JOURNAL of ADVANCED MATERIALS

Journal of Advanced Materials, 2017, 1, 1: 13-18

OPEN A Review on Pollution Caused by Tannery Effluents and Remediation Aspects Taken in Vellore

REVIEW ARTICLE

Available Online

@ www.pristineonline.org

V. Praveena and S. Mythili Department of Biotechnology, School of Bioscience and Technology, VIT

University, Tamil Nadu, India Correspondence: smythili@vit.ac.in

Keywords: Chromium, Eco-toxicity, Tannery, Pollution, Bio-waste, Vellore

ABSTRACT

Effluents from chrome chemical and chrome tanning industries are

considered to be primary water and soil pollutant sources in Vellore. The

ecological impacts caused by the polluted effluents are health issues to

tannery workers and dwellers of the contaminated site, soil infertility, loss of

soil nutrition, wastage of agricultural lands, problems in domestic drinking

and irrigating water sources in Vellore. This paper reviews about the water

pollution caused by tannery effluent and chemical effluent discharged from

the industrial sites of Ranipet, Ambur, Walajapet, Pernambut and

Vaniyambadi through the primary water source Palar river basin. The various

environmental and practical remediation approaches taken to control the

pollutants includes plant effluent treatment, low cost adsorption and

desorption materials, plant based adsorbents and microbial remediation

approaches include bacterial, fungal and algal for the metal degradation,

removal and recovery have been discussed.

How to cite this article:

Journal of Advanced Materials, 2017,1, 1: 13-18

1. INTRODUCTION

Air, water and soil pollution are the primary source for environmental

health issues. Water contamination is one of the serious lives threatening

problems and being a roadblock for industrial and agricultural growth in

developing countries like India. The water pollution caused by improper

discharge of effluents from various industries like alloys, chemicals, textiles and

tanneries where salts of heavy metals, dyes and detergents used. There are about

3000000 people have been employed in leather tanning industries. India releasing

about 2000-3000t of chromium annually from tannery industrial effluents which

contains chromium between 2000-5000mg/L. Tannery effluent also contains the

supporting chemicals for tanning process like sodium chloride, ammonium salts,

alum salts, sodium sulfides, alkali, organic dyes and acids. The discharge of

untreated effluent forms sludge and contaminates the surrounding water region

[1, 2].

Chromium compounds are mainly used in industries like metallurgy,

textile, chrome chemicals, pigments, timbering, leather manufacturing, paints,

pigments, nuclear power plant, catalyst for corrosion resistance and electroplating

for surface treatment [3, 4, 5]. Tannery industries discharge about 40 - 25,000mg/L

of chromium in effluents [6]. The toxicity of chromium is reported by its valence

and solubility. Inhalation of chromium (VI) dust causes asthma, respiratory

disorder (acute exposure, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, respiratory irritation

Received: 25 February, 2017 Accepted: 14 March, 2017 Available Online: 25 March, 2017

Copyright: © 2017 This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the

original author and source are credited.

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Journal of Advanced Materials, 2017, 1, 1: 13-18

and Infla-mmation), ulcers and skin diseases, dyspnea,

hepatic, renal, hematological effects and lung cancer [7, 8]. The

highest mobility and solubility have raised the toxicity of

chromium (VI) than other valance states [9]. The chromium

(VI) toxicity can result in liver and kidney damage, cancer,

dermatitis, allergies, Mutation [10]. Cr (VI) compounds can

damage cell membranes, disrupt cellular functions and

damage the DNA structure. The chromium (VI) has been

designated as a priority pollutant by the United States

Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) due to its ability

to cause mutations and cancer in humans [6]. The maximum

contaminant level (MCL) for chromium (VI) in domestic water

supplies according to USEPA standard is 0.05mg/L. The

toxicity studies reported that Cr (III) compounds are cytotoxic

and form DNA adduct and it can cause neurological and

skeletal disorders [11].

2. CHROMIUM CONTAMINATION

The growth of chrome tanning industries in Vellore is

like mushroom junction. Ranipet is reported as chronic

polluted area by the Central Pollution Control Board of India

(CPCBI). Chemicals used in leather production are chromium

sulfates, sodium chloride, calcium hydroxide and sulfuric

acid, the sodium and sulfates of chromium are giving the

characteristic reddish-dull brown color to the tannery effluent.

The effluents released from tannery, paint and chemical

industries are discharged into the lakes Thandalam,

Vanapadi, Pullianthangal and Palar river basin. The tannery

effluent is very much high in pH and concentrations of BOD,

COD and TDS. The tanning process releases less harmful

chromium (III) in the effluent. The chromium (III) oxidized to

chromium (VI) when exposed to various environmental

conditions. The chromium concentration in the contaminated

surface water of Ranipet is ranging from 2.4 to 1,308.6μg/L

and having an average of 247.2μg/L [7, 12].

The Palar River flowing in Vellore, carries huge

volume of tannery effluent due to the flow path is connected

in all the way by discharged tannery effluents. The

concentration of chromium in the Palar river basin is ranging

from 47.4mg/L to 682.4mg/L with an average of 306.285mg/L.

Due to the effluent contamination the fertile lands in Vellore

has becoming waste lands [13, 14]. The surface and ground

water pollution caused by the chromium (VI) leached site of

Tamil Nadu Chromate and Chemicals Limited (TCCL)

industry and the environmental problem caused to the lakes

Pulliankannu and Karai has been discussed [15]. Around the

tannery industries in Vellore it is reported that the

concentration of chromium in surface and subsurface soil is

found to be 16731-79865mg/kg and it reduces the crop 25 to

40% [16]. Ranipet is famous for tannery industries. All the

industries release more than 10000L of purified, partially

purified and polluted effluents into the nearby water bodies.

The Cr present in this effluent contaminates the quality of

both surface and ground water and affects the aquatic

organisms in various ways [3]. The effluent sample collected

from CETP, Ranipet was found to be containing 3.13mg/L of

chromium [17]. Ambur is the second most polluted area by

tannery industries in Vellore, which covers more than 100

number of tannery industries [18].

The bioaccumulation study of chromium in

Pulliyanthangal, Ranipet, Vellore lake water, soil and muscles

of three fish species Catla catla, Ictalurus punctatus, Oreochromis

mossambicus were reported as 0.642±0.60mg/L,

1.391±0.30mg/kg, 0.38±0.12mg/kg, 0.31±0.13mg/kg,

0.27±0.08mg/kg [19]. The concentrations of chromium in water

samples from Karai is 241mg/L, Pullianthangal is 1247mg/L,

Bharathi nagar is 4594mg/L, Tandalam is 2125mg/L,

Maniyamba is 168mg/L and soil samples from Karai is

241mg/L, Pulianthanga is 1247mg/L, Bharathi nagar is

4594mg/L, Tandalam is 2125mg/L, Maniyamba is 168 [20].

Project on the quantitative analysis of bioaccumulation level

of chromium for various vegetables grown in Vellore has been

analyzed and reported as concentration of chromium in mg/L

as follows: cabbage (Brassica oleracea)-1.10, onion (Allium cepa)-

9.511, carrot (Daucus carota)-0.052, spinach (Spinacia oleraceae)-

6.771, beans (Phaseolus coccineus)-9.562, cauliflower (Brassica

oleracea)-8.928, brinjal (Solanum melongena)-5.502, potato

(Solanum tuberosum)-8.506, tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)-

9.949 [21].

3. EFFECT OF TANNERY EFFLUENT ON

ECOLOGY

The phytotoxicity study of tannery effluent in the

plants Allium cepa and Lemna minor collected from Ambur

reported that inhibition in root growth, reduction in number of

fronds, proteins and chlorophyll content. It caused chlorosis

and tissue necrosis in Nostoc muscorum. It showed an inhibitory

action on ecofriendly microbes like Bacillus thuringiensis,

Rhizobium etli and Aspergillus terreus. The genotoxicity study of

the effluent reported to form micronucleus formation in

leukocyte and toxic to erythrocytes [18]. The epidemiological

study of air pollution due to tannery dusts containing

chromium and lead with common gas pollutants has been

investigated for the incidence of asthma. The clinical study

conducuted in Ambur, Pernambut, Ranipet, Vaniyambadi and

Vellore reported that 10 to 15% of children, 15% of adolescents,

20 to 25% of adults and 8 to 12% of old age people has been

affected by mild type of asthma and about 15% of Vellore

population has been affected by asthma. The blood chromium

level and urine chromium level was observed for the tannery

workers, nearby dwellers and hospital staffs were reported as

1.424mg/L, 0.983mg/L, 0.0096mg/L in blood and 35-45µg/L ,

25-35µg/L and 4.5 – 12.5µg/L in urine samples [22, 23]. The

haematological and histopathological effect of tannery effluent

on fresh water species Tilapia mossambica was studied. It is

reported that the toxic effect of tannery effluent caused

decreased red blood cells (RBC), erythrocyte sedimentation

rate (ESR) and packed cell volume (PCV) in Tilapia mossambica

[2].

Increase in the concentration of chromium inhibited

the germination of chickpea (C. arietinum L.) seeds and

decreased the seedling by inhibiting the formation of plantlets

[24]. Contamination of chromium in soil is directly

proportional to the soil particle size. In the soil extraction

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Journal of Advanced Materials, 2017, 1, 1: 13-18

procedure for the removal of chromium, the metal chelating

agent EDTA enhances the removal efficiency [25]. The effect of

chromium (VI) on seed germination of Ocimum basilicum L.

and Ocimum gratissimum L. has been studied, and inhibition in

germination of seeds were noticed. The EC50 of chromium (VI)

for Ocimum gratissimum was 90ppm and 45ppm for Ocimum

basilicum [26]. The exposure of the common plants Helianthus

annus and Solanum nigrum to the heavy metal chromium

contaminated soil, the vitamins and minerals values were

decreased and antioxidant property of Solanum nigrum is

found to be greater than Helianthus annus. The study proved

that chromium is toxic to the plants tested [27]. The exposure

of plants Brassica juncea and Sorghum vulgare to chromium (VI)

resulted in the inhibition of their growth, loss of biochemical

factors, vitamins, mineral and antioxidant properties has been

studied [28]. The chromium toxicity in plants depends on its

oxidation state. It gets accumulated in plants via transport

channels of sulfate and iron carrier ions. The plants growth is

inhibited by over accumulation of chromium that affects

photosynthesis and metabolic process [29]. The populations of

chromium tolerance bacteria in various regions of Vellore are

reported as Vaniyambadi (31%), Ambur (23%), Ranipet (21%),

Walajapet (13%) and Pernambut (12%). The strain Bacillus

cereus VITSCCr02 was found to have tolerance to chromium

(VI) up to 3300 mg/L [13].

4. REMEDIATION OF CHROMIUM

CONTAMINATION

Microorganisms and microbial derived products can

be used as bio-accumulators for soluble and particulate forms

of metals especially in dilute external solutions. Microbial

technologies may provide an alternative or addition to

conventional method of metal removal or metal recovery with

economically convenient [30]. The maximum inhibition

growth zone of Streptomyces spp.VITDDK3 is 30mm for

potassium chromate [31]. Enterococcus casseliflavus isolated

form tannery effluent was found to have highest potential to

the chromium (VI) is about 800µg/ml and it was confirmed by

agar diffusion and broth dilution method. It reduced BOD and

COD from the tannery effluent at normal room temperature

range (35ºC - 45ºC) and nearly neutral pH (7 - 7.5). The bacteria

(Pseudomonas sp., Microbacterium sp., Desulfovibrio sp.,

Enterobacter sp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella sp., Bacillus,), fungi

(Aspergillus and Nostoc) and blue green algae (Cyanobacteria)

have been studied for chromium biosorption [32]. The

microorganisms Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas

aeruginosa, Pseudomonas ambigua, Pseudomonas fluorescens,

Pseudomonas putida, Escherichia coli, Achromobacter eurydice,

Micrococcus roseus, Enterobacter cloacae, Desulfovibrio

desulfuricans and Desulfovibrio vulgari have been reported to

have chromium resisting property and they can reduce

chromium (VI) to chromium (III) by using chromium (VI) as

terminal electron acceptor while oxidizing the organic

compounds. The growth of SP8­ Pseudomonas putida and SP2­

Pseudomonas Plecoglossicida is highly inhibited by increasing

concentration of potassium chromate [33].

The pot culture study of vermin compost with, earth

warms (Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus eugeniae) and microorganisms

(Pseudomonas fluorescens, Trichoderma viride) have been studied

for the detoxification of chromium (VI). The study resulted

that with or without the addition of microorganisms and earth

warms, the vermin compost alone reduces the chromium (VI).

This is because of the biological material present in the vermi

compost made chromium (VI) to get reduced, insolubilized

and immobilized [34]. Adsorption of chromium by ragi husk

has been studied and various natural adsorbents like

sugarcane bagasse, palm flower, groundnut husk carbon,

walnut, hazelnut, almond shell, bale fruit shell, Cystoseira

indica, alligator weed, wheat bran, Catla catla scales, pistachio

hull powder, prawn shell activated carbon, Terminalia arjuna

nuts, neem saw dust and water hyacinth stem has been

reported [35]. The Enhanced phytoremediation approaches

phytostabilization, phytoaccumulation by roots with the help

of various environmental factors like organic matter,

phosphates, alkalizing agents and biosolids has been studied.

The presence of various environmental factors decreases

solubility and mobility of toxic chromium compounds and

enhances the accumulation in plant root. The

phytoaccumulation of chromium is following the order

root>stem>leaf [16].

5. SORPTION STUDIES ON CHROMIUM

REMOVAL

Biosorption of chromium (VI) by bacteria

(Streptococcus equisimilis, Staphylococcus saprophyticus), Fungi

(Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus niger, Hirsutella), algae

(Spirogyra, Sargassum sp., Eclonia, Lyngbya putealis (HH-15)), tea

leaves and chromium (III) by bacteria (Gram positive

Coccobacilli bacteria (NRC-BT-2), methylated yeast biomass and

hen eggshells, petiolar felt-sheath of palm and chromium

removal by rice bran has been reported [36]. The adsorption of

chromium (VI) by natural low cost adsorbents like neem

sawdust (NSD), mango sawdust (MSD), wheat shell (WS),

sugarcane bagasse (SB) and orange peel (OP) has been

investigated for the adsorption efficiency of chromium (VI)

with the influence of pH, biomass, initial metal concentration

and contact time. The biosorption efficiency was found to be

decrease with increase in pH and optimum is found to be 2.

The adsorption of NSD, MSD, WS, SB, OP were reported as

58.82mg/g, 37.73mg/g, 28.08mg/g, 23.8mg/g and 19.80mg/g

respectively [37].

The resistance and bioaccumulation of chromium for

the fungal strains isolated from tannery effluent Penicillium

chrysogenum, Aspergillus niger and bacterial strains

Brevibacterium sp. and Enterococcus casseliflavus has been

reported [38]. The biotransformation, reduction of Cr(VI) and

COD removal from synthetic and acute industrial water for the

aerobic suspended growth system, aerobic attached growth

system and anoxic attached growth system with known

chromium (VI) reducing strain Arthrobacter rhombi - RE

(MTCC7048) isolated from contaminated soil has been studied

[4]. Applications of biofilms prepared from bacterial species

Bacillus subtilis VITSCCr01 and Bacillus cereus VITSCCr02 for

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Journal of Advanced Materials, 2017, 1, 1: 13-18

the removal of chromium (III) has been studied with different

supporting materials like glass beads, pebbles, and coarse

sand. The study reported that both the bacterial species

removed 98% of chromium (III) on coarse sand, because it had

more surface area [11].

The biosorption by brown algal biomass Sargassum

wightii and green algal biomass Caulerpa racemosa were studied

for the removal of chromium (III) and chromium (VI) and it

was found to be pH dependent and the optimum pH was

found to be 5 [39]. The adsorption and desorption of

chromium by brown algae Padina tetrastromatica hauck, red

algae Gracilaria edulis S.G gmelin and green algae Ulva

reticulata forsskal were studied and reported that the pH,

initial metal concentration and biomass dosage were

significantly affected the adsorption and desorption process.

The study proved that the reuse of biosorbents after

desorption of chromium [40]. Biosorption of chromium by

Bacillus s., and Staphylococcus sp. has been studied [41]. The

strain TVU-K1 (Bacillus sp. Strain PV26) isolated from treated

tannery effluent has reported to have tolerance of chromium

(VI) about 400mg/L [6].

The chromium reduction % and biosorption % of

microalgal species Anabaena, Oscillatoria, Phormidium, and

Spirogyra isolated from contaminated effluent were found to be

70.96%, 80.64%, 76.12%, 74.83% and 75.48%, 80.64%, 79.35%

and 77.41% [42]. Biosorption of chromium by Spirogyraha has

been studied with different conditions and the parameters pH,

initial metal concentration, biomass and contact time [43]. The

phycoremediation of chromium (VI) by cyanobacterium

Arthrospira platensis has been studied and the biosorption %

and reduction % was found to be 98.5% and 73.5% [42]. The

batch reactor study had been done for the immobilized

consortium of fresh water isolates, Oocystis, Nostoc, Syncoccus

and Desimococcus species on calcium alginate gel via

entrapment technique for removal of chromium (VI). Spirulina

platensis - alginate beads consortia was used for biosorption of

chromium and algal species Ulva lactuca, Spirogyra sp.,

Cladophora albida, Chroococcus, Nostoc calcicola, Chlorella and

Sargasam sp. had been reported for the removal of chromium

(VI) [44]. The Biosorption maximum of chromium (VI) by two

fungal strains Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus isolated from

tannery effluent of Ambur were found to be 98.61%, 98.14%

and the Biosorption maximum of chromium (VI) by two

fungal strains Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus fumigattus isolated

from Ranipet tannery effluent was found to be 97.66% and

97.13% [20]. The chromium reducing bacteria Pseudomonas

fluorescens LB 300, Enterobacter cloacae HO1, Bacillus sp. had

been reported for their tolerance to chromium and degradation

efficiency [3]. Under acidic pH, the adsorption of chromium by

cow dung was found maximum [8]. The adsorption of

chromium by low cost bio waste materials paddy straw,

coconut coir pith, corn husk and pine apple in batch

experiments were studied. The study resulted that adsorption

is directly proportional to contact time, adsorption dosage and

initial metal concentration with optimum pH 2 and after

equilibrium, the adsorption remained constant [45].

6. CONVENTIONAL APPROACHES

Chromium can be removed from contaminated soil

by sodium bisulfate (chemical reduction method) and by lime

and caustic soda (chemical precipitation method) [46]. The

electro kinetic phytoremediation of Brassica juncea seeds for the

removal of chromium has been studied and which was found

to be decrease from anode to cathode [47]. Various methods

like excavation (physical removal), stabilization (traditional

remediation), phytoremediation, use of nanotechnology (in-

situ remediation) and other biological methods for heavy

metal removal (biosorption by micro-organisms), activated

sludge process, aerobic digestion and stabilization ponds have

been studied [10].

7. CONCLUSIONS

The chromite ore is the primary natural source for

chromium metal. Since no elemental form of chromium is

available in nature, the elemental process of chromium itself

produces toxic carcinogen chromium (VI) as intermediate. The

chromium can be obtained from chemical industries for

commercial purpose. From the overall investigations of

pollution sources and treatment methods taken in Vellore, we

conclude that employment of microbiology in the remediation

aspects has been well established and the low cost sorbents

like agricultural and bio waste material can be used for better

adsorption and metal recovery process. The success of

microbial biosorption for the removal and recovery of

chromium is depend on pH, biomass concentration, contact

time, BOD and COD content of the effluent. The microbes that

naturally exist in chromium contaminated soil and effluent

water were reported to have chromium resisting and

accumulating property, so enhanced microbiological

techniques can be applied for the strain improvement and

metal recovery efficiency.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Authors thank School of Bioscience and Technology

(SBST), VIT University for their support and providing

facilities to access journals.

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