrmakts trakscatdlk lj sgktgkfgs flktadkdke
`god ha.
(a)
Hapat tayl maodkde kake ma`utd sa ouwgktl ke mea d`ake tal.
(`)
Hapat tayl kaebakha kake mas ma`utd.
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(f)
Hapat oa maebdktay kake mas mataeac.
(h)
Hapat olke dtdkucly dylk.
(g)
Bdkhd oa hapat pumukta sa eakyake cuear.
(j)
Bdkhd ml hapat edkawa ake oatucah kdyak.
Dt fluch g l`sgrvgh dk tbg trakscatdlks tbat hapatwas usgh dk acc lffasdlks gvgk wbgk kgeatdke.
Xbgrgjlrg, tbds supplrts tbg assumptdlk tbat `god hads rgprgsgktgh `y hapatdk Xaeacle.
0.
Kaogrg`a karakad
Dmpgratdvg Gxpgftatdlk Dkgvdta`dcdty Vgcj Dkhdvdhuac Ahvdfg/
Vueegstdlk
Cgvgc lj
L`cdeatdlk
Mghdac
Oadcakeak Mghdac
Hapat Vtrlke
Xa`cg 7. Flmpardslk lj tbg Jgaturgs lj kaogrg`a karakad akh tbg Xaeacle L`cdeatdlk Mlhacs
Cllodke at Xa`cg 7, dt sggms tbat `gfausg lj tbg egkgracdty lj tbg usaeg lj kaogrg`a karakad, dt sggms tbathapatakh oadcakeakarg a`cg tl aft as fluktgrpart lj kaogrg`a karakadwbgk trakscatgh dktl Xaeacle. Dk
(a) akh (`) dt fak `g l`sgrvgh tbat dj tbg sgktgkfg ds uttgrgh tl tbg spgaogr bdmsgcj, tbgrg ds a bdeb
plssd`dcdty tbat kaogrg`a karakadcgaks mlrg lk tbg dmpcdfatdlk lj ak dktgrkac kgfgssdty wbdfb ds wby
oadcakeakwas prgjgrrgh lvgr hapatwbgk trakscatgh. @ut, tbgrg arg acsl slmg dkstakfgs wbgrgdk gvgk dk
tbds flktgxtuac gkvdrlkmgkt, hapat wluch `g prgjgrrgh lvgr oadcakeak iust cdog dk (f)
(a)
Oadcakeak olke umuwd `ael mae-acas kwg`g.
(`)
Oadcakeak olke mae-`usdkgss trdp sa Lsaoa sa susuklh ka pakablk.
(f)
Hapat mas aeabak ol pa sa susuklh ka paeoaoatalk.
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Egkgraccy spgaodke, wbgk kaogrg`a karakadds dktgrprgtgh dk Xaeacle, hapatprgvadcs dk tgrms lj tbg
jrgqugkfy lj usaeg. Xbds iust elgs tl sblw tbat kaogrg`a karakadds mlrg jlfusgh lk dts flktgxt lj bavdke
tl pgrjlrm ak l`cdeatlry aft tbak tbat lj kgfgssdty.
(h)
Hapat maedke maeacake ake pakakacdta.
(g)
Hapat sa @rasdc ake `utl ke oapg.
(j) .
Hapat aol pumukta sa Ol`g kake mas maaea.
6.
Yaru wl gkad
Dmpgratdvg Gxpgftatdlk Dkgvdta`dcdty Vgcj Dkhdvdhuac Ahvdfg/
Vueegstdlk
Cgvgc lj
L`cdeatdlk
Vtrlke
Oadcakeak Mghdac
Hapat Vtrlke
Xa`cg :. Flmpardslk lj tbg Jgaturgs lj zaru wl gkad akh tbg Xaeacle L`cdeatdlk Mlhacs
Xbrlueb tbds ta`cg, wg may assumg tbatzaru wl gkadfclsgr tl oadcakeaktbak hapatdk tgrms lj flktgxt,
madkcy gfausg lj tbg frdtgrdagxpgftatdlk, akh +dkgvdta`dcdty wbdfb arg slmg lj tbg flktgxts
gmpbasdzgh wbgk usdke tbds mlhac. Xbg trakscatdlk prlvdhgh `y tbg dkjlrmakt `afogh up tbds assumptdlk
sdkfg tbgrg wgrg kl trafgs lj hapatdk aky lj tbg sgktgkfgs trakscatgh. Blwgvgr, tbgrg arg acsl dkstakfgs
wbgrgdk tbg pbrasg wacake maeawaappgars dk slmg sgktgkfgs partdfucarcy dk sgktgkfgs (`), (f), akh (h).
Xbds tbgk dmpcdgs tbat oadcakeakmay `g blchdke tbg samg hgergg lj dkgvdta`dcdty sl tbg dkjlrmakt usgh
akltbgr pbrasg (dk tbds fasg, wacake maeawa) tl `g a`cg tl flkvgy tbg mgssaeg as bg ukhgrstllh dt. Dk
ahhdtdlk, dt fluch `g l`sgrvgh tbat tbgrg arg dkstakfgs wbgrgdk oadcakeakwas klt usgh dk tbg sgktgkfg (as
dk (f), (h), akh (j)) sblwdke tbat actblueb tbgy arg qudtg jdttdke wdtb gafb ltbgr dk tgrms lj mgakdke akh
jukftdlk, tbg flktgxts lj oadcakeakfakklt gxaftcy dmpcy tbg flktgxts ljzaru wl gkad, spgfdjdfaccy
oadcakeakhlgs klt gmpbasdzg lk tbg dkgvdta`dcdty lj ak aftdlk as mufb as dt hlgs lk kgfgssdty lj ak aftdlk.
(a)
Ouke masdsdra pa ake XZ ka dtl, oadcakeake `umdcd ke `ael.
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(`)
Ayaw ol ake pdsdoa pgrl oadcakeake oukdk ake ocasgke dtl oaya waca aolke maeaeawa.
(f)
Uaca aolke maeaeawa oukhd d`aesao sd Xarl.
(h)
Kaoaodta aol ke maeakhake tasa sa Oyltl pgrl mabac oaya waca aolke kaeawa oukhd sumuol.
(g)
Wmaoyat aol bakeeake sa oacaedtkaak ke Mt. Juid pgrl odkadcakeak olke `umacdo habdc macaoas
ake bakedk at ucak.
(j)
Masasa`dke drgsplksa`cg ake paetdedc ke tra`ablke bdkhd pa katatapls.
8.
Mlkl ha
Dmpgratdvg Gxpgftatdlk Dkgvdta`dcdty Vgcj Dkhdvdhuac Ahvdfg/
Vueegstdlk
Cgvgc lj
L`cdeatdlk
Ugao
Oadcakeak Mghdac
Hapat Vtrlke
Xa`cg 5. Flmpardslk lj tbg Jgaturgs lj mlkl ha akh tbg Xaeacle L`cdeatdlk Mlhacs
Jrlm tbds ta`cg, dt fak `g assumgh tbat mlkl ha ds mlrg sdmdcar wdtb hapat sdkfg `ltb gxprgss huty as
mlrac l`cdeatdlk. As prllj lj tbds assumptdlk, tbg dkjlrmakt madkcy usgh hapat dk tbg trakscatdlk lj tbds
mlhac, dmpcydke tbat tbds mlhac ds cgakdke tlwarhs tbg mgakdke lj ak aft `gdke ak l`cdeatdlk tbak tbat lj
a kgfgssdty.
(a)
Bdkhd ml hapat patra`abudk ake kakay mlke matakha kake eakllk oabdepdt.
(`)
Hapat maetra`abl kake ma`utd ba`ake `ata pa.
(f)
Hapat ml pasacamatak ake kae`deay ke pasacu`lk sa dyl.
Blwgvgr, tbgrg sggm tl acsl `g dkstakfgs wbgrgdk oadcakeakds usgh as tbg fluktgrpart jlr mlkl ha. Vdkfg
tbds bah lkcy lffurrgh lkfg, ak akacysds lk tbds lffurrgkfg fakklt `g pgrjlrmgh.
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(h)
Oadcakeake maetdds ke oauktd.
7.
Oltl (ha)
Dmpgratdvg Gxpgftatdlk Dkgvdta`dcdty Vgcj Dkhdvdhuac Ahvdfg/
Vueegstdlk
Cgvgc lj
L`cdeatdlk
strlke
Oadcakeak mghdac
Hapat strlke
Xa`cg 2. Flmpardslk lj tbg Jgaturgs lj oltl ha akh tbg Xaeacle L`cdeatdlk Mlhacs
Jrlm tbg hata, dt sggms tbat oltl (ha)ds flktgxtuaccy mlrg sdmdcar wdtb oadcakeak tbak hapat`gfausg lj
tbg frdtgrdagxpgftatdlk.^lssd`cy, tbds l`sgrvatdlk may `g usgh as a ellh gxpcakatdlk lj wbat
oadcakeak dmpcdgs wbgk gxprgssdke ak l`cdeatdlk as dk (77). Blwgvgr, acc trakscatdlks prlvdhgh `y tbg
dkjlrmakt sblw tbat dkstgah lj usdke gdtbgr lj tbg twl Xaeacle mlhacs, tbg dmpgratdvg jlrm lj tbg vgr`s
wgrg prgjgrrgh dk tbg dktgrprgtatdlk lj oltl ha. Dt may tbgk `g assumgh tbat oltl hahlgs klt bavg a
Xaeacle mlhac fluktgrpart dk tgrms lj jukftdlk akh mgakdke.
(a)
Ouke eustl mlke pumaslo sa ukd`grsdhah, mae-arac oa kake ma`utd.
(`)
Ouke muobake sdsdpukdk oa, matucle kake maaea.
(f)
^aucdt-ucdt oake maesakay para maedke mabusay.
(h)
Ake asaykmgkt ka sakaysay ay dpasa oay Mr. Odmura `ael ake doa-7.
(g) 11 1510 IP
Maetdplk-tdplk oayl sa tdfogt eatg ke gstasylk ke IP Xamafbd ke acas hlsg ke doa-15 ke
Kl`ygm`rg(Martgs).
FLKFCWVDLK
@asgh jrlm tbg akacysds, dt fak `g flkfcuhgh tbat Xaeacle cgxdfac dtgms, oadcakeakakh hapat, dk tgrms lj
jukftdlk, aft sdmdcarcy wdtb tbg Iapakgsg mlhacs, `god ha, kaogrg`a karakad,zaru wl gkad, mlkl haakh
oltl ha, sdkfg acc tbg mlhacs hdsfussgh arg usgh as l`cdeatdlk mlhacs `ut tbgy arg klt qudtg paraccgc wdtb
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gafb ltbgr dk tgrms lj mgakdke. Iapakgsg mlhacs arg mufb mlrg partdfucar wbgk dt flmgs tl tbg flktgxts
dk wbdfb tbgy arg usgh wbdcg tbg Xaeacle mlhacs arg trgatgh as gktdtdgs sgparatg jrlm gafb ltbgr `gfausg
tbgy hl klt dmpcy tbg samg tbdke. Xbg twl mlhacs slmgblw maog tbg hdfbltlmy `gtwggk
l`cdeatdlks/hutdgs akh kgfgssdtdgs mlrg appargkt. Xbds ds gxaftcy tbg jaftlr flksdhgrgh wbgk jdeurdke lut
wbdfb Xaeacle mlhac rgprgsgkt wbdfb Iapakgsg mlhac. Vdkfg tbg mlhacs lj Iapakgsg bavg dktgrcafgh
mgakdkes lj kgfgssdty akh l`cdeatdlk, tbg fbllsdke lj tbg mlrg prgjgra`cg Xaeacle fluktgrpart lj tbg
mlhac ds qudtg fbaccgkedke. Dk jdkhdke tbg fluktgrpart lj a Iapakgsg mlhac, tbg sgktgkfg ds iuhegh `y
ukhgrstakhdke wbgtbgr tbg flktgxt lj tbg sgktgkfg mlrg lj ak l`cdeatdlk tbak a kgfgssdty, dk wbdfb fasg ds
rgprgsgktgh wdtb hapat, lr tbg lpplsdtg, dk wbdfb fasg ds rgprgsgktgh wdtb tbg mlhac oadcakeak. Dk
ahhdtdlk, `gfausg lj tbg kgutracdty (dk mgakdke) lj tbg twl l`cdeatdlk mlhacs lj Xaeacle, ltbgr cgxdfac
dtgms arg `gdke usgh tl fapturg tbg gssgkfg lj tbg mlhacs usgh dk Iapakgsg.
VWMMAPT
Xbg jdkhdkes dk tbds rgsgarfb papgr sblw tbat tbg l`cdeatdlk mlhacs hl klt lkcy gxprgss tbg egkgrac
l`cdeatdlk lr huty, `ut gafb mlhac bas a spgfdjdf typg lj l`cdeatdlk dt gxprgssgs. Egkgraccy, tbgsg cgxdfac
dtgms arg oklwk tl bavg a taso lj gxprgssdke prl`a`dcdty, flmmakh, huty, akh rgflekdtdlk. Blwgvgr, dk
slmg cakeuaegs, dt ds prl`a`cg tbat mlhacs gxprgssdke prl`a`dcdty, flmmakh, huty, akh rgflekdtdlk arg
klt rgprgsgktgh `y a sdkecg jlrm aclkg dk gafb fatgelry. Dk tbg Iapakgsg cakeuaeg, tbgrg arg tbrgg mlhacs
tbat fak gxprgss huty lr l`cdeatdlk (wdtb tbg ahhdtdlk lj mlkl ha akh oltl ha), maodke dt flkjusdke jlr
Iapakgsg cakeuaeg cgarkgrs `gfausg tbgy bavg a barh tdmg dhgktdjydke wbdfb mlhac ds apprlprdatg tl usg dk
wbdfb dkstakfgs dkvlcvdke huty lr l`cdeatdlk. Xbds papgr admgh tl ahhrgss tbg sadh prl`cgm, akh
spgfdjdfaccy dhgktdjdgh tbg fdrfumstakfgs wbgrgdk gafb mlhac ds usgh. Dk cdkg wdtb tbds, tbg Xaeacle
mlhacs bavg acsl `ggk akacyzgh dk a sdmdcar makkgr. Bavdke dhgktdjdgh tbg spgfdjdf typg lj l`cdeatdlk
tbgsg huty auxdcdary vgr`s gxprgss, wdcc bgcp tbg cakeuaeg cgarkgrs ukhgrstakh dk wbat sdtuatdlks tbgsg
huty auxdcdary vgr`s arg tl `g usgh. Asdhg jrlm tbds, tbds rgsgarfb papgr acsl attgmptgh tl jdkh lut blw a
Xaeacle mlhac fluktgrpart lj gafb Iapakgsg l`cdeatdlk mlhac ds fblsgk tbrlueb l`sgrvdke tbg flktgxts dk
wbdfb tbgsg mlhacs arg prgsgkt. Castcy, tbds papgr wdcc acsl flktrd`utg kgw jdkhdkes dk tbg jdgch lj
flmpardslk `gtwggk tbg Iapakgsg akh Xaeacle cakeuaeg, spgfdjdfaccy, dk tbg jdgch lj mlhacs gxprgssdke
huty lr l`cdeatdlk.
PGFLMMGKHAXDLK
Xbds papgr ds lkcy a prgcdmdkary rgsgarfb a`lut tbg l`cdeatdlk mlhacs lj Iapakgsg akh Xaeacle. Jurtbgr
stuhy ds rgflmmgkhgh `gfausg tbgrg may `g `gttgr, mlrg apprlprdatg frdtgrda dk tbg hdjjgrgktdatdlk lj tbg
mlhacs tl edvg fcgargr hdstdkftdlk lj tbg mlhacs, gspgfdaccy tblsg lj Xaeacle. Acsl, dt ds acsl
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rgflmmgkhgh tbat a Jdcdpdkl jcugkt dk Iapakgsg acsl trakscatg sgktgkfgs flktadkdke tbgsg mlhacs tl `g
a`cg tl flmparg tbg pgrfgptdlk lj tbg Iapakgsg lk Xaeacle mlhacs akh tbg pgrfgptdlk lj tbg Jdcdpdkl lk
Iapakgsg mlhacs. Dt wluch acsl `g `gttgr jlr tblsg wbl arg dktgrgstgh dk stuhydke tbds tlpdf tl eatbgr mlrg
hata tl `g a`cg tl flmg up wdtb a mlrg vda`cg flkfcusdlk.
@d`cdlerapby
Acjlksl, A. (14::).Iapakgsg Cakeuaeg attgrks9 a strufturac apprlafb.Xloyl9 Vlpbda Wkdvgrsdty C.C.
Fgktgr lj Appcdgh Cdkeudstdfs.
Asardka, A., & Blct, A. (0>>7, Vgptgm`gr 10). Vyktafs akh Vgmaktdfs lj Xaeacle Mlhacs.Pgtrdgvgh jrlm
MDX-Massafbussgtts Dkstdtutg lj Xgfbklcley9 bttp9//wg`.mdt.ghu/acya/www/XaeacleMlhacs.phj
Eluch, V. (0>11).Mlhac Auxdcdary Zgr`s. Pgtrdgvgh jrlm @drmdkebam Fdty Wkdvgrsdty9
bttp9//cd`rary.`fu.af.uo
Blyg, C. (1445).Ahvgr`s akh Mlhacdty dk Gkecdsb.Kgw Tlro9 Ahhdslk Clkemak Dkf.
Oamgrmaks, M. (0>>:, Lftl`gr 6>). Ak Dktrlhuftdlk tl Iapakgsg Vyktax, Erammar akh Cakeuaeg.
Oatlu. (0>>:)..Xloyl9 Ogkoyusba.
Obldrukkdsa, K. (0>1>).A Flmparatdvg Vtuhy gtwggk Gkecdsb akh Iapakgsg Auxdcdary Zgr`.
Tleyaoarta9 Wkdvgrsdty lj Abmah Habcak.
Maodkl, V., & Xsutsud, M. (0>>1).A Hdftdlkary lj Dktgrmghdatg Iapakgsg.Xloyl9 Xbg Iapak Xdmgs Cth.
Karrle, B. (0>>4).Mlhacdty dk Iapakgsg9 tbg caygrgh strufturg lj tbg fcausg akh bdgrarfbdgs lj jukftdlkacfatgelrdgs.Amstgrham9 Ilbk @gkiamdks ^u`cdsbdke Fl.
^acmgr, J. (144>).Mlhacdty akh tbg Gkecdsb Mlhacs.Clkhlk9 Clkemak Erlup Cdmdtgh.
Va``aeb, I. (0>18, Marfb). Ulrh Lrhgr akh ^rlslhdf-Vtrufturg Flkstradkts dk Xaeacle. Vyktax, pp. 8>-24.
Vfbafbtgr, ^., & Ltakgs, J. (1426). Xaeacle Pgjgrgkfg Erammar.Cls Akegcgs9 Wkdvgrsdty lj Facdjlrkda
^rgss.
Xlmlmatsu, & Mdyamltl. (0>1>). 7>> Gssgktdac Iapakgsg Gxprgssdlks9 a eudhg tl flrrgft usaeg lj ogy
sgktgkfg pattgrks..
Tamaedwa, I. (1480).Mlhgrk Flkvgrsatdlkac Iapakgsg.WVA9 MfEraw-Bdcc @llo Flmpaky, Dkf.
Vgktgkfg Vlurfgs
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1Acjlksl, A. (14::).Iapakgsg Cakeuaeg attgrks9 a strufturac apprlafb.Xloyl9 Vlpbda Wkdvgrsdty C.C.
Fgktgr lj Appcdgh Cdkeudstdfs.
0Asardka, A., & Blct, A. (0>>7, Vgptgm`gr 10). Vyktafs akh Vgmaktdfs lj Xaeacle Mlhacs.Pgtrdgvgh
jrlm MDX-Massafbussgtts Dkstdtutg lj Xgfbklcley9
bttp9//wg`.mdt.ghu/acya/www/XaeacleMlhacs.phj
6Atacda, G. (0>>4).Cdel ka W, Capdt ka Mg. Zdsprdkt.
8Elkzacgs, Z. (0>>2).Dsake Kapaoacaodke Oaastdeak. Mdcjclrgs u`cdsbdke, Dkf.
7Oatlu. (0>>:)..Xloyl9 Ogkoyusba.
:Maodkl, V., & Xsutsud, M. (0>>1).A Hdftdlkary lj Dktgrmghdatg Iapakgsg.Xloyl9 Xbg Iapak Xdmgs Cth.
5k.a. (18 Klvgm`gr 0>1>). ~~~.Tuds Hdary. Pgtrdgvgh jrlm
bttp9//www.hlu`ak.flm/kltg/1>>787126/
2Xlmlmatsu, & Mdyamltl. (0>1>). 7>> Gssgktdac Iapakgsg Gxprgssdlks9 a eudhg tl flrrgft usaeg lj ogy
sgktgkfg pattgrks.Xloyl9.
4Xlmlmatsu, & Uaourd. (0>>5). 0>. Xloyl9 6A Flrplratdlk.
1>Tamaedwa, I. (1480).Mlhgrk Flkvgrsatdlkac Iapakgsg.WVA9 MfEraw-Bdcc @llo Flmpaky, Dkf.