OENOVITI INTERNATIONAL network

CoordinatorsPierre-Louis TeissedreLiliana Martínez

OENOVITI INTERNATIONAL network

25th April 2018

7th International Symposium

Opportunities and challenges for vine and wine productionby preserving resources and environment

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Academic partnersUniversity of Cuyo Mendoza – Mendoza, ArgentinaCharles Sturt University – Wagga Wagga, Australia

Adelaide University – Adelaide, AustraliaUniversity of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences – Vienna, Austria

Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile – Santiago, ChileFaculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb – Zagreb, Croatia

Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb – Zagreb, Croatia Bordeaux Sciences Agro – Gradignan, France

Ecole supérieure d’agriculture d’Angers – Angers, FranceKedge Business School Bordeaux – Talence, France

Montpellier Supagro – Montpellier, FranceUniversity of Bordeaux – Villenave d’Ornon, France

INP – Toulouse, FranceAgricultural University of Georgia – Tbilisi, Georgia

Hochschule Geinsenheim University – Geisenheim, GermanyTechnological Educational Institute of Athens – Athens, Greece

Agricultural University of Athens, GreeceUniversity of Pécs – Pécs, HungaryUniversity of Milano – Milano, Italy

University of Padova – Padova, ItalyUniversity of Torino – Torino, ItalyUniversity of Udine – Udine, Italy

University of Verona – Verona, ItalyUniversity of Yamanashi – Yamanashi, Japan

Graduate School of Agriculture – Kyoto University – JapanUniversity of Saint-Joseph – Zahlé, Lebanon

University of Lisbon – Lisbon, Portugal University of Porto – Porto, Portugal

University of Tras-os-Montes e Alto Douro – Vila Real, PortugalUniversity of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest – Bucharest, Romania

University of Nova Gorica – Vipava, SloveniaStellenbosch University – Stellenbosch, South Africa

Instituto de Ciencias de la Vid y del Vino (ICVV) – Logroño, SpainUniversitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain – Tarragona, Spain

Changins - Haute Ecole de Viticulture et Oenologie – Nyon, SwitzerlandCukurova University – Adana, Turkey

Ege University – Izmir, TurkeyOdessa National Academy of Food Technologies – Odessa, Ukraine

University of California – Davis, USAResearch CentresAgroscope – Switzerland

Agricultural Institute of Slovenia – Ljubljana, Slovenia Australian Wine Research Institute – Glen Osmond, Australia

Centro di Ricerca per la Viticoltura – Conegliano, Italy Institut de Recerca i tecnologia agroalimentaries (IRTA) – Caldes de Montbui, Spain

Industrial partnersBiolaffort – Bordeaux, France

Concha y Toro – Santiago de Chile, ChileChâteau Pichon-Longueville – Pauillac, France

Lallemand – Blagnac, FranceAlfa Laval Wine S.P.A – Firenze, Italy

Linde Gas – Arluno, ItalyMBF – Veronella, Italy

Preparatori d’UVA – Manzano, ItalyVason / JU.CLAS – (Pedermonte) Verona, Italy

SOGRAPE – Avintes, PortugalWinetech – Suider Paarl, Portugal

Feuga – SpainMiquel Torres SA – Vilafrance del Penedes, Spain

SERESCO – Oviedo, SpainE&J Gallo Winery – Spain

VITEC – Falset, Spain

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OENOVITI INTERNATIONAL network

[ Forward ]

Opportunities and challenges for vine and wine production by preserving resources and environment

he OENOVITI International network is the first and only international network for training andresearch in oenology and viticulture. It aims to promote exchanges of expertise and know-howbetween stakeholders in the academic and industrial winemaking worlds. The network offers its

members a high level of visibility on the international scene, enabling them to maximise opportunities viajoint research and training projects, as well as discussions. The OENOVITI International network has grownfrom 21 partners in 2012 to nearly 57 partners across the globe in 2018, forming an international consor-tium of institutions known for their excellence in the field. Its members are organised into seven interdis-ciplinary and thematic working groups. Born from the network, the joint OENODOC doctoral programmewas created with the aim of developing an international doctorate specific to the oenology and viticulturesector. The OENODOC consortium includes in particular members of VINTAGE and EMaVE, which offerthe VINTAGE and VINIFERA and recently WINTOUR (oenotourism) Erasmus Mundus Master Courses res-pectively.The different working groups deal with the subject areas of climate change, extended oenology, extendedviticulture, wine tourism and wine management, industrial transfer, development, strategic monitoring andinternational relations, and wine and health. The OENOVITI International network’s innovative approach isbased on staff and student mobility exchanges of experience and good practices between disciplines, andthe establishment of a common educational and training framework. The programmes also bring togethernumerous partners in industry and the socioeconomic world. In additional to financial support, they alsooffer their expertise in conducting R&D to high standards of excellence and provide professional opportu-nities for young graduates.This network, coordinated by the University of Bordeaux, enables the academic and industrial worlds tounite to take up the many challenges of oenology and viticulture research. Today, under the frame of cli-matic changes and protection of world resources, wineries and vineyards need to commit themselves tosustainable agriculture with an elevated degree of environmental stewardship. Today we need to pay acareful attention to nature and to promote renewal of resources with protection of environment. The wine-makers are able to truly exhibit the beauty of their unique local terroir and produce quality wines with aneco-responsible way.The Opportunities and challenges for vine and wine production by preserving resources and environmenthave become a priority. This topic is of great importance for the wine sector to adapt and preserve an inte-grated grapes and wines production. Several questions are approached during this symposium:Viticultural aspects for wine and table grapes, Winemaking and ageing aspects, Economical marketing,consumers’ preferences aspects, Health and Safety aspects, Innovation in sustainable production forvines and wines.Can we change or improve practices for a better production of grapes for wine production with preserva-tion of resources and environment in the vineyard, winery, cellar and during distribution of final product?What practices should we encourage as sustainable practices in the vineyard and winery? Measuring per-formance rather than tracking practices is also a change in approach to determining levels of sustainabi-lity. For an innovative sustainable oenology several points have to be considered: CO2 reuse solutions,Water management and saving, Renewable energy, Good practices in oenology, Functional biodiversity,Management and use of by-products in oenology, Climate change adaptation in oenology. If we imple-ment practices to improve resources-use efficiency, then we should measure resources use over time inrelation to yield and quality to see if our practices are, in fact, improving resources-use efficiency. The vines

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and wine industry need to be supported to appreciate performance tracking, goal setting and continuousimprovement. These are the major points and questions of this symposium with the recognized scientistsand researchers in this field. All these questions are developed in this 7th symposium of OENOVITIInternational network and an adaptation demand for more environmentally friendly production withresources preservation can benefit to the vines and wines sector with potential innovation and alternativesthat need to be encouraged. The network enjoys particular support from Château Pichon-Longueville (AXAMillésimes group), the Foundation Bordeaux University (original interface between the university andsocioeconomic worlds), IdEx Bordeaux (an investment programme supporting the University ofBordeaux’s transformation and development drive) and all of the network's academic, research and indus-trial partners. We would like to thank Christian Seely (Managing Director of Château Pichon Longueville),and all the partners involved in the support, life and progress of the network, which will benefit the entirevine and wine sector.

[ Forward ]

Pierre-Louis TeissedreProfesseurCoordinateur Réseau Œnoviti International

N e w r e s i s t a n t g r a p e v a r i e t i e s a n d a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s i n v i t i c u l t u r e f o r q u a l i t y w i n e p r o d u c t i o n


ŒNOVITI INTERNATIONAL network

[ Contents ]Session I - Viticultural aspects for wine and table grapesEco-quali-conception©: p. 7agroecological transition in viticulture through Life Cycle Assessment

Christel Renaud-Gentié, Aurélie Perrin, Anthony Rouault, Emmanuelle Garrigues-Quéré, Marguerite Renouf, Séverine Julien, Magdalena Czyrnek-Delêtre and Frédérique Jourjon

Sustainable table grape production p. 14Vittorino Novello and Laura de Palma

Grape breeding above and below ground for sustainable viticulture p. 21Summaira Riaz, Alan Tenscher, Dániel Pap, Rebecca Wheeler-Dykes, Kevin Fort, Claire Heinitz, Jake Uretsky, Cecilia Agüero, Nina Romero and M. Andrew Walker

Viticulture in the Cuyo region of Argentina p. 24Juan Bruno Cavagnaro

Session II - Winemaking and ageing aspectsCreative and sustainable enology p. 29

Sebastian ZuccardiApplication of unripe grapes p. 30as a technology alternative for reducing alcohol content and pH of red wines

Martín Fanzone, Santiago Sari, Esteban Bolcato, Mariela Assof, Viviana JofréWine quality production and sustainability p. 31

Pierre-Louis TeissedreMicrobial challenges in sustainable winemaking p. 38

Albert MasSession III - Economical marketing, consumers’ preferences aspectsFrom the nexus water-energy-food production to the nexus water-energy-wine added value system p. 47in ArgentinaGennari Alejandro, Estrella Jimena, Riera Sebastian and Martin DavidThe potential of wine-tourism for preservation of agricultural resources for the future generations : A case study of Katashimo Winery in Japan p. 54

Shigeaki Oda, Toshihiro Takai, Noriaki Kawasaki, Kiyohiko Sakamoto, Rikko Togawa, Haruhiko Iba, Yasushi Kobayashi, Takeshi Ueda and Tasuku Nagatani

Argentina breaking new ground - Present and future of the Argentine wine p. 58Magdalena Pesce

Session IV - Health and Safety aspectsA very promising molecule : resveratrol, induced synthesis and health benefits p. 61

Liliana Martínez, Martín Durán, Emiliano Malovini, María Inés de Rosas, Leonor Deis and Juan Bruno Cavagnaro

Session V - Innovation in sustainable production for vines and winesSustainability research and innovation at Viña Concha y Toro p. 69

Gerard Casaubon, Valentina Lira and Alvaro GonzálezScience to preserve nature and culture p. 74

Fernando Buscema and Laura CatenaSustainability program in wine production p. 75

Luis RomitoDevelopment of a smartphone app for berry quality assessment p. 79

Li-Minn Ang, Kah Phooi Seng, Alex Oczkowski, Alain Deloire and Leigh M. Schmidtke



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Opportunities and challenges for vineand wine production by preserving

resources and environment

Session I - Viticultural aspects for wine and table grapes

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Eco-quali-conception©: agroecological transition in viticulturethrough Life Cycle Assessment

Christel Renaud-Gentié1, Aurélie Perrin1, Anthony Rouault1, 2 , Emmanuelle Garrigues-Quéré1,Marguerite Renouf1, 3, Séverine Julien1, Magdalena Czyrnek-Delêtre1 and Frédérique Jourjon1

1GRAPPE Research Unit –ESA-INRA, Université Bretagne Loire, École Supérieure d’Agriculture (ESA), 55 Rue Rabelais, B.P. 30748, 49007 Angers cedex 01, France2ADEME, Service Forêt, Alimentation, Bioéconomie, 20 avenue du Grésillé, 49000 Angers, France 3School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072, Australia

Abstract : Quality viticulture faces the double challenge of agroecologic transition and protection of product quality.The eco-quali-conception© approach proposes a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)-based design of vineyard technicalmanagement routes1 (TMRs), which also accounts for grape quality. As a multicriteria environmental assessmentmethod, LCA considers an array of impact categories and creates a picture of the entire life cycle of the product. Aframework was developed for using LCA to assess TMRs, as well as a customised tool for easier calculation andinterpretation (VitLCA). Main hotspots were identified on 5 Loire Valley contrasted TMRs.In collaboration with extension services and a wine cooperative, we developed and implemented the participativeEco-quali-conception© approach. It consists in workshops organised with winegrowers and technicians facilitatedby researchers with specific tools and database (VitiPoly and Viti LCA Database). The workshops integratewinegrowers knowledge with the expertise of the researchers and technicians, to create and assess new TMRs basedon LCA, but also on their quality implications. Challenges and perspectives are identified and discussed, such as theinclusion of economic aspects in the approach, the scaling up of Eco-quali-conception© participatory approach tofarm and territory scales, and the inclusion of new stakeholders like consumers in the approach.

Keywords : environment, winegrowers, vineyard management, practice change, participative ecodesign

*Corresponding author : [email protected] 7

OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES FOR VINE AND WINE PRODUCTION BY PRESERVING RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT

IntroductionWinegrowers are increasingly scrutinized by mediaand required to take the path of agroecologicaltransition, i.e. the transformation towards moresustainable viticulture (Beudou et al., 2017), byvineyards stakeholders, consumers (Jourjon et al.,2016; Jourjon and Symoneaux, 2014) and markets.Viticulture, which occupies more than 780 000hectares in France, can indeed affect many aspects ofthe environment (Christ and Burritt, 2013; Renaud etal., 2011). It is therefore essential to facilitate thisagroecological transition by a rapid evolutiontowards more environment-friendly vineyardtechnical management routes (TMRs). However,quality is essential for the wine sector, especially inProtected Denomination Origin (PDO) wines, and itis important that environmental objectives do notcompromise product quality. Eco-quali-conception© is defined by ESA (2016) asan overall approach aimed at the implementation of

improvements to technical or technologicalmanagement routes, allowing dual performance fromboth an environmental point of view and also productquality. The design of agricultural systems can integratevarious degrees of innovation (Meynard et al., 2012)and be led by the farmers or by the agronomists for orwith the farmers. In viticulture, in France, the designof new systems driven by environmental objectiveshas focused mainly on the decrease of pesticides use(Barbier et al., 2011) in the frame of the Ecophytoprogram. The whole life cycle of the « grape »product has not been integrated into the existingapproaches. The ecodesign approach, originally applied tomanufactured products, has been very recently

1 Technical management routes (TMRs): logical successions of technical options designed by the farmers

(Renaud-Gentié et al., 2014)

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applied to agricultural productions (Kulak et al.,2016). Ecodesign is «the integration of environmentalaspects into Product Development Processes (PDP)with the aim of reducing adverse environmentalimpacts through the product life’s cycle» 14006:2011& ISO 14001:2015 (SME). Life cycle assessment (LCA) is the methodrecommended for the environmental assessment inecodesign. It allows the assessment of existingprocesses and to simulate new scenarios. Comparedwith other assessment methods, the multi-criterianature of LCA allows several environmentalobjectives to be considered at the same time in theeco-design process. LCA considers an array ofenvironmental impacts, and all the phases of theproduction process so that burden shifting can beavoided, like a decrease of local environmentalimprovements causes an increase of impactselsewhere or like a decrease in an impact categoryresults in an increase in another one (Jolliet et al.,2010). Therefore, all the elements involved in theproduct production are included in the calculation ofimpacts from the extraction of raw materials throughthe manufacture of inputs, materials and buildings,the transport until the end of life of the product. LCAcalculates many impacts, such as the consumption ofwater, mineral and fossil fuel resources and thedamage caused by the emission of pollutants to theenvironment (global warming, eco- and humantoxicity, water quality) It is an internationally standardised method foranalysing environmental impacts through the ISO14040 to ISO 14049 series (ISO 2006a), andrecognized by the French and European publicauthorities as a reference method for theenvironmental labelling of products (Finkbeiner,2014).The application of LCA has been considerablyrefined over the past twenty years in agriculture. Itsuse in the wine sector is more recent (Aranda et al.,2005; Claudine and Fearne, 2011; Petti et al., 2010).Most recently, it has been applied to assess the grapeproduction in detail (Bellon-Maurel et al., 2014 ;Renaud-Gentié et al., 2014b; Rouault et al., 2016;Vázquez-Rowe et al., 2012a). It is deemed to be oneof the most suitable methods for assessingimprovement opportunities for the wine growingpractices. Nevertheless, LCA does not generate thealternative solutions necessary for the eco-designprocess; these must be generated separately. This paper explains and illustrates the interest, andstate of the art and challenges of LCA to support theagroecological transition in viticulture by Eco-quali-

conception©. Through an overview of the researchachievements and perspectives of the GRAPPEResearch Unit, we show i) how the method could beused to assess vineyard technical management routes,ii) how it can support participative eco-design ofvineyard TMRs, iii) how to include the qualitydimension in TMR ecodesign : Eco-quali-conception©, and finally we discuss iv) the futurechallenges for Eco-quali-conception®.How LCA can be used to assess vineyardtechnical management routes 1. Methodological approachWe identified the LCA approach appropriate forassessing the environmental impacts of vineyardTechnical Management Routes (TMRs), at fieldscale, to permit the choice of the most eco-efficienttechnical operations and TMRs.It was designed and tested on five contrasted MiddleLoire Valley real-life TMRs (Renaud-Gentié et al.,2014a), all managed to produce dry white CheninBlanc PDO wines.The methodological approach that was established(Renaud-Gentié et al., 2015) comprised of:i) system definition which includes productive and

non-productive phases of the perennial system, wherethe non-productive phases (planting, grubbing,cultivation of the young plantation, etc.) areamortized over the lifespan of the vine;ii) the choice of the most suitable and availablemodels for calculating direct emission of pollutantfrom the vineyard;iii) the customization of the pesticide’s emissioncalculation model, Pest LCI 2.0 to viticulture specificneeds iv) impacts expressed per « kg of grapes » producedand « ha of vineyard » both over a production year .The calculations use primary data collected from thewinegrowers, and secondary data from localexpertise, literature and databases, from which arecalculated the flows of substances to and from thestudied system. This is the Life Cycle Inventory(LCI). Viticulture examples of LCI data are, thequantity of pesticide active ingredients emitted todifferent parts of the environment (air, water, soil),and the volumes of crude oil consumed by thesystem, both in the vineyard and in backgroundproduction processes.2. Hotspots identification and TMR comparisonFrom the LCI data, the environmental impacts areestimated through a process called characterization,


which generates impact indicators for a range ofimpact categories (global warming potential,eutrophication, ecotoxicity, etc.).

The Figure 1 shows an example of contributionanalysis for two impact categories - global warmingand fresh water ecotoxicity. It compares the impact ofthe 5 studied viticulture TMRs and it identifies whichaspects of the TMR contribute most to the results..

We identified the main environmental hotspots in the5 TMRs to be on-farm diesel use and relatedemissions due to the use of tractors in mechanisedoperations, production and transport of trellis postsand wire, fertilisers production and their on-fieldemissions, and to a lesser extent, emissions ofpesticides (Beauchet, 2016; Renaud-Gentié et al., inprep. ; Rouault et al., 2016). Water use was not ahotspot, as it is very low compared to irrigatedvineyards (Fusi et al., 2014). Less impacting TMRswere identified. The impacts of the same TMRproved to vary inter-annually due to practicemodifications, mainly in relation to climaticconditions (Renaud-Gentié et al., 2016), aspreviously observed by (Vázquez-Rowe et al.,2012b). However, this variation was modulated bythe type of farming system (organic/conventional)(Beauchet et al., in prep). For this reason,environmental performances of a given type of TMRshould be assessed on a set of different climatic years.

How can LCA support participative Eco-design of vineyard management routes

Innovative technical management routes may bedesigned by groups of expert agronomists, using atechnique called prototyping, after Lafond and Metral(2015). However, in order to increase adoption ofinnovations through motivation and autonomouspractice choice (Garini et al., 2017) and to build onfield actors’ expertise, we chose to develop and applyparticipative Eco-design in viticulture, whichinvolves the main conceptors of new grapeproduction processes, i.e. the field actors.The approach that we are developing aims tointegrate scientific and local knowledge, in order toproduce new knowledge useful for supportingpractice change and informing advisers and policymakers about the opportunities and barriers.Implemented in collaboration with viticultureextension service and a wine cooperative, it involvesorganising series of three workshops with groups ofwinegrowers and technicians and/or extensionofficers. The first two workshops aim to redesignmore environment-friendly TMRs, guided by theLCA results of the actual TMRs that are based ondata collected from some members of the group. The3rd workshop is dedicated to the assessment of thequality implications of the new TMRs.This approach requires LCA to be used in a particularway. Indeed, considerable work has been done tomake the LCA results understandable by theparticipants, and to facilitate the rapid identificationof the hotspots, so that they can be addressed(Rouault et al., in prep).A prototype of an LCA game named VitiPoly wasdeveloped to facilitate the participative designprocess. It is composed of a simplified calculator thatprovides instant LCA results to the participantsduring the Eco-design workshops (Rouaultsubmitted), and a board with playing cards thatrepresent each technical operation (figure 2).The next step for facilitating easier ecodesign, is toalso integrate a database named Viti LCA Database.It characterises existing field operations, based ontheir environmental impacts, which can be used asbuilding block for the design and assessment of eco-efficient TMRs. This database for Loire Valleyvineyard currently compiles more than 600operations (Garrigues-Quéré et al., in prep).Bringing together various stakeholders, such as winegrowers, technicians and researchers to work on areal case study, changed the way the participantsviewed the TMRs, and led to the development ofinnovative ideas. A good understanding of theenvironmental impacts and their causes developed atthe beginning of the workshops, allowed the

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Figure 1. Comparative LCA contribution analysis forfive contrasting vineyard technical management routes(Chenin Blanc, Middle Loire Valley, 2011) for twoimpact categories Global Warming potential(GWP100a) using the IPCC 2007 method, and freshwater ecotoxicity potential (FwEtoxP) using theUSETox™ method. In percentage relative to the mostimpacting TMR.

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participants to generate alternative practices andalternative TMRs together. The approach enablesadvisers and wine growers to develop new skillsabout environmental evaluation. They use thiscapacity to consider eco-design collectively duringworkshops. Then they can integrate this knowledgeindividually at their own vineyard. Finally, thescientists acquire the local knowledge needed for thepractice change and to modify their researcher’sposture.Including the quality dimension - Eco-quali-conception©

Quality is a key aspect in PDO wine production andis dealt with in depth in the 3rd workshop of the Eco-quali-conception© approach. As part of the Qualenvic project (2012-2016), amethod of joint environmental and qualityevaluation, named CONTRA-QUALENVIC, wasadapted for viticulture to calculate an aggregatedsingle score for environmental performance fromLCA results as well as for multicriteria grape quality(Beauchet et al., 2017). The two aggregated markspermit to observe the trade-offs between quality andenvironmental performances.The aggregated CONTRA-Qualenvic environmentalscore is used in the Eco-quali-conception© workshopsto communicate to the winegrowers the overallenvironmental performance of their base case andnewly-designed TMR.Inclusion of quality considerations in the Eco-quali-conception© approach requires to assessing existing,measured quality parameters, and the predicted effectof practice change on grape quality, in order to thenassess the newly designed TMRs.

Predicting the effect of practice change on grapequality is a challenge, as quantitative modeling up tonow has permitted explanation of practice-qualityrelationships, but not prediction of the qualityimplications of practice change (Beauchet et al.,under review; Beauchet et al., 2014). A qualitativeapproach is used in the participative Eco-quali-conception© approach based on the experiences offield actors. to evaluate the quality implications ofTMR options.Perspectives and challenges for LCA use for Eco-quali-conception© in viticulture 1. Including the economic dimension The economic dimension is also critical in thewinegrowers’ decision process about practice change.It is being included within the scope of anotherparticipatory viticulture Eco-quali-conception©

activity within the Eco3Vic project (ADEME project,2016-2019). Therefore, the Viti LCA Data Basecontains, in addition to LCA results of vineyardtechnical operations, their production costs andmanpower requirements (time and cost) (Garrigues-Quéré et al., in prep). Moreover, decisions concerning practice change aretaken not only at field scale but also at farm scale.Therefore, economic indicators are being defined inrelation with the regional viticulture extension servicein the Eco3vic project too.2. Streamlining LCA for a wider use in viticultureand Eco-quali-conception© - VitLCA The data collection and calculation of a LCA can belong and complex, and life cycle impact results canbe difficult to interpret by non-LCA practitioners. Inresponse, customised LCA calculation tools havebeen developed to make LCA accessible to fieldactors (Renouf et al., 2018). Such a tool designed forviticulture named VitLCA will soon be released. Itwill permit to non-expert users, like extensionofficers or non-LCA researchers, to collect data fromwinegrowers and rapidly conduct the LCAthemselves, and generate easily interpretable results(Renouf et al., submitted).VitLCA will also enable the comparison ofalternative TMRs for ecodesign. It should be includedin the Eco-quali-conception© chain of tools in thefuture. 3. Addressing methodological challengesSome methodological improvements are needed togenerate more accurate LCA results for viticulture.Some are being addressed through national orinternational research projects like i) the integration

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Figure 2. TMR Eco-quali-conception© workshopwith winegrowers facilitated with the Vitipolygame prototype including instant calculation ofLCA impacts.

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of impacts on biodiversity in LCA, ii) betterassessment of the impacts of copper and sulfur and,iii) quantification of the emission and impacts ofdegradation molecules of pesticides. Accounting ofnitrate emissions in viticultural context also needs tobe refined for LCA.4. Different scales and actors for differentobjectivesPractice changes that require investment in newequipment and/or changes to work loads andmanpower organisation are decided at the farm-scale,and based on economic and organisational rationales.It is thus important to scale-up the LCA methodologyfrom field scale to farm level, to move closer to thelevel at which decision-making occurs, and allowingthe integration of economic indicators.Finally, agroecologic transitions can also befacilitated through the inclusion of environmental-friendly practices in PDOs’ set of rules. One of thenext steps for the application of Eco-quali-conception© in viticulture is to operate at differentterritorial scale, which opens up new methodologicalchallenges for LCA application, and involves newtypes of stakeholders in the participatory process,such as consumers, and stakeholders in addition toviticulture professionals. Study of consumers’ perception of the generated orpossible practice changes would add useful newelements to winegrowers’ decisions, at the differentscales. Future projects include this dimension. ConclusionEco-quali-conception© provides a change pathwayfor winegrowers and other agents of change, whowant to design less impacting technical managementroutes (TMRs) for agroecologic transition. It has beenestablished for collective innovation with field actorsof viticulture, and based on consideration of both thelife cycle environmental impacts and product qualityconsiderations. It results in the generation of newshared knowledge by the participants.LCA, a multicriteria and holistic method ofenvironmental assessment, gives a powerful supportfor the assessment of viticultural TMRs and practices.Now that it has been adapted to viticulture, LCAmakes it possible to identify the main hotspots withinviticultural operations and to compare alternativescenarios, with a whole-of-farming systemperspective. However, the method remains complex.Therefore, a viticulture customised LCA calculationtool, VitLCA, that will soon be released, will makethe calculating faster and interpretation easier.

The methodological approach still needs to beimproved and refined before being made available tolarger audiences for autonomous use.Its results should now be completed by studies onconsumers’ perception of the generated practicechanges.Future development will involve the implementationof economic indicators, and that application of theEco-quali-conception© approach at farm level,because it is on this scale that main decisionsconcerning the wine production and investments aretaken. Territory scale involving various stakeholders inparticipative Eco-quali-conception© process in orderto better meet society wills is the next research front. AcknowledgmentsThe authors thank the winegrowers and techniciansparticipating in the workshops eco-design includingGuillaume Gastaldi and Marie Esmiller (ATV 49),and Robert et Marcel Cooperative staff.With the financial support of ADEME, Casdar, andRégion Pays de la Loire.BibliographyAranda, A., I. Zabalza, and S. Scarpellini. 2005. Economic

and environmental analysis of the wine bottleproduction in Spain by means of life cycleassessment. International journal of agriculturalresources, governance and ecology 4:178-191.

Barbier, J.-M., N. Constant, L. Davidou, L. Deliere,M. Guisset, O. Jacquet, D. Lafond, M.-L. Panon, andD. Sauvage., 2011. CEPviti : co-conception desystèmes viticoles économes en produitsphytosanitaires.

Beauchet, S., 2016. Évaluation multicritère d’itinérairestechniques viticoles associant l’évaluationenvironnementale par Analyse du Cycle de Vie avecl’évaluation de la qualité du raisin. Contribution auchoix des pratiques pour une amélioration desitinéraires techniques viticoles. . Ph.D, Universitéd’Angers, Angers.

Beauchet, S., V. Cariou, C. Renaud-Gentié, M. Meunier,R. Siret, M. Thiollet-Scholtus, and F. Jourjon. underreview. Modeling grape quality by multivariateanalysis of viticulture practices, soil and climate.OENO One.

Beauchet, S., C. Renaud-Gentié, V. Cariou, M. Thiollet-Scholtus, R. Siret, and F. Jourjon., 2014. Analysesmultivariées pour une meilleure compréhension despratiques viticoles et des facteurs du milieu afind’expliquer la qualité du raisin. In 37th WorldCongress of Vine and Wine and 12th GeneralAssembly of the OIV (Part 2). pp. 05008.

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Beauchet, S., A. Rouault, M.A. Renouf, M. Thiollet-Scholtus, F. Jourjon, and C. Renaud-Gentié. in prep.Inter-annual variability in the environmentalperformance of viticultural technical managementroutes - a case study in the Middle Loire Valley(Ffrance).

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Garrigues-Quéré, E., A. Rouault, A. Perrin, C. Renaud-Gentié, S. Julien, and F. Jourjon. in prep. Viti LCADatabase for grapes management eco-design in LoireValley, France. In 11th International Conference onLife Cycle Assessment of Food, 2018 (LCA Food).Bangkok, Thailand.

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Sustainable table grape productionVittorino Novello1* and Laura de Palma2

1Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali e Alimentari - DISAFA, University of Turin, Largo P. Braccini 2, I-10095 Grugliasco, Italy2Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, degli Alimenti e dell’Ambiente - SAFE, University of Foggia, Via Napoli 25, I-71122 Foggia, Italy

Abstract: Conventional table grape growing, as well as other industrial agriculture systems, consumes natural resources athigh and increasing rate. This process damages the environment and creates a serious risk to the prosecution of agriculturalactivity itself. To curb this process and improve sustainability of table grape production, all the actors need to have a wideview of the main aspects involved in the supply chain under environmental, economic and social points of view. The challengeis to obtain over the time a consistent quantity and quality of grape production to make economic profit without compromisingthe environment, the future use of natural resources and the related economic activities. An extensive literature has discussedthe most suitable definitions of viticulture sustainability and suggested how to pursue them taking into account, at the sametime, environment, economic and social needs.

Keywords: economic sustainability, environmental sustainability, social sustainability.

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DefinitionThe notion of sustainability is multifaceted. It has notbeen clearly defined for a long period during whichthe lack of consensus caused confusion around itsmeaning.

Sustainability, sensu lato, may be assumed as “theability of someone or something to continue and besustained over time” (Santiago-Brown, 2014), while,from the point of view of productive activities, it maybe defined as “the idea that goods and servicesshould be produced in ways that do not use resourcesthat cannot be replaced and that do not damage theenvironment” (Cambridge Business EnglishDictionary).Agriculture makes extensive use of natural resources.Moreover, after the Second World War, agriculturestarted with a massive use of farm machinery andsynthetic chemical products in order to increaseavailability of food at affordable costs. This model,which was subsequently referred to as “conventionalagriculture”, accelerated and intensified theexploitation of natural resources, with a serious riskof harm to the environment and to the prosecution ofagricultural activity itself.

As summarized by Santiago-Brown (2014), the WordCommission on Environment and Development of

the United Nations Organization was called to definethe lines of a sustainable development model and, inthe 1987, delineated it as the one that “meets theneeds of the present without compromising the abilityof future generations to meet their own needs”.Elkington (1998) stated this concept into the “ThreeBottom Line”, emphasizing that, for a sustainabledevelopment, the economic, social and environmentalaspects have to be considered at the same time.In viticulture, as well as generally in agriculture, theterm sustainability has been widely used to indicateenvironmentally friendly farming models, such asthose named as integrated, organic, biodynamic etc.In any case, since the aim of commercial viticulture isto obtain a consistent quantity and quality of grapeproduction to make economic profit, sustainablemodels cannot avoid to also consider economicaspects in addition to agronomical ones. Nonetheless,considering that specific environment and growingconditions may limit grape commercial yield,sustainable viticulture has to contemplate the viewthat any genotype, in any environment, has anoptimum cultural method apt to give the bestquantity/quality balance over years, provided that theviticultural techniques respect principles of vinegrowth and development. In this sense, the concept ofvine-balance, defined by Gladstones (1992) as thepoint where “vegetative vigor and fruiting load are in

*Corresponding author : [email protected]

02-NOVELLO_05b-tomazic 28/03/18 19:04 Page14

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equilibrium, and consistent with high fruit quality”may be associated to the concept of sustainability(Howell, 2001).The Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et duVin (OIV) has defined the sustainability invitiviniculture as the “global strategy on the scale ofthe grape production and processing systems,incorporating at the same time the economicsustainability of structures and territories, producingquality products, considering requirements ofprecision in sustainable viticulture, risks to theenvironment, product safety and consumer health andvaluing of heritage, historical, cultural, ecologicaland landscape aspects” (OIV, 2004).Further, five general principles of sustainabilityapplied to viticulture have been specified:1. Sustainable approach integrates environmental,social and economic aspects,

2. Sustainable vitiviniculture respects theenvironment,

3. Sustainable vitiviniculture is sensitive to social andcultural aspects,

4. Sustainable vitiviniculture maintain economicviability,

5. Sustainable initiatives require planning andassessment (OIV, 2016).

These theoretical principles are widely shared bygrape growers, as shown by the results of 14discussion groups involving farmers from Australia,Chile, New Zealand, South Africa and the UnitedStates. In facts, they defined sustainability as “thecontinuous pursuit of equilibrium between economic,social and environment variables and their trade-offover time”, and a sustainable vineyard as “one that isable to economically provide for the farmer whilemaintaining its ability to consistently produce overthe time” (Santiago-Brown, 2014).Table grape sustainability insightsIn the year 2011, the Organisation Internationale dela Vigne et du Vin approved the Guidelines forsustainable viticulture adapted to table grapes andraisins: production, storage, drying, processing andpackaging of products (OIV, 2011). This documentunderlined that the success of table grape industry ismarkedly dependent on the availability of naturalresources, such as solar energy, appropriate climate,good quality water, fertile soils, and that, for a long-term viability of the viticultural activity, all thesefactors have to be preserved through environmentallysustainable practices and integrated with theecological processes. Some main principles werestated.

First of all, the development of sustainable activitieshas to be based on the assessment of theenvironmental risks, starting with the most significantfor the specific regions where the activities arelocated. The main factors on which to assessenvironmental risks include : site and cultivarselection, soil and water management, wastewater,human resource management, biodiversity, solidwaste, energy use, air quality, neighboring land use,and agrochemical use. Moreover, programs finalizedto support and develop table grape and raisinenvironmental sustainability should include self-assessment or other forms of evaluation devoted toindividuate deficiencies and/or improvements inenvironmental performance. Finally, it was remarkedthat the selection of appropriate programs for asustainable table grape growing should be based onthe satisfaction of the three fundamental aspects :economic, environmental and social. The balance ofthe “three bottom line” varies with the individualenterprise, hence, enterprises require flexibility inestablishing environmental sustainable programswithin their specific operating contexts.1. Economic sustainabilityGenerally speaking, facing the challenges ofeconomic sustainability within a food supply chainrequires cooperation among companies operatingalong the chain. Manufacturers should increasecommunication and transparency as well as theirwillingness to share data. Suppliers should worktogether to achieve the pre-eminent common goals,such as reducing energy use, saving wateravailability, lowering the use of chemicals, improvingthe health and safety of workers and guaranteeingtheir labor rights. The center of the economicsustainable organization is the entrepreneur, whoneeds to have a complete view of the global chain ofproduction.However, large and small producers involved in thischain have different positions. Smaller farmers areoften quite isolated in the competitive marketdominated by bigger and more aggressive actors.These, later, are able to control and condition thechain to lower their own risks. Thus they may easilyask to improve the level of sustainable development.Smaller producers do not have the same possibilitiesas the bigger ones. Moreover, they often have to facethe social tensions including land grab, and diffuseillegality, and to operate with untrained workers. Inthis situation, one of the solutions suggested to smallproducers is to work in order to create a short supplychain in order to be more incisive within it(Vermeulen et al., 2013).


Several surveys on the economic aspects of the tablegrape industry were carried out among producers ofSouth Africa, where table grape industry is living aconsolidation of its production trend and exportability. Those studies pointed out that growers andmarketing companies with a higher economicsustainability are able to produce/attract greatervolumes of grapes to be exported to worldwidedestinations (Kirsten, 2012).In this context, the search on the current marketingmode showed that table grape industry consists oftwo main marketing models: the marketing agent andthe grower-exporter. This latter model is consideredas the most economically sustainable one since it haslower operation costs (Kirsten, 2012). Nevertheless,producers are convinced that, to achieve a consistenteconomic profit, it is very important a goodentrepreneurship that has to be related withappropriate management practices, socialresponsibility, inovations and joint withdiversification strategies aimed to reduce risks. Aspecific inquiry on this topic also pointed out thatthere are no economic matters for avoiding to followsustainable environmental practices (Ras andVermeulen, 2009).A considerable impact on economic sustainability isexerted even by the technological improvements thatfarms adopt to deal with factors limiting table grapeproduction. Some relevant limiting factors are relatedto the environment, as it occurs in the growing areascharacterized by warm climate and scarce rainfalls ;there, water availability becomes discriminant for theeconomy of production process due to the high costof natural resources. In those areas, as underlined byFernandez-Zamudio and coauthors (2007, 2008), theover-exploitation and related low quality of water isone of the main reasons why some vineyards becomemarginal and, with the concomitance of otherunfavorable circumstances, such as lack of personneland of economic incentives, they are prone to the bedefinitely abandoned. In order to maintain theeconomic profit it is necessary to introducetechnological improvements.Similar considerations can be extended to othernatural factors of production and to some mana-gement techniques, since the economic sustainabilityand environmental sustainability are closely related.2. Environmental sustainabilityReducing input and emissions is a central principle ofenvironmentally sustainable production.To cope with environmental sustainability, table grapeproducers must start with the selection of a vineyard

site suitable to allow correct grape maturation, tolimit pathogen pressure, to escape from frequentdangerous meteorological phenomena such as latefrost, hail, heavy rains between veraison and harvest,in order to diminish the use of resources necessary tocounteract all these problems. In this regard, the OIVguidelines underline, in particular, the importance of:i) evaluating the site viticultural aptitude andpotential ; ii) carrying out a soil study before any soilpreparation/cultivation ; iii) considering wateravailability and requirements of water resourceprotection. An appropriate vineyard establishmentshould first of all : to avoid replanting immediatelyafter previous planting removal and ensure thatresidual vine portions are eliminated, in order toelude pathogen contaminations; to care that surfacewater management is apt to limit run-off and erosion,and that surface and subsoil drainage are adequate; toensure that resident biodiversity is maintained; to useplant materials suitable for local conditions and freefrom diseases ; to choose vine density and trainingsystem compatible with the site viticultural potential ;to use amendments and fertilizers adequate to thevineyard requirements and the soil conditions, asthey result from chemical and physical analyses(OIV, 2011).According to the above mentioned guidelines,“materials and viticultural inputs such as plasticcovers, plant protection products, fertilizers and soilconditioners, gibberellins or other growth regulators,pre-drying products, as well as dipping solutions andpackaging materials, should limit environmentalimpact to a minimum and favour renewableresources. Their use should be restricted to theminimum quantities necessary to achieve the desiredoutcomes”. Hence, to improve the environmentalsustainability of table grape growing, culturaltechniques applied along the entire vine life shouldbe able, on one hand, to preserve natural resourcesstarting from the main ones that are soil and water,and, on the other hand, to reduce inputs of nutrients,energy, pesticides and hormones, as well as to reducepollution and waste during all the productive process.Several table grape producing areas have problems ofsoil composition with special regard to saltconcentration, since saline soils are diffused in thewarm-arid zones where the table grape growing ismostly spread. Interaction between characteristics ofsoil and of irrigation water determine the final levelof soil salinity. This problem has been studied inSouth Africa for many years by investigating, at aregional level, the soil salt state and its influence onplant growth. Trunk circumference was found to be areliable index of vine growth and vigor, and showed

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a negative correlation with electrical conductivity(ECe), and a positive correlation with soil pH. Hence,according to the vine age, it resulted quite wellpredictable basing on soil pH and ECe and wasconsidered useful to reflect sustainability in grapeproduction. Nevertheless, the studies showed thatrisks related to increasing water salinity, such as thelowering on fruit production and quality, could bemitigated with the use of gypsum or leachingirrigation (de Clercq and Van Meirvenne, 2006).Irrigation is a fundamental issue in table grapegrowing, since this crop requires a high waterconsumption to satisfy evapotranspiration demand,support heavy yield, and obtain berries with big sizeand high turgidity as demanded by the market. Assummarized by Permanhani and coauthor (2016),average evapotranspiration of table grape vineyards(ETc) may vary from 2.2 to 5.6 mm/day dependingon agro-environmental factors, such as evaporativedemand and soil type, as well as on vineyardfeatures, such as plant density, canopy architecture,net or plastic sheet, weed control, in addition to thefruit and rootstock genotype. Many importantproducing regions have rainfalls largely lower thanthese amounts. Moreover, the current increase induration and intensity of drought periods (Kovats etal., 2014) reduces the availability of water resourceand increases the interest for saving irrigation water.In this context, the high water use of table grapevineyards is fighting with the human and industrialconsumes, and its sustainability is strictly relatedwith the adoption of irrigation techniques able to savewater maintaining grape yield and quality, such ascontrolled irrigation, systems to supply water withhigh efficiency, combination between plant-basedestimation of water requirement and remote imagery.Regulated irrigation deficit has proved its high utilityin saving table grape irrigation water. Restoring 60-80 % of crop evapotranspiration (ETc) hasdemonstrated to increase the marketable yieldwithout penalizing sugar accumulation and berryweight, and 60 % of deficit irrigation after veraisonhas shown not to penalize the main grape commercialfeatures (Williams, 2000 ; Williams et al., 2010 ;Blanco et al., 2010 ; Conesa et al, 2016).Nevertheless, relevant variations in water useefficiency, grape yield and berry quality may beobserved under different growing conditions(Permanhani et al., 2016), as well as with differentirrigation strategies or grapevine genotypes (Novelloand de Palma, 1997). In Southern Italy, afterrestoring 80 % of the vineyard water use (ETc) frombud-break to harvest, performing results wereobtained with two seedless varieties differing in bud

fertility, berry weight and phenol accumulation.Shortening by 50 % the water supplied from veraisonto harvest, both cultivars showed small changes intheir performance, while, cutting 50 % of the watersupplied from bud-break to harvest, vine water status,bunch weight, berry quality and skin color weremarkedly penalized in one of the two genotypes,namely, the one characterized by small berry, difficultskin coloring, need of a great shoot number to ensurea consistent production. The other genotype, havingopposite features, showed less performing, but stillacceptable, grape quality (de Palma et al., 2018).Nutrition of table grape vineyard should be based onthe estimate of the vine mineral uptake, of theresidual concentration of soil minerals and of themineral release by soil organic matter. Hence,growers should decide amount and type of nutritionalinput considering soil/plant tissue analysis joint tocritical observation of the vines. In particular, amountand timing of nitrogen applications should beaccurately evaluated taking into account the patternof nitrogen requirement and uptake along the vinegrowing cycle, the soil type and management, theleaching risks. Recycled organic sources should bepreferred and fertilizers or containing substancesdangerous for the environment (e.g. heavy metals,organic micropollutants, pathogenic micro-organisms, etc.) avoided (OIV, 2011).Control and reduction of nutrient application can alsobe pursued applying the soilless cultivationtechnique, developed for table grapes especially inSicily (Buttaro et al., 2012; Di Lorenzo et al., 2013;Di Lorenzo et al., 2014a). This technique allows alsoto increase economic sustainability by getting adouble annual production ; in facts, when properlymanaged, soilless cultivation makes possible growingtwo vine cycles each year (Di Lorenzo et al., 2014b).Although the OIV guidelines recommends to limitthe use of plastic covers, this technique, provided thatrecyclable materials are adopted, may favorenvironmental and economic sustainability of tablegrape growing. In facts, plastic sheet covers protectvines and grapes from bad weather and modify thevineyard microclimate so that bunches are defendedagainst damages and, moreover, grape ripening/harvest may be advanced or delayed. Changes oflight and thermal microclimate influence vineecophysiological activity resulting, in many cases, inbetter bunch and berry quality. Finally, covers protectfoliage and bunches from the contact with the rainsthat stimulate disease attacks (Novello et al. 2000 ;Novello and de Palma, 2008; de Palma et al., 2012;Fidelibus et al., 2016). In the humid subtropicalclimate (Köppen Cfa) of Fayetteville in Arkansas

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(USA), growing vines under high tunnels allowed toreduce the number of sprays to three fungicide andtwo insecticide applications in comparison with six toten fungicide and four to six insecticide applicationsneeded in open filed (Garcia et al., 2016). In theNorthwest region of São Paulo State, one of the mainBrazilian areas for table grape production, plasticcover proved to reduce downy mildew pressure,resulting in 75 % less fungicide application respect tothe open field control (Holcman et al., 2014). Furtherstudies in Brazil confirmed the utility of overheadplastic cover in reducing amount and cost offungicide applications (Almanca, 2017). Neverthe-less, reducing the consumption of pesticides is evenmatter of appropriate sprayer calibration of (Pascuzzi,2016).Plastic sheets revealed to be also useful in loweringthe percentage of restored water. Recent trials carriedout in Chile on two varieties under plastic covershowed that 60 % of farm irrigation could be appliedwithout affecting the berry size and bunch weight(Selles et al., 2017). Nonetheless, in late spring and insummer, air temperature under cover is high and maypenalize leaf physiological activity and berryripening, especially when deficit irrigation is applied.Evaluating radiometric properties of plastic sheetsand their related effects on light and thermal regimemakes possible to individuate plastic materials apt toreduce those inconveniences also in plots where only50 % of ETc was restored (Vox et al. 2012, de Palmaet al., 2011-2012).3. Social sustainabilityIn the past, sustainable development was seen almostexclusively from the environmental point of view,and governments were considered the onlyresponsible for environmental protection, as well asfor social policies. This insight has changed along thetime and it emerged, more and more clearly, thatbusinesses interact with the society and thegovernments to produce global development (Mülleret al., 2009). Company business affect directly orindirectly the community and generate potential risks.Hence, as emphasized by Kristen (2012) for theSouth Africa table grape industry, marketingcompanies should have a social policy and governtheir own social projects aimed to create opportunitiesof education and training, and to improve healthstatus of population and employers.Social aspects are interconnected with the economicalones: in facts, if the growers can earn profit, they canpay the workers, if not, the workers may lose their job(Vermeulen et al., 2013). In South Africa, table grapevineyards grown in the Breede River Catchment area,

compared to orchards of other deciduous fruit speciesin the same area, resulted in the highest water useefficiency and number of jobs created per volume ofwater used into the production process (Pegasys,2010). In Mexico, table grape industry invigorated anarea at slack agriculture, like that of Sonora,achieving a better water use efficiency compared tothat obtained by other food products, such as cottonand wheat, and also the best economic return pervolume of used water, with benefits for workers.However, further expansion of table grape industryincreased water exploitation and sea-water intrusionto a very high extent (Carter and Alexander, 2012),putting at risk both the sustainability of farming andof jobs.

Understanding the interconnected functions andresponsibilities of private companies, market actorsand national government into the governance for thedevelopment of the table grape industry is essentialfor the social sustainability in its supply chain.

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Holcman E., Sentelhas P.C., Bellato Spósito M., FonsecaConceição M.A., 2014. Use of advisory systems andplastic covering in the control of downy mildew onvines of São Paulo, Brazil. 37th World Congress ofVine and Wine 2014. Mendoza, Argentina 9-14November. http://www.alice.cnptia. embrapa.br/alice/ handle/doc/1000972.

Howell G.S., 2001. Sustainable Grape Productivity and theGrowth-Yield Relationship: A Review. Am. J. Enol.Vitic. 52 (3), 165-173.

Kirsten J.A., 2012. Investigating the sustainability of thecurrent marketing models in the South Africans tablegrape industry. PhD Thesis, Master of BusinessAdministration, University of Stellenbosch, p 133.

Kovats R.S., Valentini R., Bouwer L.M., Georgopoulou E.,Jacob D., Martin E., Rounsevell M., Soussana J.-F.,2014. Europe, in: Barros, V.R., et al. (Eds.), ClimateChange 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, andVulnerability. Part B : Regional Aspects.Contribution of Working Group II to the FifthAssessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panelon Climate Change, Cambridge University Press,Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, pp.1267-1326.

Müller C., Vermeulen W.J.V. Glasbergen P., 2009.Perceptions on the demand side and realities on thesupply side: a study of the South African table grapeexport industry. Sust. Dev., 17, 295-310.

Novello V., de Palma L., 1997. Genotype, rootstock andirrigation influence on water relations, photosynthesisand water use efficiency in grapevine. Acta Hort.,449 (2), 467-473.

Novello V., de Palma L., 2008. Growing Grapes underCover. Acta Hort., 785, 353-362.

Novello V., de Palma L., Tarricone L., Vox G., 2000.Effects of different plastic sheet coverings onmicroclimate and berry ripening of table grape cv‘Matilde’. J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin, 34 (2), 49-55.

Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin, 2004.Resolution OIV CST 1/2004. http://www.oiv.int/public/medias/2074/cst-1-2004-en.pdf.

Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin, 2011.Resolution OIV-VITI 422-2011. http://www.oiv.int/public/medias/395/viti-2011-1-en.pdf.

Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin, 2016.Resolution CST 518-2016. http://www.oiv.int/public/medias/5766/oiv-cst-518-2016-en.pdf

Pascuzzi S., 2016. Outcomes on the Spray ProfilesProduced by the Feasible Adjustments of CommonlyUsed Sprayers in “Tendone” Vineyards of Apulia(Southern Italy). Sustainability, 8, 1307 (pp.18).

Pegasys, 2010. Water footprint analysis for the Breedecatchment, South Africa Report by Pegasys for theCatchment Management Agency, Breede Overberg,South Africa. Pegasys & BOCMA.

Permanhani M., Costa J.M., Conceição M.A.F., de SouzaR.T., Vasconcellos M.A.S., Chaves M.M., 2016.Deficit irrigation in table grape : eco-physiologicalbasis and potential use to save water and improvequality. Theor. Exp. Plant Physiol., 28, 85-108.

Ras P.J., Vermeulen W.J.V., 2009. Sustainable Productionand the Performance of South African Entrepreneurs

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in a Global Supply Chain. The Case of South AfricanTable Grape Producers. Sust. Dev. 17, 325-340.

Santiago-Brown I., 2014. Sustainability assessment inwine grape growing. Doctoral Thesis, School ofAgriculture, Food and Wine. School of MathematicalSciences. Adelaide Business School.

Selles G., Marfan G., Ferreyra R., Salazar C., Garcia V.,Montano C., 2017. Response of Thompson Seedlessand Timco seedless to different levels of irrigationunder plastic cover. 8th International Table of GrapeSymposium, Apulia and Sicily, 1-7 October 2017.Book of Abstracts, pp. 113-114.

Vermeulen WJ.V., Ras P.J., Müller C., 2013. Interactionson sustainability requirements in the South AfricanTable Grape industry: The position and challenges of

actors on the supply side. Afr. J. Bus. Manage., 7(17), 1679-1688.

Vox G., Scarascia Mugnozza G., Schettini E., dePalma L., Tarricone L., Gentilesco G., Vitali M.,2012. Radiometric properties of plastic films forvineyard covering and their influence on vinephysiology and production. Acta Hort. 956, 465-472.

Williams L.E., 2000. Grapevine water relations. In L.P.Chistensen (ed.) Raisins Production Manual. Univ.Calif. Div. Agr. Natural Resources Publications,Oakland (CA, USA).

Williams L.E., Grimes D.W., Phene, C.J. 2010. Theeffects of applied water at various fractions ofmeasured evapotranspiration on reproductive growthand water productivity of Thompson Seedlessgrapevines. Irrigation Science, 28(3), 233-243.

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Grape breeding above and below ground for sustainable viticultureSummaira Riaz, Alan Tenscher, Dániel Pap, Rebecca Wheeler-Dykes, Kevin Fort, Claire Heinitz, Jake Uretsky, Cecilia Agüero, Nina Romero and M. Andrew Walker1

Department of Viticulture and Enology, University of California, DavisOne Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616

Abstract : The cultivated Vitis vinifera L. is highly susceptible to a wide range of pests and diseases. Above ground, mildews(powdery and downy), bacterial diseases and other pests impede efforts to reduce pesticide use in viticulture. Phylloxera andvarious species of nematodes are constant threats below ground and are controlled with resistant rootstocks or pesticides. Thebreeding program at the University of California, Davis is developing both scions and rootstocks that provide resistance topests (phylloxera, nematodes), diseases (powdery mildew, Pierce’s disease) and biotic stresses such as salinity and droughtthrough classical breeding augmented with marker-assisted selection. Grape culture with disease resistant varieties androotstocks will greatly reduce pesticide applications and is a key for sustainable viticulture.

Key words : Powdery mildew, Pierce’s disease, nematodes, phylloxera, grape breeding



IntroductionThe history of grape breeding in North America goesback to before the early 1800s and was initiated bythe first settlers to the New World. Breeding effortssoon focused on developing hybrids of Vitis viniferawith North American grape species to combat severewinter cold damage, pests and diseases likephylloxera, Pierce’s disease (PD), mildews (powderyand downy), and multiple types of roots. In Europe,resistance breeding began with the inadvertentintroduction of the mildew diseases and acceleratedafter grape phylloxera was introduced in the 1860s.Breeding efforts to create phylloxera resistantrootstocks changed the world’s viticultural practicesand allowed this aggressive root pest to be controlled.As phylloxera spread, it became necessary for thevast majority of viticultural regions to use theseresistant rootstocks. Today, there are many grape-breeding programs around the world attempting toincorporate disease and pest resistance whileimproving the fruit and wine quality.The University of California, Davis grape breedingprogram uses conventional breeding techniques todevelop scion varieties that produce high quality fruitand resist PD and powdery mildew. It also breedsrootstocks to provide stable resistance to differentstrains of nematodes and phylloxera, as well astolerance to abiotic stresses such as salinity anddrought. Political pressure and population growth

worldwide will make water increasingly limited forviticulture, irrespective of climate change impacts.Thus, drought tolerance and associated tolerance tosalinity are crucial. Grape breeding can help in thetransition to a more sustainable viticulture withcultivars that require fewer pesticides and provideoptions for changing climates.Breeding for powdery mildewand Pierce’s disease resistance:The stacking of resistance loci from multiplebackgrounds is a useful breeding strategy to increasethe durability of resistance in the field. We haveidentified multiple sources of resistance to PD andpowdery mildew (PM) in North American, Chineseand Central Asian grape species (Table 1). Geneticmapping with DNA markers was used to identifygenomic regions and to develop DNA-based markersfor each resistance locus. There is a dual benefit ofusing markers in grape breeding. First, the screeningof plants with markers at an early stage allowsbreeders to advance only those seedlings with thetrait of interest. Those without the trait are eliminatedbefore being planted in the field. This saves time andresources. Second, and most importantly, only the useof markers allows forms of resistance from multiplebackgrounds and with the same phenotype, to becombined in a single line. With the help of markersand improved plant training, we have achieved a two-year seed-to-seed cycle, which made it possible to

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develop a new disease resistant variety with vinifera-like fruit quality in about 12 years instead of a moretraditional 25-30 years.Each year we carry out several stages of evaluationsin the field to choose selections that representoptimum vine and fruit characteristics. Figure 1details the sequence of observations used to evaluatevine and fruit quality traits in parallel with multipledisease resistance challenges in the greenhouse. Wealso carry out field trials of advanced PD resistantselections with the help of cooperators in various PDhot spots around California and in several southernStates where PD is endemic. We also present winesfrom PD resistant selections at the 94 % and 97 % V. vinifera levels to industry, faculty, staff and studenttasters at UC Davis and industry gatherings.Rootstock breeding for biotic and abiotic stressMost of the commonly used rootstocks weredeveloped in late 19th century to combat thephylloxera infestation in Europe and they have a verynarrow genetic base. In addition, soil borne pests are

adapting and developing specific virulence on certainstocks. Our rootstock breeding program is developingselections with stable field resistance to diverse formsof nematodes and phylloxera, as well as tolerance toabiotic stresses such as salinity and drought. Theprogram relies on the identification of resistancesources, genetic characterization of these resistances,and marker assisted selection to advance theprogram. We have collected a wide range of NorthAmerican grape species from the southwestern USAto provide a germplasm pool for breeding resistanceto root pests (root-knot, ring, citrus, lesion and daggernematodes, and different forms of phylloxera) andabiotic factors like salinity and drought (Figure 2).We constantly fine-tune the screens for resistance tonematodes and phylloxera, test new germplasm,evaluate existing breeding populations, select optimalindividuals, and evaluate mapping populations toidentify genomic regions for marker development.Each year crosses are made with the objectives ofimproving and combining strong sources of chlorideexclusion with deep rooting and broadly basednematode and phylloxera resistance.Salt screens are carried out at high concentrations(75mM NaCl) to select highly resistant accessionsfrom a wide range of germplasm for use in crosses.At the same time, we screen breeding populations todetermine the inheritance of resistances and developgenetic maps and markers.Harold Olmo collected accessions from Mexico asseed in 1961.Each year, thousands of seedlings from rootstockbreeding crosses are planted in the field andevaluated for horticultural traits (lack of brushygrowth, long internodes, good caliper canes) and easeof rooting. Seedling plants that do not meet thecriteria of a good rootstock are removed. Thus far, the

Figure 1. Schematic presentation of the vine and fruit evaluation process in-house and private labs

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Table 1. List of loci for PM and PD resistance breeding that are being used in the UC Davis breedingprogram. The use of markers allows us to combine multiple forms of resistance in a single line.

R Locus Source species Chromosome PM Run1 M. rotundifolia 12

Run2 M. rotundifolia 18Ren1 V. vinifera 13Ren4 V. romanetii 18Ren6 V. piasezkii 9Ren7 V. piasezkii 19

PD PdR1 American spp 14PdR2 American spp 8


rootstock grape breeding program has released fiverootstocks (GRN-1, -2, -3, -4 and -5) that provideresistance to multiple aggressive root-knot nematode

strains, dagger nematode and phylloxera, and do soin the presence of mixed nematode inoculations andat high soil temperatures where resistance oftenbreaks. The GRN rootstocks also resist phylloxera,several resist citrus and lesion nematodes; and GRN-1 resists all of these pests.

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge research funding fromthe CDFA Pierce’s Disease Board, California GrapeRootstock Improvement Commission, CaliforniaGrape Rootstock Research Foundation, AmericanVineyard Foundation, CDFA Improvement AdvisoryBoard, California Table Grape Commission and theLouise Rossi Endowed Chair in Viticulture.

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Figure 2. Map of our collections

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Viticulture in the Cuyo region of ArgentinaJuan Bruno Cavagnaro

Deparment of Plant Biology, University of Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina

Abstract : Énvironmental arid conditions on the west regions of Argentina determine that viticulture is only possible by usingirrigation, since annual rainfall is just 200 mm. Most water for irrigation comes from snow that precipitates in the Andesmountain during winter. Andes mountain is the great reservoir for water irrigation. In Argentina more than 80 % of wineproduction is consumed in the internal market. Wine and grape juice exportation is just 16 % of total production. Most grapevarieties are from European origin. Some varieties called “criollas” that although are Europeans in their origin, wereintroduced very early during Spaniard colonization. Our research team in Plant Physiology Laboratory, at the University ofCuyo, Mendoza, studied the effect of climatic changes on grape and wine characteristics like Malbec and Bonarda. Studiescombined in the experimental field increase of canopy temperature, water stress and plant hormones (Abscisic acid andJasmonic acid) sprayed from veraison to harvest. An additional environmental danger for viticulture sustainability in theregion is the presence of hail storms. Damages produced by hail are about 12 % in average, but in many areas the damage ismore than 100 %. However, many vineyards have anti-hail nets to avoid these damages. Our studies have obtained results thatwill be useful in the future to lowering damages over grape crops and, that way, to increase sustainability of viticulture in ourregion.

Keywords: viticulture in arid regions, water for irrigation, high temperature, water stress and plant hormones, sustainabilityand hail storms


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Environmental conditions on the west regions ofArgentina determine that viticulture is only possibleby the use of irrigation. Annual rainfall average isjust 200 mm occurring mainly during summer time(National Meteorological Service, Argentina). Mostwater used for irrigation comes from snow thatprecipitates in the Andes mountain during winter.Andes mountain are the greatest reservoir for waterirrigation (Leiva et al., 2008; Masiokas et al., 2006;Villalba et al., 2005). Through an extended web ofchannels it arrives to each farm. A less importantproportion of farms obtains water from undergroundholes. In the case of Mendoza the system isadministered by the own farmers through theDepartment of Irrigation. High temporal and spatialvariability is observed in rainfall storms. Mendozaand its northern neighbor state, San Juan, sum up to92 % of grape and wine production of Argentina.Total grape and wine production accounts to2,3 millions of metric tons and 1.950 millions ofliters. The climate of these states is sunny and warmduring summer, but wine quality is obtained becausemost vineyards are cultivated from 700 to 1,600 m ofaltitude (Grape and Wine Observatory).As said before, in Argentina, more than 80 % of wineproduction is consumed in the internal market. Wineand grape juice exportation is just 16 % (310 millionsliters) of total production meanwhile the internalwine and juice consumption rises to 1,650 millions

liters. Wine consumption in Argentina has diminishedin a consistent way in the last decade. According tothe Institute of Grape and Wine of Argentina theaverage consumption per person and per year is ofapproximately 20 liters. This consistent tendencyover the last decade puts in danger the economicalsustainability of viticulture in our country. Manyfactors influenced the decreasing trend. Among themost important ones we can mention: a) a change ofhabits in the population that historically consumewines : wine beverage was traditional inside homecustoms where most of the time wine was mixed withsparkling water. At present times the high incomingclasses choose expensive and sophisticated wines,that are scarce in volume. Besides, young consumersare strongly oriented to consume other drinks likebear y/o “fernet” (an alcoholic beverage made ofsome vegetables) mixed with some cola drinks. b) theeconomic factors: the present economic situation ofthe less income clases (but the most numerous one)have generated a retraction in the wine consumption.c) a competency of wine with other drinks : in thisaspect the two previous items add to reinforce thedeclining use of wine front other drinks that show avery powerful advertisement trend, difficult to followby the enology industry.A special remark should be mentioned respectingsparkling wines, which have shown an increasingtendency in the last decade in Argentina.


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Most grape varieties are from European origin. Themost important red wine varieties are Malbec,Bonarda Argentina, Cabernet-Sauvignon, Syrah, andPinot noir. White varieties for wine making are :Torrontes Riojano, Chardonnay, Chenin, and whiteSauvignon. Among white and pink varieties there aresome varieties called “criollas” that although areEuropeans In their origin, have been introduced veryearly during Spaniard colonization of those lands.They show a great adaptation to these climates. Themost outstanding variety Is Torrontes riojano, that hasacquired a well gained fame by the organolepticconditions of its wines. Malbec, the emblematicvariety of Argentina is another example of the specialcombination of “variety x climate” during centuries.In France, in its original region of cultivation, it is notconsidered a good variety, but here, Malbec obtainedsuch characteristics that it has been recognized overthe world as an outstanding variety.In order to gain knowledge about the varietalresponses to climate change in the Cuyo region, ourresearch team in Plant Physiology Laboratory, atUniversity of Cuyo, Mendoza, has been working onthe effect of environmental changes over grape andwine characteristics of some red varieties like Malbecand Bonarda Argentina, which are the most importantin respect to surface and grape production ofArgentina. Studies have combined the effects ofexperimental increase of canopy temperature, waterstress from the onset of veraison and plant hormones(like Abscisic acid and Jasmonic acid) sprayed atbunch of levels from veraison to harvest. Thesetreatments were applied under field conditions. Oneof the first conclusions was that not all varietiesrespond in the same way to environmentalconditions, avoiding generalizations about theseaspects. Bonarda Argentina showed consistent highervalues of anthocyanin respecting Malbec.Anthocyanin content in both varieties was different ineach year, indicating that year climate conditions caninfluence the anthocyanins levels. Experimentalincrease of temperature produced significantlowering of anthocyanins in both varieties ; but thecombination of high temperature + the hormoneAbscisic acid, compensated the detrimental effect ofhigh temperature. Malvidine-3 glucoside was themost important anthocyanin in both varieties, (70 %of the total content). For example, comparing Malbecwith Cabernet-Sauvignon : the first one seems toacclimate in a better way than the other whensubjected to high temperatures.An additional environmental danger for viticulturesustainability in the region is the presence ofhailstorms that usually occur during summertime.

Damage produced by hail is about 12 % in average,in the state. However, in many cases those stormsproduce more than 100 % damage in certain areas.For this reason an important proportion of vineyardsare protected with anti-hail nets. Previous studies ofthe group have shown that we can alleviate the effectof high temperature by covering plant canopy with ashade net that lowers 30 % of the incident radiation,without any effect on yield and grape quality. Basedon these results we can advise the use of anti-hail netswith a higher shading value and in that manner,obtain a combined effect of damage protection andbeneficial effects over canopy.In summary, our studies have obtained results thatwill be useful in the future to lowering damages overgrape crops and by that way to increase thesustainability of viticulture in our region.ReferencesNational Meteorological Service, Argentina.

Leiva, J.C.; Espizua, L.E.; Iturraspe, R.J.; Masiokas, M.H.;Norte, F.A.; Villalba, R. 2008. The response of theArgentinean glaciers to the climate of the XX andXXI centuries. Terra Glacialis, Special Edition, 179-192.

Masiokas, M.H. ; Villalba, R. ; Luckman, B. ;LeQuesne,, C. ; Aravena, J.-C. 2006. Snowpackvariations in the central Andes of Argentina andChile, 1951-2005 : Large-scale atmosphericinfluences and implications for water resources in theregion. Journal of Climate 19 (24), 6334-6352.

Villalba, R. ; Masiokas, M.H. ; Kitzberger, T. ;Boninsegna,, J. 2005. Biogeographical consequencesof recent climate changes in the southern Andes ofArgentina. En : Huber, U., Reasoner, M. andBugmann, H. (eds.), Global Change and MountainRegions: A State of Knowledge Overview. Advancesin Global Change Research, Vol. 23. Springer,Dordrecht, 157-168.

Grape and Wine Observatory. INV, Mendoza, Argentina.

Leonor Deis, Maria Inés de Rosas and Juan BrunoCavagnaro. High Temperature and Abscisic AcidModified the Profile of Anthocyanins in Grape (Vitisvinifera L.). Journal of Life Sciences 6 (2012) 758-765

Leonor Deis and Juan Bruno Cavagnaro. Effect of WaterStress in Grape Berries Cabernet-Sauvignon(Mendoza, Argentina) During Four YearsConsecutives. Journal of Life Sciences. Vol. 7, No. 9,(2013), 993-1001

Deis, L. ; Cavagnaro, J.B.; Venier M.; Quiroga, M.; DiMuccio, N. Efectos de la malla antigranizo (Sistemagrembuille) sobre el rendimiento en viñedos deMalbec. El vino & su Industria. Junio 2012. RevistaN°101.

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Projet2 25/11/08 18:27 Page 1




Session II - Winemaking and ageing aspects


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Creative and sustainable enologySebastian Zuccardi

Uco Valley, Argentina

Keywords: soils differentiation, time harvest, whole bunch, concrete vats



Since the year 2009, with the creation of theResearch and Development area, we startedexploring a new path, putting at test crucial decisionsin the winemaking process of our premium wines.We focused on wines that were a pure and sincereexpression of the different terroirs of the Uco Valleywithout leaving aside the interpretation of thedifferent harvestKey items we took into consideration:1. Classification and division of the different soiltypesSeparating vinifications according to specifics soiltypes, strengthens the origin of the grape through thesame varietal. The soils of the Uco Valley arealluvial. As a consequence, we find many variationsof soils, more specifically in rock depth ; thesevariations can be found within short distance ratiosFor this reason, the investigation of the soil wascarried out through the combination of technology(electromagnetic conductivity measuring probe attwo different depths, and NDVI measuring) ;observation of the different soil types ; and theexperience and commitment of our team, whocontributed with their visual inspection and grapetasting for the complete identification of the differentsoil types present in each vineyard.Timing during harvest is crucial for the future of thewine. In this aspect, the research was carried outthrough the vinification of grapes from different soilstypes, in different harvesting periods. This helped usincreasing the understanding of various soil types andtheir influence in grape ripening. For the test, it wasnecessary to establish some chemical parameters thatwe expect to find in the wine, to help us define thedifferent harvesting periods. Authentication came

conclusive once technical tasting was conducted asthe final decision of harvest for each variety, in eachmicro-region, of each vineyard and therefore eachsoil type.2. Whole cluster vinifications…in different percentages, causes (in certain terroirs),a particularly meaningful expression of the soil. Thisprovides tannic structure, increasing its agingpotential and naturally balancing its color. Wholebunch vinification also reduces the alcohol content ofwines. There´s something that has not been yetclosely studied and that is, whole cluster vinificationin those areas with high calcium carbonate content,magnifies the mineral texture in mouth. Our mid-term endeavor seeks to positively confirm suchstatement.3. The vatLast but not least, the vat where the wine iselaborated has great influence not only in thevinification process, but also in its aging. Running acomparison between vats of different materials(stainless steel, French oak barrels, concrete vats withepoxy and concrete vats with no epoxy) weconcluded that fermentation in concrete vats with noepoxy results in a more natural and pure expressionof the terroir. The reason: concrete is a more naturalelement composed by sand, mud, clay and rocks; andin concrete vats the wine is in contact with solidmaterials. By not using epoxy many benefits comealong: better development of indigenous yeasts, colorstabilization and better tannic structure due to themicro-oxygenation this type of material allows. Tofinalize, concrete let us work in a more sustainableway. This material allows us to save energy in thecontrol of temperature.

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Application of unripe grapes as a technology alternative for reducingalcohol content and pH of red winesMartín Fanzone1,*, Santiago Sari2, Esteban Bolcato2, Mariela Assof1, Viviana Jofré1

1 Laboratorio de Aromas y Sustancias Naturales, Estación Experimental Mendoza, Instituto Nacional de TecnologíaAgropecuaria (EEA Mendoza INTA), San Martín 3853, M5528AHB, Luján de Cuyo, Mendoza (Argentina) 2 Centro de Estudios Enológicos, EEA Mendoza INTA (Argentina)

Abstract: The impact of global warming in some wine regions of Mendoza (Argentina) implies in many cases importantdelay in the harvest date of grapes to achieve an appropriate phenolic maturity in red varieties, especially in seeds, resulting inhigh levels of sugar and low acidity. These parameters lead to wines with high pH and alcohol content, which generates lowacceptation in good part of the consumers, and important problems in chemical and microbiological stability. This problematiccan be addressed from viticultural, oenological or microbiological level. The aim of the present study is to provide atechnological alternative for reducing simultaneously the alcohol content and the pH of Malbec and Syrah wines fromMendoza. The assay began with the vinification of white grapes (cv. Sauvignon blanc) harvested at the beginning of veraison(2016 season), to obtain a product with high acidity and low alcohol content “green wine” that together with the «green juice»,without vinification, were used in the experiments of reduction and dilution of ripe grapes. Subsequently, the Malbec andSyrah grapes were harvested at two different moments (M1, 12.5% alcohol; M2, 14%) and elaborated following a standardprotocol. For each variety, it was obtained a total of 18 wines: 3 wines with M1 (1C) and 15 wines with M2 (3 control wines,2C; 3 wines with replacement of ripe grape must by green wine, 2RW; 3 wines with replacement by green juice, 2RM; 3wines with dilution of ripe grape must with green wine, 2AW; and 3 wines with dilution with green juice, 2AM). Generalanalytical parameters, phenolic composition, and sensory analysis were performed. In both varieties, the wines obtained fromthe different treatments (2RM, 2RW, 2AM and 2AW) showed similar levels of total phenols, tannins, anthocyanins andpolymeric pigments with regard to control wines (2C), and higher than 1C wines. At the same time, it was observed asignificant reduction of alcohol level (1-1.5%) and pH (0.1-0.15 units), and an increase in citric and tartaric acids (0.2 g/L),which resulted in higher color intensity with regard to 1C and 2C wines. Complementarily, the sensory evaluation revealed,for both varieties, that 1C wines presented less color intensity and more herbaceous character, 2RW and 2AW wines moreacidity and spicy aromas, and 2RM and 2AM wines more astringency and an intense violet hue. These preliminary results willbe complemented by characterization of individual phenolic composition. In conclusion, this simple and economical tool couldbe adopted by the industry for red wine production of low alcohol content and high chemical and organoleptic quality,satisfying the needs of the national and international market.



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Wine quality production and sustainability

Pierre-Louis Teissedre*

Univ. Bordeaux, ISVV, Unité de recherche Œnologie EA 4577, USC 1366 INRA, Bordeaux INP, 33140 Villenave d’Ornon, France

Abstract: The term sustainability was identified and defined by the World Commission on Environment and Developmentas: “a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirown needs.” Several existing systems and initiatives at wineries’level exist. Several green tactics can be employed by thewineries including solar power, recycled building materials, living soil roofs, natural ventilation, geothermal heating andcooling systems, drought-tolerant landscaping, and even insulation made of jeans scraps. Sustainable winery architecture is aglobal trend that needs to be developed. Principal aspects to consider for a wine sustainability production are developed withinnovations : CO2 reuse solutions, water management and saving, renewable energy, good practices in oenology andwinemaking processes, functional biodiversity, management and use of by-products in oenology, climate change adaptation inoenology. Many questions and challenges need to be explored to purpose advances for a more sustainable oenologyproduction. Interactions of oenologists, winemakers, chemists, microbiologists renewable energy and water specialists,processes specialists, computer and electronic scientists need to be encouraged to develop wineries adapted to climate changesscenarios with a sustainable, qualitative and economically compatible oenology production.

Keywords: grapes, wine, quality, sustainability, innovation



IntroductionIn 1987, the Bruntland Report, in Our CommonFuture, the term sustainability was identified anddefined by the World Commission on Environmentand Development : “development that meets theneeds of the present without compromising the abilityof future generations to meet their own needs.”

Today the consumers are increasingly expecting wineto be produced in a sustainable manner (Bisson et al.,2002) and the complexity in defining sustainability,the applied research and discourse specifically withinviticulture, oenology, and consumption of wineresults in a multidisciplinary literature base.

Certification, water use and quality, soil, air andclimatic impacts, energy, chemicals, wildlife,materials, waste, and globalization are all importanttopics within the discussion of sustainable wine. Allfactors are of great importance and need to beconsidered.

There are many ways to be more sustainable, majorchallenges consist in reducing energy consumption,greenhouse gas emissions, raw material use, wasteoutputs and water consumption. Wineries can be builtwith reclaimed materials, employ skylights fornatural light, plant more trees for shade and collectwater to filter and reuse it. One popular sustainable

winery architecture strategy is earth sheltering, inwhich wineries or cellars are built partially orcompletely underground, where it’s naturally coolerand easier to moderate temperatures. We also need toconsider gravity-flow wineries, which allow grapesand wine to be moved more energy-efficiently andgently during the winemaking process. Some of thegreen tactics that can be employed by the wineriesinclude solar power, recycled building materials,living soil roofs, natural ventilation, geothermalheating and cooling systems, drought-tolerantlandscaping and even insulation made of jeans scraps.Sustainable winery architecture is a global trend thatneeds to be developed.

Existing system and initiatives at winerieslevelIn North America, wine producers are aiming to be asgreen as possible inside and out, constructing theirnew facilities to standards set by the LEED(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)Green Building Rating System. The U.S. GreenBuilding Council has introduced in 1998, and sinceadopted by Canada, the voluntary LEEDcertification, which is an international benchmark forbuildings that are environmentally friendly andhealthy places in which to work or live. Thiscertification of new management of sustainable

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winery has been developed. Several North Americanwineries have already earned LEED certification forone or more of their buildings, Oregon’s SokolBlosser is reported as being the first, in 2002 andseveral winery-related projects have been designed inCalifornia, Oregon, Florida, Michigan, New York,South Dakota, Vermont and Virginia. In addition tothe commercial wineries, both the University ofCalifornia at Davis, with its new teaching andresearch winery, and the Napa Valley Vintnersassociation, with its new headquarters, have beenmodels for the industry.In France, starting with the 2019 vintage, every bottleof St.-Emilion wine will have been made from grapesgrown with sustainable farming methods, such asorganic or biodynamic viticulture. The local winecouncil for four Bordeaux appellations has passed ameasure mandating sustainable farming. Any winenot farmed sustainably may only be bottled asgeneric Bordeaux. The decision impacts nearly3.85 million cases of wine made annually within theSt.-Emilion, St.-Emilion Grand Cru, Lussac St.-Emilion and Puisseguin St.-Emilion appellations. Thebold move has sparked interest from otherappellations and builds on St.-Emilion’s existingenvironmental initiatives. The logic was already inplace and is a continuity of earlier projects, whichwork collectively to reduce the use of insecticides,and for biodiversity preservation. St.-Emilion’spicturesque landscape, a UNESCO World Heritagesite, added an extra impetus and winegrowers choosefrom a list of state-approved certifications, forexample, organic, biodynamic or HVE 3 (HauteValeur Environmentale, High Environmental Valor).Environment lines scans be accepted as long as theyare officially certifiable. The new requirementsinclude measures like treating vineyard and winerywaste products and a ban on blanket herbicide use.Another notable one is for example in Castillon, asanother indicator of a wider evolution in Bordeaux.Castillon is the appellation with the greatestpercentage of the vineyard surface area in conversionto organic farming in Bordeaux, and around120 châteaux had obtained the HVE 3 certification,including well-known estates. HVE 3 is France’shighest level of certified sustainable farming,demanding water and fertilizer management, abiodiversity program and reduced pesticide andfungicide use. The bottles started to include the HVElogo on labels, so consumers can know thatwinemakers have made this commitment to theenvironment and are certified. However, the newrules in Saint Emilion, are not legally binding untilthe national appellations authority has modified the

specifications for the appellations, and it should be along process.In Europe some incredible wineries have alsoemerged and there are striking wines, and then thereare striking wineries, which have become landmarksin their own rights, thanks to their innovative design.For those avid wine travellers who are planning totaste their way through the vineyards of Europe thisyear, here are a few favourites which have to be seento be believed:- Bodegas Ysios in Spain is a sea of wine waves inthe heart of Spain : this dramatic and dominatingconstruction in the Rioja wine region is animpressive 200m in length and 8,000m² in totalarea! The brief, asking for an iconic design, whichwas well integrated into the surrounding landscape,was also well and truly answered by architectSantiago Calatrava and contains state of the artwinemaking facilities. Bodega Ysios, named for theEgyptian deities Isis and Osiris, craft fruit-forwardRioja’s and are part of the Pernod Ricard Group.

- Château Cheval Blanc in France is a modern,minimalist feel from the exterior through to theinterior of the winery at Château Cheval Blanc inBordeaux’s Merlot-dominated right bank communeof Saint-Emilion. This design, conceived byrenowned architect Christian de Portzamparc,resembles something of a flying saucer on theoutside and this space-age theme is continued Insideto the egg-like concrete vats, such as a new style inthe winemaking process. There are 52 in total.

-Marchese Antinori in Italy, producing the SuperTuscan Tignanello. From a distance, the structure isseemingly camouflaged into the rolling Chiantihills, yet, once a little closer, the cutting-edge designby Archea Associati takes on so much more detail,befitting of the complex and ever evolving wineswhich are born there.

- Petra Winery in Italy, which was designed bycelebrated Swiss architect Mario Botta. The wineryat Petra Wines features his hallmark cylindricalelement, almost an altar to the sun. When weconsider how essential an ingredient the sun is inthe vineyard cycle, we can completely understandwhy the building sits perfectly in its surrounds.

Principal aspects to consider for a winesustainability production1. CO2 reuses solutionsDuring the grape’s growing season, CO2 issequestered by the vines’ growth and production ofsugar in the grapes. This is more than the CO2


emitted by the biomass and during the fermentationprocess, to such an extent that production andfermentation of 1 kg of grapes reduces the CO2 byapproximately 0.3 kg.Interestingly, the production of higher alcohol winessequesters more CO2 (table1):However, it is possible to improve these figures if weare able to collect CO2 from alcoholic and malolacticfermentations in the wineries. During alcoholicfermentation, one liter of wine produces 44 liters ofCO2 or around 81 g of CO2. This gas comes mainlyfrom the alcoholic fermentation of the must. Theprocess begins as soon as the skin of the grapes issplit and the temperature exceeds 12 °C. The sugarthen comes into contact with the yeasts present on theskin of the grain or in the air and is graduallytransformed into alcohol. During the fermentation ofthe secondary compounds will be released such ascarbon dioxide, ethanol (alcohol), glycerols (whichbrings the creaminess to wine), succinic acid, aceticacid and aromatic compounds (esters) like those ofbanana or raspberry, found in early wines. Malolacticfermentation bring only around 2 g of CO2 by liter ofwine. Lonvaud et Ribéreau Gayon (1977).In the field of oenology, the uses of carbon dioxideare numerous, and first and foremost, go towardsproducing the frigories required to maintain the mustat low temperatures. But CO2 also has a blanketingand control effect on the development ofmicroorganisms (yeasts, etc.) and is used inrefrigeration and the protection of harvested grapesand in the continuous cooling of the pressed grapes(CO2 in dry ice form). These operations require CO2to be utilized in liquid form directly after mechanicalharvesting as well as to lower the temperature of thepressed grapes to around 5 °C, to obtain animmediate and homogeneous state of coldness, toreduce stress and to protect against excessiveoxidation. Another important point is the use of CO2as a technical and anti-oxidation gas during all the

operations ranging from fermentation to bottling andwhere it is important to replace the amount of oxygenbetween the wine and the closure in order to avoidoxidation. CO2 can be use as inert gas for wineageing and can participate to a potential reduction inuse of sulphur dioxide (SO2). Carbon dioxide can beused also in cryo-extraction, a process through whichthe partial freezing of grapes before pressing resultsin higher quality white wines. Enzymatic processesthat can lead to degeneration of the aromaticcomponents are inhibited, preserving the aromas andthereby producing a better bouquet that can bemaintained in the finished product. With CO2 it isalso possible to freeze only the less-ripened grapes(with a lower sugar content) in order that the mustthat is released in the pressing comes only from theripest grapes. Finally, carbonic maceration exploitsCO2 to induce intercellular fermentation of the wholegrape, which is the basis for the production of newwines (Primeurs wine).An interesting example, for capturing the carbondioxide (CO2) emitted by the fermentation above thevinification tanks and transforming it into bakingsoda is the principle proposed by AlcionEnvironnement, a company operating in Bordeauxand the Paris region. This capture system is aninnovative project, labeled by Inno’vin, which helpsdevelop sustainable viticulture through the promotionof new techniques in the wine sector. Experimentshave already taken place. From 1,000 hl of wine,with 80 % of capture that emit 8 tons of CO2 duringfermentation, we get 15 tons of baking soda. At thescale of Château of 28 hectares, twenty tons ofbicarbonate of soda can be produced from thevineyard. This sequestration of CO2, resulting fromwinemaking, will allow the manufacture ofcompounds for local uses. Thus baking soda can beused as a cleaning agent in water softeners, agri-foodand pharmaceutical applications. The capture of thisCO2 (greenhouse gas) and its recovery will have animpact on the carbon footprint of the vineyard. For

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& & &

sugars levels of grapes.

During the f

E of 28 hectares, twenty tons of

b This sequestration of CO2, resulting from winemaking, w

The capture of this CO2

Table 1. Sequestration of CO2 in function of sugars levels of grapes.


100 hectares of vines, the reduction of CO2 emittedwill be 37 t/year in the Bordeaux appellation. Thecarbon footprint of the Bordeaux wine sector hasbeen evaluate to 744000 t/year of CO2. the reductiontarget would be 147000 t/y of CO2.2. Water management and saving,The ISO-14001 Standard is considered the firstnecessary step for a winery towards a moreenvironmental friendly management of its operations.It measures and allows wineries to work towardsmaximizing efficiency in use of water (in many partsof the world, more than 10 litres of water is used foreach litre of wine produced), energy, raw materialsand maximizing recycling and waste treatment. Dripirrigation increases efficiency of water use in thevineyard by up to 90 % compared to flood irrigation.For example, the use of water within the winery itselfamounts to about two litres per shipped bottle ofChampagne (4.1 litres for combined vineyard/wineryoperations). This is slightly higher than the globalaverage for wine production – close to the averagefor soft drink production but significantly lower thanfor the brewing industry.Water conservation remains a priority, without evercompromising high standards of hygiene in wineries,cuveries (units housing the fermenting vats) andother work premises. Winemakers use variousmethods to reduce their consumption of water. These

include : the eco-design or eco-refurbishment ofbuildings ; improved systems of water purification,recycling and/or collection; and a general reductionin water wastage wherever possible. Collection ofrainwater with storages in tanks is a good way to dowater economy, and to be able to use it during dryperiod. Waste water treatment and/or closed loopreuse of cooling water also contribute significantly toimproving the environmental impact of wineryoperations.Three keys points need to be considered:- Generalize the installation of differential sub-metersof water;

- Promote the collection of rainwater;- Optimize cleaning practices.3. Renewable energyThe practice of viticulture and winemaking is highlydependent upon the weather and climate. Any futurechanges in the seasons, their duration, localmaximum, minimum and mean temperatures, frostoccurrence and heat accumulation could have a majorimpact on the winegrowing areas of the world. Giventhat the winegrowing industry has substantial energyrequirements and is directly influenced by anychanges in climate, the industry should be at theforefront in promoting the case of energy efficiencyand the adoption of renewable technologies. Solarrenewables in the form of solar thermal and

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by Alcion

T

Picture 1. Example of CO2 captation system (process VALECARB) by Alcion.Gas can be converted to other side products or used for carbonation or biofuels.


photovoltaics (PVs) offer a complimentary solution tomany winegrowing processes:- Limit indirect energy consumption (eg the daybefore equipment);

- Identify the energy consumption of each equipment,including fuel;

- Promote the installation of photovoltaic energy onfarms;

- Improving the efficiency of winery operations andthe use of renewable energy and biofuels;

- Generalize the installation of electric differentialsub-meters.

4. Good practices in oenology and winemakingprocessSeveral aspects can be included in this field, forexample, there’s no formal definition of “gravity-flow” or “gravity-fed” wineries, but it indicates aparticular winery-design style, suggesting that thewinery production will take place on at least twodifferent floors or levels. If you have your entirewinery operation on one floor, every time you move awine from a crusher or press to a tank or barrel, therewill be a need for pumps, conveyors or othermaterials. Gravity-flow winery designs takeadvantage of gravity, allowing wine to be movedaround much more gently. Too much force, too muchrough-and-tumble handling, and a wine mightbecome over extracted or too tannic, or experiencetoo much oxidation. It’s also harder to leave grapesolids behind if you have a hose on at full blast.Ideally, a gravity flow winery could have a differentfloor for every stage of wine production. The grapescoming in from the vineyard on the top floor and, asthe wine goes from crushing to fermentation to agingto bottling, every time you move the wine along, youhave the help of gravity to move it. For oenologiststhe idea is that gravity flow provides a gentler, lessinterventionist approach to winemaking, takes lesswork moving around pumps and hoses and requiresless electricity. But gravity-flow wineries can beexpensive to build, and require a winemaking teamwilling to walk up and down stairs and ladders. Theirdesigns typically work best when built into anexisting hillside, and some of the best wine regionsare in valleys.In France, a recent official validation of the Guide ofGood Hygiene Practices for the wine sector, GBPHon 1st of April 2017, responds to changes in hygieneand food safety practices and regulations while takinginto account the specificities of the sector of winesand spirits of wine. National and Communityregulations lay down obligations to ensure consumersafety and traceability of foodstuffs. In particular, the

winemaker and the producer are responsible for thesanitary quality of the food they put on the market.The obligations which concern more particularly the« hygiene package » are defined in terms of results,the means to be implemented being left to the choiceof the operators. The document was designed to helpall operators of the French wine industry in theimplementation of good hygiene practices andHACCP. It is a reference document that can be usedas proof for official controls if the operator followsthe principles described. The GBPH is a guide ofvoluntary application. The guide allows eachcompany to assess its own risks and define the meansof control to be implemented as part of its food safetypolicy. The main regulations are taken into account.The general regulations on food safety werereviewed as well as the specific regulations for wineproducts in order to adapt the recommendationstaking into account pre-existing constraints. Theassessment of the level of risk highlights certaincompounds to be monitored in the sector. The controlmeasures for these compounds are detailed inspecific sheets and in « toolboxes ».The good practices in oenology concerningtechnology, additives and processing aids need torefer to the Official International Code ofOenological Practices/Oenological practices : Wine,OIV and International Oenological Codex withProducts used in oenology. (OIV, 2018). It’snecessary to insist on the fact that anyproduct/technique with new functionality mustcomply with the oenological codex or oenologicalpractice with tests validated by national/internationalbodies.Some recommendations to promote:- Cross-cutting actions on input reduction : goodpractices, use of decision support tools, etc.

- A precision oenology research should be developed(e.g. : yeast selection for specific functionality, toolsand oenological adapted products creations,fermentation management, quality adaptation)

5. Functional biodiversityWine production in most countries is based on theuse of commercial yeast and bacteria strains leadingto the colonisation of the wineries and vineyards bythese strains with potential consequence reduction ofautochthonous biodiversity. This also implies thatwine styles could also become standardised. Thus,vineyard could be an important source of nativeyeasts and bacteria of oenological interest. A betterknowledge about the functional role of biodiversityin the vineyard and wine ecosystems is required: thespatial and temporal interactions between native

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microorganisms such as yeasts and bacteria andnatural enemies of pests (fungal infestation) andclimate and management factors (such as theirrigation systems, temperature, perennial covercrops, use of agrochemicals, harvesting practices orfermentation performance). On this aspect, it will benecessary to advances and examine synergies andtrade-offs between native microorganisms, thenatural control of pests and other ecosystem servicesfor viticulture and winemaking production andenvironmental objectives.Biodiversity conservation and agriculturalsustainability should also take into account‘ecoagriculture’ landscapes. It will be important toconserve wild biodiversity in agricultural landscapes;this will require increased research, policycoordination and strategic support to agriculturalcommunities and conservationists.6. Management and use of by-products inoenologyThe management, diversification and valorisation ofby-products and co-products in oenology need to bedevelop : digestibility, degradability, transformationof nutrients of vine shoot (VS), grape marcs (GMGand GMM), white (WL), red (RL) and Liquors (LL)wine lees and grape marc plus lees (GML). By-products possesses variable crude protein (CP) andcell walls (from 44.8 to 203 and from 122 to 741 g xkg−1 dry matter (DM) for CP and neutral detergentfiber (NDF) respectively (Molina Alcaide et al.,2008). A new dimension and economic logic must bestudied and then tested to take into account the grape-grape-processed products continuum withinspecialized sectors dedicated with reverseengineering logic. For this, aspect the development ofgrape juice, grape sugar, alcohol, organic acids,polyphenols and others types of compounds can beexplored. With this approach the concept of bio-refineries would make sense economically for theproducts from the vineyard, to develop bioplastics,biocompatible polymers, fertilizers (organic andinorganic), phenolic extracts, bio-fuels and gas, colorextracts, etc. Otherwise, the use of grape derivativesand bioactive products that can be used in theformulation of products nutraceuticals/cosmetics, orensuring a feature of strong antioxidant activity mustbe encouraged (seed flours or grape skins…).The marc (or pommace) is generally delivered toauthorised distilleries where it is broken down byseparation and extraction. A wide range ofcompounds are recovered for recycling:- ethanol for industrial use and motor fuel ;

- grape-seed oil ; polyphenols, anti-oxidants andnatural colour pigments; tartaric acid with potentialapplication in processed foods, cosmetics andhuman health products;

- co-products used as organic fertilizers;- carbon-based additives used as animal feedingredients.

The type of residues produced in the wineries isfinally, closely dependent on the specific winemakingprocedures, which also affect the physic-chemicalproperties of the residual material, the characteristicsof which determine its further use and specificvalorisation circuit in which it could be integrated.The major residues from wine-making activity arerepresented by : organic wastes (grape pomace,containing seeds, pulp and skins, grape stems, andgrape leaves), wastewater, emission of greenhousegases (CO2, volatile organic compounds, etc.), andinorganic wastes (diatomaceous earth, bentonite clay,and perlite) (Oliveira et al., 2013). In this regard, it isestimated that in Europe alone, 14.5 million tons ofgrape by-products are produced annually(Chouchouli et al., 2013).The valorization ofwinemaking by-products is mainly represented by theelaboration of soil fertilizers as well as a fermentationsubstrate for biomass production and livestock feeds(Arvanitoyannis, 2006, Harsha et al., 2013; Yilmaz etal., 2004). However, there are several constraints forcurrent available options for reusing theseunprofitable materials. For example, certainpolyphenols present in winery by-products are knownto be phytotoxic and display antimicrobial effectsduring composting, impairing their utilization for thispurpose. Regarding their use in livestock feed, someanimals show intolerance to certain components, suchas condensed tannins, which negatively affectdigestibility (González-Centeno et al., 2014). Hence,their valorisation as a source of bioactivephytochemicals of application in pharmaceutical,cosmetic, and food industries might constitute anefficient, profitable, and environment-friendlyalternative for residues (Makris et al., 2007).Several actions should be encouraged including:- Valorize by-products in compounds of interest (egcompost), via distilleries or others specializedcompagnies;

- Develop composting of shoots and effluents;- Valuing biomass.Reducing and recovering waste from start to finish ofthe oenological chain should be also an ongoingpriority for the wine industry. Waste generated byconsumers’ consumption: consumers discard a high

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quantity of metric tonnes waste per year, principallyglass (90 %), plus cardboard, paper, aluminium, steel,cork and plastic. Two special measures should be putin place to address the issue of post-consumer waste:-Waste prevention (also known as source reduction),mainly by switching to eco-friendly packaging andlighter glass bottles when possible.

-The setting-up of a membership scheme for all Wineproducers stakeholders via subscriptions to firmsproviding community-based, domestic wastecollection and reuse services (eg Ecoemballage).

ConclusionsA good example of a Self Sustainable Winery can beview on UCD website (2015)Sustainable initiatives require planning, monitoringand assessment of knowledge. It is a constantly-evolving process and, as such, it requires continuousevaluation and improvement. For an innovativesustainable oenology several point have to beconsiders:- CO2 reuse solutions,- Water management and saving,- Renewable energy,- Good practices in oenology,- Functional biodiversity,- Management and use of by-products in oenology,- Climate change adaptation in oenology.Many questions and challenges need to be exploredto purpose advances for a more sustainable oenologyproduction. Interactions of oenologists, winemakers,chemists, microbiologists renewable energy andwater specialists, processes specialists, computer andelectronic scientists need to be encouraged to developwineries adapted to climate changes scenarios with asustainable, qualitative and economically compatibleoenology production.ReferencesBruntland, Gro Harlem. (1987). “Our Common Future”

Report of the World Commission on Environmentand Development. UN General Assembly –Development and International Economic Co-operation: Environment. 374 pgs.

Bisson, L.F., Waterhouse, A.L., Ebeler, S.E., Walker,M.A. and Lapsley, J.T. (2002). “The present andfuture of the international wine industry.” Nature.Vol. 418. pp. 696-699.

U.S. Green Building Council, 1998,https://new.usgbc.org/about

Aline Lonvaud-Funel, P. Ribéreau-Gayon, (1977) Le gazcarbonique des vins II. Aspect technologique,Connaissance Vigne Vin, 11, W 2, 165-182.http://www.vignevin.com/recherche/qualite-vins/guide-des-bonnes-pratiques-dhygiene.htmlhttp://www.oiv.int/en/technical-standards-and-documents

Molina-Alcaide, E., Moumen, A. and Martín-García, A. I.(2008), By-products from viticulture and the wineindustry : potential as sources of nutrients forruminants. J. Sci. Food Agric., 88 : 597-604. doi :10.1002/jsfa.3123

Oliveira D.A., Salvador A.A.A.S., Smânia E.F.A.,Maraschin M., Ferreira S.R.S. Antimicrobial activityand composition profile of grape (Vitis vinifera)pomace extracts obtained by supercritical fluids.J. Biotechnol. 2013; 164: 423-432. doi : 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2012.09.014.

Chouchouli V., Kalogeropoulos N., Konteles S.J., KarvelaE., Makris D.P., Karathanos V.T. Fortification ofyoghurts with grape (Vitis vinifera) seed extracts.Food Sci. Technol. 2013; 53: 522-529.

Arvanitoyannis I.S., Ladas D., Mavromatis A. Potentialuses and applications of treated wine waste. Int.J. Food Sci. Technol. 2006 ; 41 : 475-487. doi :10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.01111.x.

Harsha P.S.C.S., Gardana C., Simonetti P., Spigno G.,Lavelli V. Characterization of phenolics, in vitroreducing capacity and anti-glycation activity of redgrape skins recovered from winemaking by-products.Bioresour. Technol. 2013 ; 140 : 263-268. doi :10.1016/j.biortech.2013.04.092.

Yilmaz Y., Toledo R.T. Major flavonoids in grape seedsand skins : Antioxidant capacity of catechin,epicatechin, and gallic acid. J. Agric. Food Chem.2004; 52: 255-260. doi: 10.1021/jf030117h.

González-Centeno M.R., Knoerzer K., Sabarez H.,Simal S., Rosselló C., Femenia A. Effect of acousticfrequency and power density on the aqueousultrasonic-assisted extraction of grape pomace (Vitisvinifera L.). A response surface approach. Ultrason.Sonochem. 2014; 21: 2176-2184.

Makris D.P., Boskou G., Andrikopoulos N.K.Polyphenolic content and in vitro antioxidantcharacteristics of wine industry and other Agri-foodsolid waste extracts. J. Food Comp. Anal. 2007; 20:125-132.doi:10.1016/j.jfca.2006.04.010.http://wineserver.ucdavis.edu/about/ multimedia/winery.html

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Microbial challenges in sustainable winemakingAlbert Mas*

Deparment of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Oenology, University Rovira I Virgili, Marcel·lí Domingo 1, 43007 Tarragona, Spain

Abstract: Sustainable winemaking is a complex term that includes many different options. However, most of them includeminimal intervention at several levels. On one side, viticultural practices, which might have an effect on microbial diversity onthe grape and later on the grape juices and alcoholic fermentation. Furthermore, some of the sustainable options question, oreven exclude, the use of starter cultures, either yeast or bacteria. All these practices, included in the tendencies of the so called“natural wines” or “biodynamic wines”, open up a new era of the microbiology, where the microbiological control that hasbeen achieved at the end of the last century has to use new tools and new approaches. The present review raises some concernsabout how these new practices should be complemented with new tools of microbiological control.

Keywords: yeast, starter culture, mixed population, bacteria, yeast interaction


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IntroductionWe can define natural biodiversity as the variety oflife found in a given ecosystem. If biodiversity isconsidered as the number of life organisms in a givenlocation, agriculture has to be considered as contraryto diversity, given that the objective is to only haveone or very limited number of species (“the crops”).For centuries, agriculture has enhanced mono-cultures, with the use of a big diversity of tools, eitherchemicals, mechanical actions and human activity, toget to the highest production possible of a single orlimited number of crops. A very broad array of“chemical” fertilizers and pesticides has been used tofavour the limited number of crops, mostly at the endof the last century. Thus, a very broad number ofherbicides, fungicides, etc. are currently available tobe used in general agriculture. These practices had abiodiversity impact and also had changeddramatically the soil and thus, the plants and theanimal welfare. These chemicals might remain in thesoil, water and air, producing the development ofresistance to these treatments and allowing new peststo appear. Thus, the final result of such applications isthe reduction of their efficiency. These results haveproduced a general concern about the sustainabilityof industrial agricultural practices, making moreenvironmental-friendly food options more popular.As a result, the recovery of natural diversity has

become a strong objective in agriculture. Thisobjective has originated terms like “organic”,“ecological”, “eco-friendly”, “biodynamic”,“natural”, and “sustainable” to describe agriculturalpractices and food that somehow follow verytraditional practices and limited use, or no use at allof chemicals, and some mechanical and humanpractices.

Viticulture is not aside of these new tendencies and sowine making either. The starting level forsustainability should be considered the “integrated”pest management. It is based on an acceptable levelof pests and their biological control. This integratedcontrol could be done by facilitation of thedevelopment of some predators, antagonists orcompetitors. It might be a very labour-intensivepractice, because the land has to be monitored andsome actions are required. In this management theycan incorporate some pesticides and fertilizers, withthe goal to use them as little as possible. Some“natural” alternatives are actively sought; for instancecompost as fertilizer. Although it is becoming acommon practice, there is no certification for“integrated” grapes or wines. Sometimes and in somecountries indications of “integrated management” canbe included.


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Another aspect is the “Organic production” (ororganic product), legally regulated and accepted.Organic production goals include the increase ofnatural biodiversity in the crop ecosystems in order toincrease the development of interactions amongorganisms. Although there might be local differencesand variations from country to country, the organicproduction denomination is usually well defined.Certification bodies exist for monitoring andcertification of these organic practices. Thecertificates refer to “wines produced from organicgrapes”, which might include conventionalwinemaking and the use of oenological products,which are usual in industrial cellars. However, if theterm is “organic wines”, it then involves a restrictiveuse of oenological products. Normally it includes thereduction of concentrations of some of them (forinstance, sulphites) or even their elimination. Theelimination of sulphites can be partially replaced bythe use of available microorganisms that can begrown on organic molasses or the result of a localselection. However, the use of microorganisms isscarcely regulated and even contradictory when wecompare different countries and/or certifying bodies.The establishment of specific regulations duringwinemaking is still under debate, although it isexpected that the production of organic wine willconsider specific limitations. So far, the use of yeastor bacterial starters are not prohibited or stronglyregulated (IFOAM, 2013). In the future, they couldbe indicated on the labels : « obtained without theaddition of commercial yeast » or « produced withindigenous yeasts ».Biodynamic wines can be observed as a kind oforganic wines. The biodynamic philosophy is basedon the “antroposophy” proposed by Rudolf Steiner in1924. Steiner developed the concept of integratingthe spiritual, ethical and ecological in all the humanactivities. Currently, biodynamic concepts arebecoming popular in winemaking, but especially inviticulture. According to biodynamic practices, somespecific “preps” should be “dynamised” before theyare spread in the vineyard. In biodynamic fields,animals are required to fertilisation and pasturisation.Furthermore, other plants should be present in thevineyard for animal feeding. Also the lunar cycle isobserved to adjust the traditional practices in thefields. In fact many of the biodynamic practices arepositive and can even be considered as part of theorganic production. However, there are manyconcerns about some biodynamic aspects comingfrom scientists and winemakers (reviewed byBarquin and Smith, 2006). The first concern lays onthe followers that take biodynamic as almost areligion based more on faith instead of observations

and critical thinking. Many of these followers arereluctant to scientific analysis. The lunar cycles inagriculture have been traditionally taken intoconsideration, although it lacks scientific evidencesand the impact is probably very limited. The “preps”are also more esoteric preparations (horns or skullsfilled with camomile or manure let to ferment buriedin the fields) to be “dynamised” and further diluted tohomeopathic levels. The action of such practices hasto be integrated with cosmic energy. In addition, strictbiodynamic winemakers do not use any starter for thealcoholic or malolactic fermentations. There arecertifying companies, all of them private that monitorthese practices and issue the correspondingcertificates. Thus, there is no legal status asBiodynamic and those wines are often labelled asorganic.Another alternative denomination is the “natural”wines. There is a complete lack of regulation and/orcertification by a monitoring body. Thus, theconsideration is based on trust. The basics are thetraditional practices. For instance only coppersulphate or sulphur can be used. Only compost asfertilizers can be used. In wine making, no sulphurdioxide or microorganisms are allowed.“Sustainable” wine is another mention that iscurrently in use. This consideration is based on aholistic approach that tries to integrate ecology,business and social issues. Ecology introduces theconcept of landscape and also the energyconsumption (to reduce or balance CO2 and waterfootprint). Economic profit is also included as animportant aspect of sustainability. Finally, socialissues incorporate the local and social developmentand the population wellbeing (Zucca et al., 2009).Sustainability can be defined as the use and benefit ofresources without compromising their use for futuregenerations. According to this definition, humanactivity should ensure that the land has to be used tosupport human development that will require a socialstructure to ensure the benefit for future generations.Some producers are creating associations to provide adenomination as “sustainable” wines.The fermentation process: alcoholic fermentationGrapes and grape musts are the niches for a broadarray of microorganisms that proliferate freely. Forcenturies, SO2 addition has been used to limit thepresence of unwanted microorganisms. Most of thesemicroorganisms are not fermentative and producecompounds that should not be present in winesbecause they are considered deleterious for itsquality. Sulphite is currently the most common formof SO2 addition. Their main effects sought in wine


making are the activity as antioxidant, which helpsthe precipitation of solids, and also antimicrobialeffects preventing their growth of yeast and bacteria(Ribéreau Gayon et al., 2006). The antimicrobialeffects reduce the activity of the so-called non-Saccharomyces yeasts and some bacteria that arepresent on the grapes or can develop in the cellar. Thewine yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is resistant toSO2 that together with its metabolism specificallyadapted for alcoholic fermentation, allows a quicktake over the alcoholic fermentation (Constanti et al.,1998). The adaptation to wine fermentation results inthe production of alcohol as well as other compoundswith antimicrobial activity that favour the capacity toovercome the other yeasts (Wang et al., 2015a). Thus,the wine industry has selected as “wine yeast”S. cerevisiae, which, in turn has become a commonstarter culture. This selection has been more extendedin the wine industry since the development of thedrying technology that has allowed commercialpresentations as “Active Dry Wine Yeast” (ADWY).ADWY commercial presentations have allowed avery good control of the alcoholic fermentation aswell as an appropriate use in wine making. It is apresentation that is very cellar-friendly because thereis no need of any special care beyond a rehydration inwarm water. The starter cultures have been selectedaccording different criteria; with the result of a verybroad array of ADWY available. The basic aspect isthat they have a good fermentation capacity to ensurethe completion of the alcoholic fermentation.Furthermore they are also selected to ensure areproducible wine quality, in terms of aromas, othersecondary compounds (for instance glycerol), etc.Thus yeasts have a clear impact on the sensory wineprofiles by increasing complexity and mouth feel(Ribereau Gayon et al., 2006). Thus, the use ofcommercial starters of S. cerevisiae has beenextended worldwide to control the alcoholicfermentation and produce a predictable andreproducible wine.A side-effect of this massive use has been theelimination of the “native” or indigenousmicroorganisms that are believed to have an impacton the variability, complexity and personality that areconsidered as a relevant aspect of the typicality of awine (Fleet, 1993). Typicality could be defined as thecharacteristics that allow the identification of a winewith the land. Thus, it is a pairing of territory andwine. It has been proposed that native yeasts can beused to defend the typicality. In fact, recentobservations have identified that microbial diversitymight be characteristic of a region or production area(Bokulich et al., 2014). Thus, the microbialpopulation present in a terroir or piece of land will be

the microbial fingerprint. This population willleave on the produced wine a microbial footprintthat will be defined by the components that willdefine the wine character.This microbial footprint will be consequence of thetime that those microorganisms are present duringthe alcoholic fermentation. The analysis of the yeastpopulations has been done since Pasteur, althoughnowadays more effective microbiological methodsallow a very complete determination of the yeastpopulation. Native yeast on the grapes are between104 and 106 cells/g, mostly non-Saccharomycesyeasts. Saccharomyces is rare on grapes, although notcompletely absent (Beltran et al., 2002). These yeastpopulation changes when it joins the microorganismspresent in the cellar. These microorganisms are rarelypresent in new wineries (Constanti et al., 1997). Thecellar environment is very appropriate forS. cerevisiae, which is the main resident yeast incellars (Beltran et al., 2002).In absence of starters (or spontaneous fermentations),the native microbiota, mostly composed by non-Saccharomyces yeasts, is abundant in the fermentingmust for several days. During this period, they canproduce compounds that might improve thecomplexity of the wines and, thus, their quality. Veryinteresting compounds and enzyme activities havebeen found in Non-Saccharomyces yeast (Jolly et al.,2014). Additionally, the use of some of these yeastscould reduce the ethanol content of wines (Gonzalezet al., 2013). These two aspects could be consideredgoals in winemaking especially the ethanolreduction. The changes induced by the climatechange affect especially the increase of sugarconcentration (Mira de Orduna, 2010). However,taking in consideration the detrimental aspects thathave been traditionally attributed to Non-Saccharomyces which use is still limited. Recentlymixed fermentations and selection of non-Saccharomyces yeasts together with S. cerevisiae hasdeserved more attention.The use of Non-Saccharomyces yeast has been basedon their improvement of wine quality by adding newaromas or by removing deleterious compounds. Forinstance, Torulaspora delbrueckii is currentlyproposed to reduce volatile acidity and hasrecommended for the fermentation of botrytisedgrapes (Bely et al., 2008). Currently, there arevarious commercial preparations of this yeast.Another commercially available Non-Saccharomycesyeast is Metschnikowia pulcherrima. This yeast isused to increase the aromatic intensity in white andsparkling wines (González-Royo et al., 2015). AlsoLachancea thermotolerans is commercially available


40


and recommended to increase mouth feel (glycerol)and lactic acid (Gobbi et al., 2013). The number ofcommercially available Non-Saccharomyces yeastswill certainly grow in the near future. Among theseStarmerella bacillaris, fructophilic yeast thatproduces large amounts of glycerol (Soden et al.,2000). Hanseniaspora vineae has been successfullyused for the production of highly aromatic wines inSpain and Uruguay (Lleixà et al., 2016, Martín et al.,2016). Other alternate species that have arousedinterest are of the genera Zygosaccharomyces,Schizosaccha-romyces, Pichia, Hanseniaspora,Hansenula, etc. although commercial developmentseems still far (Jolly et al., 2014).The use of non-Saccharomyces yeasts can tackleanother problem: the uniformity caused by the use ofADWY. Some winemakers have tried to increase theinfluence of the native yeasts by delaying or reducingthe use of starter cultures. However, this can lead touncontrolled alcoholic fermentations. The non-controlled fermentations might lead to economicallosses, due to the risk of spoilage not be acceptableby consumers.The selection of indigenous yeasts has been acommon practice by some AWDY producers. Thecommercial presentations based on “local selection”of yeasts were a strategy to defend the authenticityand typicality. The focus was based always on theselection of S. cerevisiae to enforce the terroir andtypicality.Our resultsWe were involved in the WILDWINE Project(http://www.wildwine.eu/en/), which proposedanother way to overcome the uniformity provoked bythe use of ADWY. The proposed alternative was toincorporate the “wild” microorganisms to startercultures. These mixed cultures were alternative tosingle strain cultures. The concept is that these mixedcultures aimed to reproduce the vineyard naturalmicrobiota, incorporating both different strains aswell as different species. However, the strains andspecies were selected afterwards:- An ecological study of the zone of interest (in thiscase the Qualified Appellation of Origin Priorat) toestablish the microbial fingerprint. Although we hadperformed similar studies in the past (Torija et al.,2001), we used in WILDWINE new methodo-logies, such as Next Generation Sequencing (NGS)to analyze the microbial population (Wang et al.,2015b; Portillo and Mas, 2016).

- An oenological selection in the laboratory. Wetested challenges such as temperature (Torija et al.,

2003), nitrogen requirements, competition betweenspecies and strains (Andorrà et al., 2008, 2010;Wang et al., 2016; Lleixà et al., 2017) andproduction of off-flavours or other detrimentalcompounds (acetic acid, for instance) (Andorrà etal., 2012).

- Finally we have performed vinifications inlaboratory (Wang et al., 2015c) and industrialconditions (Padilla et al., 2016). In industrialconditions, the test also included sequentialinoculations, that is, inoculating first the mixedpopulation of Non-Saccharomyces species and 24hours later the mixed population of Saccharomycesstrains (Padilla et al., 2017). In this case also themicrobial footprint has been analysed.

The final objective of WILDWINE was to providelocal winemakers with instruments to defend thetypicality of the product by incorporating selectedyeast from the local vineyards. The use of suchproducts will diversify their wines for both global anddomestic markets. The added value of these is thatthe fermentation is well controlled and is using localmicroorganims to increase the concept of terroir,which may attract new consumers.

As main results, few strains of S. cerevisiae weredetected after the ecological study in different cellars,vineyards and vintages (2012 and 2013). It issurprising that we were able to find such limitednumber of strains when a similar study performed byourselves 18 years ago provided a much highernumber of strains. The main species on the grapeswere the yeast-like fungus Aerobasidium pullulansand Hanseniaspora uvarum. A. pullulans whichquickly disappeared in the must, and then H. uvarumand C. zemplinina which were the main species.Other minor species were found in musts, and later inwines, such as M. pulcherrima and T. delbrueckii.The use of combinations of these species in startercultures instead of a single strain of a single specieswill help maintain the biodiversity and is consistentwith natural or organic practices that aim to employmore sustainable procedures.

Finally, very interesting methodologies are currentlyin our hands to follow the microbial dynamics duringalcoholic fermentation. Next Generation Sequencingis a powerful tool that is still far from being cellar-friendly, but most likely oenological servicecompanies will quickly incorporate thesepossibilities, which could be a definite help toimprove the control of the process, even in thosecases where starter cultures are not used.


41


ReferencesAndorrà I, Berradre M, Mas A, Esteve-Zarzoso B,

Guillamón JM. 2012.Effect of mixed culturefermentations on yeast populations and aroma profile.LWT-Food Science and Technology, 49, 8-13.

Andorrà I, Berradre M, Rozés N, Mas A, Guillamón JM,Esteve-Zarzoso B. 2010. Effect of pure and mixedcultures of the main yeast species on grape mustfermentations. European Food Research andTechnology 231, 215-224.

Andorrà I, Landi S, Mas A, Guillamón JM, Esteve-Zarzoso B. 2008. Effect of enological practices onmicrobial populations using culture-independenttechniques. Food Microbiology, 25, 849-856.

Barquín J, Smith D. 2006. On fertile ground? Objections tobiodynamics. The World of Fine Wine, 12, 108-113.

Beltran G, Torija MJ, Novo M, Ferrer N, Poblet M,Guillamon JM, Rozes N, Mas A. 2002. Analysis ofyeast populations during alcoholic fermentation: a sixyear follow-up study. Systematic and AppliedMicrobiology, 25, 287-293.

Bely M, Stoeckle P, Masneuf-Pomarède I, Dubourdieu D.2008. Impact of mixed Torulaspora delbrueckii–Saccharomyces cerevisiae culture on high-sugarfermentation. International Journal of FoodMicrobiology, 122, 312–320.

Bokulich NA, Thorngated JH, Richardsone PM, Mills DA.2014. Microbial biogeography of wine grapes isconditioned by cultivar, vintage, and climate.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,111, E139-E148.

Constantí M, Poblet M, Arola Ll, Mas A, Guillamón JM.1997. Analysis of yeast populations during alcoholicfermentation in a newly established winery.American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 48,339-344.

Constantí M, Reguant C, Poblet M, Zamora F, Mas A,Guillamón JM. 1998. Molecular analysis of yeastpopulation dynamics : effect of sulphur dioxide andthe inoculum in must fermentation InternationalJournal of Food Microbiology, 41, 169-175.

Fleet GH, Heard GM. 1993. Yeasts : growth duringfermentation. In: Fleet GH (Ed) Wine Microbiologyand Biotechnology (pp 27–54). Harwood.

Gobbi M, Comitini F, Domizio P, Romani C, Lencioni L,Mannazzu I, Ciani M. 2013. Lachanceathermotolerans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae insimultaneous and sequential co-fermentation : astrategy to enhance acidity and improve the overallquality of wine. Food Microbiology 33: 271–281.

Gonzalez R, Quiros M, Morales P. 2013. Yeast respirationof sugars by non-Saccharomyces yeast species : Apromising and barely explored approach to loweringalcohol content of wines. Trends in Food Science andTechnology, 29: 55-61.

González-Royo E, Pascual O, Kountoudakis N,Esteruelas M, Esteve-Zarzoso B, Mas A, Canals JM,Zamora F. 2015. Oenological Consequences ofSequential Inoculation with Non-SaccharomycesYeasts (Torulaspora delbrueckii or Metschnikowiapulcherrima) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae in BaseWine for Sparkling Wine Production. European FoodResearch and Technology, 240, 999-1012.

IFOAM, 2013. EU Rules for organic wine production.IFOAM EU Group, ed.

Jolly NP, Varela C, Pretorius IS. 2014. Not your ordinaryyeast : non-Saccharomyces yeasts in wine productionuncovered. FEMS Yeast Research, 14, 215–237.

Lleixà J, Manzano M, Mas A, Portillo MC. 2016.Saccharomyces and non-Saccharomyces competitionduring Microvinification under different sugar andnitrogen Conditions. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7,1959.

Lleixà J, Martín V, Portillo MC, Carrau F, Beltran G,Mas A. 2016. Comparison of fermentation and winesproduced by inoculation of Hanseniaspora vineaeand Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Frontiers inMicrobiology, 7, 338.

Martín M, Giorello F, Fariña L, Minteguiaga M,Salzaman V, Boido E, Aguilar PS, Gaggero C,Dellacasa E, Mas A, Carrau F. 2016. De novosynthesis of benzenoid compounds by the yeastHanseniaspora vineae increases the flavor diversityof wines. Journal of Agricultural and FoodChemistry, 64, 4574-4583.

Mira de Orduna R. 2010. Climate change associatedeffects on grape and wine quality and production.Food Research International, 43, 1844–1855

Padilla B, García-Fernández D, González B, Izidoro-Pacheco I, Esteve-Zarzoso B, Beltran G, Mas A.2016. Yeast Biodiversity from DOQ PrioratUninoculated Fermentations. Frontiers inMicrobiology, 7, 930.

Padilla B, Zulian L, Ferreres À, Pastor R, Esteve-Zarzoso,B Beltran G, Mas A. 2017. Sequential Inoculation ofNative Non-Saccharomyces and Saccharomycescerevisiae, Strains for Wine Making. Frontiers inMicrobiology, 8, 1293.

Portillo MC, Mas A. 2016. Analysis of microbial diversityand dynamics during wine fermentation of Grenachegrape variety by high-throughput barcodingsequencing. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 72,317-321.

Ribereau-Gayon P, Dubourdieu D, Donèche B. 2006.Handbook of enology; John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Soden A, Francis IL, Oakey H, Henschke PA. 2000.Effects of co-fermentation with Candida stellata andSaccharomyces cerevisiae on the aroma andcomposition of Chardonnay wine. Australian Journalof Grape Wine Research, 6, 21–30.


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Torija MJ, Rozès N, Poblet M, Guillamón JM, Mas A.2001. Yeast population dinamics in spontaneousfermentations : Comparison between two differentwine producing areas over a period of three years.Anton van Leeuwenhoek International Journal ofGeneral Microbiology, 79, 345-352.

Torija MJ, Rozès N, Poblet M, Guillamón JM, Mas A.2003. Effects of fermentation temperature on thestrain population of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.International Journal of Food Microbiology, 80, 47-53.

Wang C, Esteve-Zarzoso B, Cocolin L, Mas A, RantsiouK. 2015c. Viable and culturable populations ofSaccharomyces cerevisiae, Hanseniaspora uvarumand Starmerella bacillaris (synonym Candidazemplinina) during Barbera must fermentation. FoodResearch International 78, 195-200.

Wang C, García-Fernández D, Esteve-Zarzoso B, Mas A.2015b. Fungal diversity in grape must and wine

fermentation assessed by massive sequencing,quantitative PCR and DGGE. Frontiers inMicrobiology, 6: 1156.

Wang C, Mas A, Esteve-Zarzoso B. 2015a Interactionbetween Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Hansenia-spora uvarum during alcoholic fermentation.International Journal of Food Microbiology, 206, 67-74.

Wang C, Mas A, Esteve-Zarzoso B. 2016. The Interactionbetween Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Non-Saccharomyces Yeast during Alcoholic Fermentationis Species and Strain Specific. Frontiers inMicrobiology, 7, 502.

Zucca G, Smith DE, Mitry DJ. 2009. Sustainableviticulture and winery practices in California: Whatis it, and do customers care? International Journal ofWine Research, 2, 189-194.


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Projet2 25/11/08 18:27 Page 1




Session III - Economical marketing, consumers’ preferences aspects


Projet2 25/11/08 18:27 Page 1

From the nexus water-energy-food productionto the nexus water-energy-wine added valuesystem in Argentina

Gennari Alejandro1*, Estrella Jimena2, Riera Sebastian3 and Martin David4

1Department of Economics, Policy and Rural Management, National University of Cuyo, , Argentina2Department of Economics, Policy and Rural Management, National University of Cuyo, [email protected], Argentina3Georg August Universitat Gottingen, DAAD scholar, [email protected], Germany4Department of Economics, Policy and Rural Management, National University of Cuyo, [email protected], Argentina

Abstract : The Nexus Conference in Bonn (2011) was the formal beginning of a new approach, an integrated one,for understanding the relations between natural resources (water), energy and food production. After decades ofexclusive focus on increasing food production, environmental conditions have defined a new scenario. A newrevolution, a double green revolution, is now required. More food production to feed a growing population andmore environmental protection to stop and reduce global warming and climate change are needed. Both processesmust occur at the same time and now. The Argentinean vine-wine industry is an interesting case for this analysis.The vine-wine industry in Argentina can be defined as a three model system: quality bottled wine for the internaland external market ; bottled or tetra brick wines for the internal market and concentrated must for the exportmarket. The Nexus approach offers different views to the interdependences between water (key product factor in thearid lands) and energy (directly related to extract groundwater and to concentrate the must, to control thetemperature in the wineries during the production and aging process, to the transport of the products, etc.).Additionally, this analysis could help all stakeholders of the chain on the definition of new strategies for productionof better wines with more environmental consciousness.

Keywords : nexus, water, energy, wine, production

*Corresponding authors : [email protected] 47


IntroductionIn the beginning of the new century the worldeconomic situation had suffered very importantchanges, crisis and transformations. Today, some newsubjects are more and more present in theinternational agenda, in the media and especially inthe demands of the different people of the world. TheTIC technologies have completely transformed thelife of the people and particularly thus of the newdigital generations. We talk about the differentgenerations related with the born year: baby boomers(1946 – 1965), X (1965 – 1980), Y = millennialgeneration (1980 - 2000) and Z (after 2000). At thesame time, we make classifications related with theapproach to TIC techs, and we find for example, thedigital (born between 1982 and 1999) and the virtual(born after 2000) generations. Despite thesedifferences, the life of people in different countries,

and the basic forms of consumption (food, water,housing, energy, clothing, transport, leisure andentertainment, etc.) have followed similar trendsrelated with a growing use of natural resources suchas water and different kinds of energy, especially un-renewable fossil energy, directly (coal, natural gas,fuel) or indirectly (to produce electricity). The firsteconomic red lights related with energy were the1973 & 1979 oil crisis related to the OPEP policy,focused in the shock to the consumption behaviors ofthe increase of fuel prices and the related worldinflation and flat or slow growing of the worldeconomics. However, the problem was much moreserious. The “limits of growth” (Rome Club paper)opened a strong discussion and the seed for newapproaches began to grow. The Rio Conference, theBrundtland report, among others, showed a newreality. The paradigm “more consumption-more

09-gennari_05b-tomazic 28/03/18 18:32 Page47

production-more natural resources” (especially water& fossil energy) began to be strongly discussed.In this context, in the 2008 Assembly of WorldEconomic Forum, the food nexus -theinterdependence between water, energy & foodproduction- was in the table with special reference inthe relevant paper talking about water in foodproduction. It is important to remember that in 2003began a very important period of price growing ofbasic foods, (especially wheat, corn, rice, soybean,milk, meat, etc.), and in 2008 the prices reached thehighest peak of the history. The geopoliticalconsequences were immediate. The “Arab spring”changed the political map of North Africa andMiddle East ; all these countries are strong importersof basic foods. The fundamentals of the increasingprices of the basic agricultural commodities may bediscussed but there is great consensus in somefundamentals : the increasing population and thehigher incomes are a of part of this, the new role ofChina and India as strong importers of agriculturaland food products, changes in the food diet (moremeat less cereals), increasing prices of oil, increasingbiofuels and the speculation in the Stock Exchange ofagricultural commodities.The 2011 the Conference in Bonn was untitled “TheWater, Energy and Food Security Nexus – Solutionsfor a Green Economy”. Obviously, in this approach,water & energy could be considered in strictu sensuor with a wide vision like natural resources. And inthe same way food security could be consideredstrictly or as a way to discuss the production processof all the farm goods and the food and not food chainrelated with agriculture based products.The Nexus approach offers a more comprehensiveunderstanding of the problems related to foodproduction and the trade-off between food productionand natural resources (renewable and not renewable)consumption and can provide better indications tomore integrated agricultural, rural and food policytrying to produce more agricultural goods; tradable(wheat, grapes, cotton, corn, wines etc.) and nottradable (environment, landscape, carbon dioxidecapture, water reuse, etc.). In the 1960s and the1970s, the Noble Prize Norman Bourlag created theGreen Revolution. This was a great step to solve thehunger problem in the world. But the greenrevolution intensified the use of water (pivotirrigations) and fossil fuel products especiallychemical fertilizers and pesticides. Now what weneed is a “doubly green revolution”, a revolution toproduce more agricultural goods and food to agrowing population and a revolution to produce moreenvironmental goods to improve the natural resource

situation, to stop the global warming and to avoid thenegative consequences of climate change. It is atough challenge. The Nexus water-energy-foodproduction could give us tools to solve this problem.It is clearly impossible to develop all the subjectstogether, but in this framework we try to focus on theproblem of the paradigm in the food production, inthe natural resources consumption (water & energy)and in the rural development, with special concern onthe consequences in rural life, work opportunities andlandscape transformations. Even more in the case ofthe Argentinian vine-wine chain we try to understandthe interdependence of these variables to reduce theimpact of the vine-wine system in the environmentand to improve the systemic quality of the products;not only better quality wines, even more produced ina better landscape, with less natural resources (water& energy consumption) and promoting rural life.Argentina viticultureAs it is clearly depicted in figure 1, the Argentineangrape surface constantly grew from the 1950s until1977, reaching the historical maximum of 350,680hectares. From this moment onwards it diminished of2 % on average each year until accounting in 2000for only 201,113 hectares. The global loss of theperiod raised up to 149,567 hectares. This reductionof the grape surface was greater in Mendoza and SanJuan, particularly in the first one : from 252,000hectares in 1978 to 170,000 hectares in 1989. Thegreat loss was not only quantitative but alsoqualitative: thousands of hectares of noble varietiessuch as Malbec were eliminated in Lujan de Cuyo,Maipú, San Rafael, Tupungato and San Carlos. Thedecreasing trend smoothly reverted since 1991 but itwas clear after 2000. Especially from a qualitativepoint of view, the 222,543 hectares of vineyardsregistered in 2013 were quite different from previousdecades. All qualitative superior varieties grew, as inthe case of Malbec, while lower quality varieties

48


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were slowly eliminated. Among white varieties,Pedro Jimenez registered an important reductionwhile Chardonnay and Sauvignon varieties weregrowing. Regarding rosé varieties for vinification, aslow but systematic fall started and continues up tothe present : from almost 151,000 ha in 1978 to55,100 ha in 2010. These varieties covered the greatdemand for concentrated must, while almost no winewas elaborated with these varieties.The number of vineyards also decayed greatly turningfrom 60,583 units in 1978 to 24,780 in 2010(Figure 2). During the quantity based model thatlasted until 1990, small producers were highlyaffected, especially those with low yields and thosecultivating red quality varieties with low production(as it was the case of Malbec). Their natural answerwas to replace the vertical shoot position method bythe two meters high pergola (el parral) since itshowed a great vegetative development and greateryields, and to replace high quality varieties by highyield ones. The results were evident : the averageyield turned from 6,000 kg per hectare during the1960s decade to 12,000 kg per hectare at thebeginning of the 1990s. When the quality periodbegan by 1990 a reversed process also took place.Low quality varieties were replaced by high qualityones and most vineyards returned to the vertical shootposition method. Even if the current number ofvineyards is quite bellow the one registered in 1977 (-60 %), the quantity has stabilized and is now of24,780 vineyards. In terms of wine production, theaverage for the 2000-2012 period has been of 14,287thousand hectoliters for 25,045,601 thousandkilograms of grapes for vinification. Late springfrosts, hails and hotter than normal summers have

defined reduced harvest in some years while goodweather conditions have boosted production in someother years.Regions and VarietiesArgentina’s wine production areas range from thenorthern province of Salta to the southern region ofPatagonia. This strip is characterized by aridity anddryness and is irrigated by melted water from theAndes, defining oases. These oases can be classifiedinto regions and subregions, each of them withparticular characteristics in terms ofgeomorphological conditions. Some stand out fortheir altitude, such as the Calchaquíes Valleys, in theNorth; others for the aridity of the land, such as thevalleys in the provinces of Mendoza, San Juan andLa Rioja ; and there are also low altitude oases inPatagonia, with intense ripening periods. During thepast years, wine production has extended to non-traditional wine areas such as Buenos Aires,Cordoba, Entre Rios, Tucuman and Jujuy.Water and energy in Argentine viticultureThe history of Argentine viticulture goes back to thearrival of the first Spanish settlers. In those early daysand until the expansion of viticulture during the late19th century, vines were grown in areas where

49


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Table 1. Evolution of grape and wine productionSource: our elaboration from Area del Vino data

2008 2010 2011Thousand HL 14.676.415 16.250.768 15.472.635Thousand KG 27.111.743 25.389.249 28.074.728

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Some stand out for their altitude, such as

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'''

'

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Figure 3. Argentine Winegrowing ValleysSource: Wines of Argentina


irrigation was absolutely necessary, such as theAndean valleys of Salta, Catamarca, and La Rioja inNorth Argentina, and the provinces of Mendoza andSan Juan in West Argentina. All these regions reliedon comprehensive and collective irrigation systemswith very low energy requirements. Collectiveirrigation systems draw water from rivers at strategicpoints, creating diversion dams and canals to irrigatevineyards and other crops. This system based on dirtcanals and other partially waterproofed channels hadvery low energy requirements ; however, water losswas substantial. The high efficiency achieved in theuse of all kinds of fuel was associated with lowefficiency in the use of water.The increase in arable lands within the different vine-growing oases called for tighter water distributionregulations, especially in Mendoza and San Juan.Mendoza’s Water Act (Ley de Aguas) was enacted inthe late 19th Century. This law laid the foundations ofmost pieces of legislation on the use of water in WestArgentina, where viticulture was already awidespread practice. The continuous growth ofagriculture and other water-intensive industries calledfor major infrastructure works and high efficiency.The use of fossil fuel or electricity was almostunheard of in viticulture. Many companies, however,took advantage of the existing network of irrigationcanals and their constant or almost constant flow toinstall small hydroelectric power stations to satisfytheir own energy needs, since public-power supplysystems were only aimed at urban areas.With the introduction of vineyard sanitation practicesand mechanical power (tractors and tillageequipment) liquid fossil fuels became crucial to thiscontinuous evolution process. The push towardsmore intensive farming was made possible byphytosanitary products (today mostly chemicals andoil by-products) but also by natural fertilizers (goatand poultry manure) and synthetic nitrogen fertilizersmade through energy-intensive manufacturingprocesses. Undoubtedly, the most important part ofthis technological evolution has to do with the use ofgroundwater. With groundwater it was possible toincrease the surface of arable land by supplementingthe limited supply of surface water. At this point,water and energy forged a strong link (the water-energy nexus) related to groundwater extractionsystems based on fossil fuel or electric power (morecommon nowadays).The main vine-growing region of North Argentina isirrigated with river water. This is the area of theCalchaquí Valley, which is made up by the districts ofSan Carlos, Animaná, Cafayate, and Tolombón inSalta ; Colalao and Amaicha del Valle in Tucumán;

and Santa María in Catamarca. In this region waterdistribution systems are old and inefficient due topoor or inadequate investment (e.g. inadequatewaterproofing, low pressure, etc.). The use ofgroundwater relies increasingly on electricity (e.g.drip irrigation systems). The expansion of agriculture(viticulture) and wine tourism in the region is clearlylimited by and depends largely on water. The efficientuse of water is a determining factor, especially intraditional rural areas with old and poor irrigationsystems. Today, these areas are negatively affected bythe rapid growth of nearby urban areas (garbage,frequent outages, unregulated urban development,etc.). There are no in-depth studies on the dynamicsof aquifers. Said studies would be essential toestimate aquifers’ capacity and to prevent thenegative consequences of overuse. In the competitionfor water, the balance tips in favor of urban areas,tourism, and viticulture, which is prioritized aboveother crops.In the province of La Rioja, viticulture is mostlypracticed in the Chilecito and Famatima valleys.These valleys suffer the consequences of aninsufficient water supply. La Rioja has very limitedsources of surface water. The main irrigation system(the one used in Chilecito) calls for an urgentmodernization, especially tubing, since arable landsare significantly affected by urban areas. The use ofgroundwater increases rapidly, but there is no preciseinformation about water balances and the naturalcapacity of aquifers.During the last fifteen years, San Juan has made aconsiderable investment in water management andirrigation infrastructure (dams, reservoirs,waterproofing systems for primary and secondarycanals). Here, the use of groundwater has alsoincreased but is mostly linked to table grape farmingoperations.Mendoza’s situation is particularly complex. Thisprovince has different productive oases that facedifferent problems. The growth of viticulture runsparallel with the evolution of irrigation systems underthe Water Act and the extraordinary legacybequeathed by César Cipolletti, who designeddiversion dams, canals, and other major infrastructureworks for water management. The former state-owned enterprise Agua y Energía built manymultipurpose dams (Nihuil and Valle Grande in theAtuel River ; Agua del Toro, Los Reyunos, and ElTigre in the Diamante River). The dam known asDique Carrizal, which was built with the sole purposeof permitting agricultural development, has beencrucial for viticulture in the eastern areas of theprovince. The multipurpose dam Dique Potrerillos,

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which was built during this Century and is fed by theMendoza River, has had a profound impact on NorthMendoza’s viticulture and in the management of theMendoza River. The upper part of the Tunuyán River(in the Uco Valley) is the only one without aregulating reservoir. Downstream, this river takessome water from Dique Carrizal. Undoubtedly, thewater reservoir and hydroelectric project known asDique Los Blancos is urgently needed.During the 20th Century, there has been a constanteffort to improve irrigation through watermanagement, distribution, and pipping to increaseproduction. Ever since the 1960s, the use ofgroundwater has increased rapidly and has beenassociated with high fossil fuel consumption and,more recently, with electric power consumption.Viticulture crisis and the changes in tariff policies(whether linked to international prices or not, andwhether derived from federal or provincial taxregulations) add to the considerable complexity ofthis scenario.The right branch of river Mendoza is used to irrigatepart of Luján, Maipú, San Martín, and Lavalle. Thisriver branch has received sizeable investment towaterproof and to improve the efficiency of the canalsfed by Dique Cipolletti and many tertiary channelsand downstream diversion dams. This scenario favorsinnovation for the distribution of irrigation water (e.g.“riego acordado”, an on-demand irrigation systembased on agreements entered into with users andfarmers), promotes improvements and works insideeach estate (e.g. dams, drip irrigation), and favorsproduction (e.g. best farming practices, moreproduction, varietal conversion, hail protectionsystems). In addition to this, these actions andmechanisms mitigate the impact of climate change.The left branch of river Mendoza is very different. Itsmain canal, Cacique Guaymallén, is used both forflood control and irrigation purposes, and most of itlacks proper waterproofing. Most secondary canalslack waterproofing and piping resulting in huge waterlosses. This system crosses the metropolitan areas ofthe districts of Godoy Cruz, Mendoza, Guaymallén,Las Heras, and part of Luján, making water handlingand management more complex. Most investmentsfocus on the canals that feed water purification plants,while rural areas depend largely on dirt canals. Inaddition to these two river branches, there is a thirdsystem that supplies water to the areas in the southernpart of river Mendoza, in Luján, Argentina’s mostemblematic vine-growing region.All works and actions aimed at improvinginfrastructures along the right branch of the river,have resulted in a more efficient use of surface water,

thus lowering the demand for groundwater forirrigation purposes. Along the right branch, the use ofgroundwater is closely linked with farming and it isnot possible to lower water requirements through amore efficient use of surface water. Finally, thesouthern areas have not attracted significantinvestment to improve the canalization anddistribution of surface water. All this probablyaccounts for the intensive use of groundwater forirrigation purposes in areas that rely entirely ongroundwater irrigation or mixed irrigation systems(surface water plus ground water). This area has highelectric power requirements and the water-energynexus becomes especially important. Aquiferevolution and water balance studies conducted in the1990s led to water use restrictions and constantsurveillance. The high value of wine productioncreates a heavy demand for water. In less than 20years, this relative shortage of surface water has ledto the construction of many dams that supply surfacewater or groundwater through irrigation shifts anddrip irrigation systems. From the point of view oftechnology, these actions have had a positive effect(e.g. anti-hail netting, fertigation, high-quality grapevarieties, etc.). In addition to this, both the wineindustry and wineries have turned the area into apopular wine tourism destination with hotels,restaurants, and recreational activities. All thisincreases the demand for water (e.g. to createbeautiful landscapes).Since the mid 1990s, the area irrigated by the canalsfed by El Carrizal, in the eastern oasis, has receivedlarge investments to waterproof primary andsecondary canals. These works have resulted inadequate levels of surface water supply. Here, the useof groundwater by farms without surface waterirrigation systems has increased dramatically,especially under incentive schemes. This alsoillustrates the water-energy nexus because manyestates and farms that relied exclusively ongroundwater irrigation have disappeared orundergone a profound transformation in theirproduction practices. Historically, this area wasknown for producing poor quality grapes (from awinemaking perspective). During the last years,however, there has been a strong conversion to betterwine grape varieties. However, this area is largelyfocused on the production of grape juice and tablewines that are sold in the domestic market. Toprepare sulfated must wineries consume largeamounts of energy. Therefore, the water-energynexus is also present in the production of mustconcentrate. In addition to this, shallow aquifers areused to control the temperature of wine barrels andhigh-quality wine bottles, consuming large quantities

51



of energy. This has become a widespread practicebecause it is cheaper than building deeper cellars.The Uco Valley is irrigated by the upper part of theTunuyán river, upstream of El Carrizal dam. Thisvalley presents a singular situation. This area hasexperienced the most dramatic growth in Argentinaviticulture, especially in the highlands, where newvineyards have been planted increasing the region’swater and energy requirements. The traditionalsystem for the distribution of surface water, basedprimarily on the Tunuyán river and several creeks(Yaucha, Aguanda, Grande, Las Tunas), is subject toan intensive use through several diversion dams(Dique Valle de Uco ; Dique Las Tunas ; DiqueYaucha, Dique Aguanda) and many primary andsecondary canals (many of them waterproofed). Outof the 59,000 hectares of arable land, 39,500 areirrigated with surface water and 19,500 relyexclusively on groundwater. These data provideinformation on the history of water and the growingdemand for well drilling permits in the North andCentral areas (Alto Valle de Uco ; e.g. Gualtallary,Agua Amarga, Vista Flores, Altamira), as well as theserious problem derived from the intensive use ofwater and energy. In this area, the dynamics ofaquifers is very complex. The lowlands have somenaturally-flowing wells. Still, water balance studiesare very recent and have only yielded preliminaryresults. Since 2011, the region has been subject towater well drilling restrictions aimed at preservingthe balance of groundwater bodies. Notwithstandingthis restriction, several drilling permits have beengranted during the last years. To date, 2284 wellshave been drilled in the valley, most of them in theEast (1,645), while the northern and central areashave 290 and 197 wells, respectively. The southernarea of the Valley has 152 wells. The water-energynexus becomes especially relevant in the northernand central regions, since drawing water from deepwells requires a substantial amount of electric power.In the area of Luján, near the southern part of theMendoza River, the traditional water-food-energynexus model becomes an ad-hoc water-energy-valuegeneration-employment nexus. In this area, winetourism has grown exponentially. The demand forman-made landscapes in wine tourism also plays asignificant role in the region’s viticulture practices.The wine market is segmented by price categoriesand quality standards, depending on whether wineswill be sold in the domestic market or exported.Comparatively, the South oasis, which is irrigated bythe rivers Diamante and Atuel, has fewer vineyardsand has undergone a profound transformation derivedfrom the loss of production facilities. This area relies

on mixed models. Many wineries have convertedtheir vineyards, moving from low-quality to high-quality grapes and developing wine tourism. The lackof waterproofed canals poses a serious problem.However, since groundwater is very scarce, energyrequirements are not very high.Finally, in Argentina’s Patagonia in the Negro rivervalley and its main stem, the Neuquén river,viticulture, high-quality wines, and wine tourism aregrowing steadily. Here, water management strategiesare aimed at preventing damages derived from largeflows, i. e. water loss and crop damage from canalsthat overflow their banks. In Neuquén, this problemhas been partially solved by waterproofing irrigationcanals and ditches.The water-energy nexus is strongly favored by theevolution of in-farm irrigation technology, which willbecome a decisive factor for the future. Irrigation hasevolved from flood irrigation (irrigation 1.0) toimproved irrigation systems based on gravity andbasic agriculture concepts such as furrow irrigationon flat or sloping lands (irrigation 2.0); and differentmechanized systems such as center-pivot or linearirrigation systems, drip irrigation, sprinklers, driptapes, etc. In viticulture, drip irrigation is thepreferred and most widely used system (irrigation3.0). Today, irrigation technology is increasinglyrelying on fossil fuel or electric power. More recently,the wine industry in Mendoza and other industriesfrom other Argentine provinces have started todevelop collective irrigation systems based ongravity. Highland water dams feed pressurized waterpipes and supply farms with surface water withoutwater losses from canalization and distribution. Theseinitiatives cut down the consumption of electricityand fossil fuels. These systems are used to feedhighly-efficient drip irrigation systems and provide acomprehensive response to the difficulties arisingfrom climate change. These irrigation systems(irrigation 4.0) make a very efficient use of water andconsume zero energy. Collective irrigation systemscall for substantial investment but promise majorbenefits (e.g. water and energy conservation,environmental and landscape-related benefits).ConclusionsDuring the next decades, climate change is expectedto reduce snowfall in the Andes. Therefore, the waterlevel of the rivers which used to irrigate vine-plantedvalleys across West Argentina will be lower. Energyis another complex and decisive factor. The rise inelectricity rates and the prices of fuel in general, plusthe cumulative impact of tariff lags have a substantialeffect on production in general and particularly on

52



viticulture. This means that the water-energy nexus isaffected by climate change and Argentina’smacroeconomic context. Beyond the viticulturepractices that prevail in each region, we need to thinkabout the future and how to achieve a more efficientuse of water with the available resources,implementing irrigation 4.0 solutions whereverpossible to maximize efficiency in water and energyuse. These actions must be part of strategies aimed atmitigating and adapting to climate change byalleviating agriculture’s dependence on groundwaterand the impact on landscapes. In those areas whereirrigation 4.0 cannot be implemented, 3.0 solutionsare still a valid alternative to reduce the dependenceon groundwater and obtain other significant benefits.Of course, all these scenarios call for higher degreesof social organization. The agreements that governthe use of surface water by farmers and other usersand the regulatory powers of public authorities shouldbe improved and strengthened so as to pave the wayfor a virtuous process based on a more efficient use ofwater and energy. Such a process would result inmore efficacy, more efficiency, more physical

productivity, and more economic and social produc-tivity, i. e. a more sustainable, socially responsible,and environmentally-friendly development process.

ReferencesBonn 2011 Conference, “The Water, Energy and Food

Security Nexus – Solutions for a Green Economy”,Bonn, 16-18 November 2011.

Pinto, Mauricio Esteban “Ley de Aguas de 1884”comentada y concordada / Mauricio Esteban Pinto,Gladys Eugenia Rogero, Mónica Marcela Andino ;coordinado por Mauricio Esteban Pinto — 1a ed. -Mendoza: Irrigación Edita, 2006.

Pestel Eduard, Beyond the limits to Growth, A Report tothe Club of Rome, Universe Books, 1989.

Report of the World Commission on Environment andDevelopment: Our Common Future, Oslo, 20 March1987

United Nations, Conference on Sustainable Development« Rio2012 »

World Economic Forum, Annual Meeting, Davos, 2008.

53



The potential of wine-tourism for preservation of agricultural resources for the future generations : A case study of Katashimo Winery in JapanShigeaki Oda1*, Toshihiro Takai2, Noriaki Kawasaki1, Kiyohiko Sakamoto3, Rikko Togawa1, Haruhiko Iba1, Yasushi Kobayashi4, Takeshi Ueda1 and Tasuku Nagatani5

1Division of Natural Resource Economics, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto Univ., Kitashirakawa-Oiwake,Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan2Katashimo Wine Foods Co. Ltd., 2-9-14 Taiheiji, Kashiwara-shi, Osaka 582-0017, Japan3Department of Community Management, Faculty of Sociology, Ryukoku Univ., 1-5 Yokotani,Seta Oe-cho,Otsu-shi,Shiga 520-2194, Japan4Style Winery, 612-2 Kajiya, Iga-shi, Mie 518-1143, Japan5Norinchukin Research Institute Co. Ltd., Agri-Square Shinjuku Bldg., 5-27-11 Sendagaya, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo151-0051, Japan

Abstract: Wine-making, in general, assumes highly agricultural characteristics. In the meantime, agriculture, while being aneconomic sector, is expected to contribute socially through preserving and passing on agricultural resources such as farmlandsto the future generations. Nonetheless, in reality the growing sum of abandoned and non-cultivated farmlands in Japanindicates that such an expectation on agriculture, including vine culture, as a steward of resources, is in no way being met. Theobservation below has prompted this study empirically illuminating the mechanism through which vine-culture and wine-making areas reorganize their resources by tapping into wine tourism towards restoring their economic vitality. The analysisespecially speaks to the roles and potentials of wine tourism with said reorganization mechanism to preserve the area’sagricultural resources for the future generations.

Keywords: wine-tourism, agricultural resources, innovation, custom crush, Japan



Introduction

Wine-making in general assumes highly agriculturalcharacteristics in that wine quality can be stronglyaffected and significantly shaped by local ambiance.Sustaining agriculture, meanwhile, necessitatespreservation of resources for agricultural production,including land and water, in whole conditions tofollowing generations. This has become a gravechallenge in Japan where, as explained later, its agingfarming population finds it extremely difficult tosustain farming. If Japanese wine makers are tosurvive and thrive, therefore, it is a critical challengefor them to find innovative alternatives to protectagricultural resources in surrounding areas.

This study examines the potential of wine-tourism forJapanese wine makers to work effectively with localstakeholders and thereby preserve agriculturalresources towards the future. A case study on

Katashimo Food Wine Foods Co. Ltd. (KatashimoWinery, hereafter) in Osaka, Japan, delineates how itgradually mobilized a variety of stakeholdersattracted to its tourism activities, includingconsumers, chefs, supermarkets, and media, whoeventually organized volunteer groups and growgrape to produce wine by the winery’s custom crashoperation.

In what follows, first, a brief overview of the state offarmland use in Japan illuminates the need topreserve agricultural resources, laying out thebackground against which this study was conducted.Second, the case study of Katashimo Winery presentsthe trajectory of its development tapping into wine-tourism while involving local stakeholders whobecame avid devotees of the winery and reorganizelocal agricultural resources for the wine production.Third, the achievements by Katashimo Winary areanalyzed to identify factors for the success. Finally,

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the Conclusion section discusses the significance ofwine-tourism as a pathway to mobilize people toreorganize and preserve area’s agricultural resourcesfor the future generations.

Preserving agricultural resources in Japan

For Japanese agriculture as an economic sector tosustain itself, there exists the socially recognizedneed to pass on agricultural resources, includingfarmlands, in whole conditions to the cominggenerations. Yet, it is individual farmers or farmingentities that with vested interests undertake the role tomaintain land. Their varying interests may beincompatible with the social need for preservation offarmlands as a quasi-common asset. Balancing thesocial need for preservation and the interest offarmers as the steward over the land has always beenvital for Japan’s agricultural sectors to survive.

This problem becomes more pertinent when thescarcity of arable lands in Japan is illuminated. Out ofJapan’s 37.8 million hectares, the largest portionbeing 66.3 percent (25.1 million hectares) is devotedto forest use, whereas arable lands account for only12 percent (4.5 million hectares). Comparatively, thisfigure is much smaller than that in France(approximately 52 percent) and in Germany(47 percent). Moreover, the fact that a substantialportion (43.3 percent) of farmlands is found inmountainous areas, forces extra burden to continuefarming there.

Despite the scarcity, however, for the last decadesJapan has witnessed constant decrease in the totalfarmland acreage and a growing sum of abandonedand non-cultivated farmlands. This is largely becausein rural Japan, farming no longer seems to be a viablebusiness ; accordingly, there are fewer younggenerations who willingly take over lands of olderretiring farmers. In essence, Japanese agriculture isfaced with a critical question as to how to preserve,restore and reorganize farmlands, the most essentialagricultural resource, for the future generations.

Most importantly, Japan’s wine sector is not immuneto this problem. As a substantial percentage ofwineries in Japan produce wine, whether partially orlargely, with grape supplied from outside, vineyardsmaintained by growers in surrounding areas are avital source of the ingredient. Securing supply ofgood grapes from a vicinity can be a decisive factor ifa wine maker aspires to elaborate a wine productassociated with “terroir” of the area. It is against thisbackground that this study was conducted to examinehow wine makers and relevant stakeholders

reorganize and sustain viticulture in the area, and bydoing so make wine products with a local pride.

Case study: Katashimo Winery

This presentation deals with an innovative winerythat tapped into wine tourism as a springboard tomobilize local people and worked together with themto restore and reorganize vineyards in thesurrounding locality, which had been renowned forgrape production. The case study on KatashimoWinery in Osaka empirically unpacks the winery’sdevelopment mechanism, determines conditionsenabling it, and thereby discusses roles and thepotential that wine-tourism can play to contribute tothe reorganization and the preservation of agriculturalresources, vineyard lands in particular, for the futuregenerations. The analysis puts focus on grapegrowers’perception on and attitude to the winery andits business, roles of organizations and networksinvolving local stakeholders, supports by the publicsector, and merits for and feedback from consumers,in order to identify motivations and trust behind theeffort to restore the local viticulture and economicvitality.

The history of Katashimo Winery can be traced backto the late 19th century when Risaburo Takai, fatherof the founder, started cultivating lands and growinggrapes on foothills of Ikoma Mountains in Kashiwaraarea, east of Osaka Prefecture. In 1912, his son andfounder, Sakujiro Takai, finally succeeded brewingwine after countless failures. Since its foundation, thewinery has been striving for technical innovation toimprove its products and enhance its competitiveedge to elicit as much profits as possible from grapes.Developing unique and new products has been thekey for the winery’s success. Accordingly, in 2015,Katashimo Winery recorded 250 million yen, orapproximately 2.2 million USD ; and its marginalprofitability ratio reached about 55 percent. This isremarkable in the Kashiwara area, which has longsuffered from sustained decline in sales of grapes, thelocal main agricultural product.

One of many examples of the winery’s unique ideasand product lines includes spirits such as grappa, andnon-alcohol wines, elaborated with byproducts andwastes from the wine brewing. These products are aneffective tool for the winery to convey to consumersits stance to pursue exquisite quality whilesimultaneously preserving the environment.

Another distinctive product is a sparkling wine, Tako-cham (Figure 1, left), which is crafted using themethode champenoise, a well-known in-bottlesecondary fermentation technique. The name Tako-


cham comes from the winery’s aspiration for creatinga wine with the Delaware variety (a V. labruscacultivar) that goes well with Takoyaki (Figure 1,right), a Japanese snack featuring octopus. In fact, theOsaka area is renowned for production of Delawaregrape and being the “Capital of Takoyaki.”

The robust business foundation built on the technicalinnovations allowed the winery to pour extensiveefforts to raise the publicity of their products and thearea producing grapes. One such attempt was toexplore the possibility of wine-tourism in the early1990s when the concept as such was still barelyknown. After Katashimo Winery first opened itsvineyard to visitors in 1990, a growing number ofcustomers toured the winery and vineyards (Figure 2)and appreciated the unique characteristics, or theterroir, of the locality. Backgrounds and professionsof the visitors were diverse, including journalists of amajor newspaper, members of a restaurant ownersassociation in Osaka, employees of a localsupermarket, hair stylists, and chefs.

Attracted to the terroir and fascinated with wine-making, they eventually organized groups and startedworking on abandoned lands to grow grapes withwhich to make wine. Katashimo Winery not onlyassisted these novice and amateur grape growers tolearn viticulture practices, but also accepted grapesgrown by the volunteer groups for its custom crushoperation so that the groups created original wineswith grapes of their own. Table 1 chronicles the majorevents through which the customers groups and thewinery built the collaboration through the wine-tourism actions.

Obviously, the collaborative partnership byKatashimo Winery and its devoted volunteers, whichwas developed through wine-tourism, contributed topreserving land resources. Moreover, the positiveoutcome of the collaboration led to the establishment

of Osaka Wineries Association. Today, thisorganization actively organizes wine festivals andother events to attract wine-loving consumers.

Discussion and implications

Four factors successfully enabling the partnershipbetween the amateur growers groups and KatashimoWinery are identified as follows. First, Delaware, thehistorical variety that demonstrated betteradaptability to the area and was considered easier tomanage, was selected for the groups to plant on theonce abandoned vineyards for the restorationpurpose.

Second, the vertical-shoot-positioned trellis, ratherthan the horizontal-positioned trellis, the mostcommon training system in Japan, was adopted foreasier access and better workability for the novicevolunteers.

Third, the short-cane pruning (severe spur-pruning)was adopted for the simplicity for the volunteers tolearn pruning techniques. In fact, in this region theshort-cane pruning had not been recommendedbecause it could significantly reduce size of clustersand intensify acidity in berries in the Delawarecultivar. However, it turned out that the short-canepruning unexpectedly brought about higherconcentration of components in berries, resulting inbetter wine quality.

Finally, fourth, the volunteers were allowed toparticipate in farm works at their discretion according

56


O

A

Figure 1 - Taco-cham (left) and Tako-yaki (right)

Figure 2 – Visitors touring at a vineyard


to their schedule. The winery’s proximity and accessto the downtown Osaka area also allowed theparticipants to schedule flexibly their visit to the area.As a result of the collaboration, for the time periodfrom 2003 to 2016, more than 2.0 hectares ofvineyards were restored and reorganized.

The series of activities presented in the case studywere undertaken mostly by the volunteer groups withthe assistance by Katashimo Winery. It can be arguedthat the wine-tourism experience, including visits tothe winery and vineyards, inspired customers whoeventually became volunteers to appreciate a valueresiding in the locality. It follows that the recognizedvalue of the place motivated the volunteers to takefurther actions to reinforce the value. Thus thereseems to be a certain feedback that consumers bringsthe local area. Elements involved in this localfeedback mechanism are not only consumers, butalso (1) the physical and biological environment,which can be called, as it were, “nature’s blessing”,(2) wineries and grape growers, (3) relevantorganizations, including Osaka Wineries Association,and (4) the public sector. Being interconnected toeachother, these elements serve to restore andreorganize local agricultural resources to pass on tothe future generations.

For instance, the volunteers participated in growinggrapes and wine-making and eventually came toappreciate the value of the area, which was re-enhanced through the purchase of the wine with thegrape they produced. In the meantime, KatashimoWinery, while assisting the volunteers, accepted thevolunteers’ grapes to brew wine for custom crush,sold it to the volunteers, and consequently managedto reinforce its financial basis. Furthermore, seven

wineries in Osaka established Osaka WineriesAssociation in 2012, and later 14 wineriesinaugulated Kansai Wineries Association for theKansai region consisting of Osaka, Kyoto, Hyogo,Shiga, Nara and Wakayama prefectures. Theseorganizations worked together to build a vision to beshared among the wineries in the Kansai region. Thepublic sector incorporated the story of KatashimoWinery and the volunteers in the curriculum for theelementary and secondary schools in Osaka city andKashiwara city. The story is expected to inspirepupils to learn the local value so that they eventuallybecome proud devotees to the area.

These are some examples of ways in which relevantlocal actors get connected with each other throughengaging in wine-tourism. There can be otherpotential connections among and collaborations bylocal stakeholders, who can develop new businessactivities related to wine-tourism.

Conclusion

The case study and analysis above have elucidatedhow Katashimo Winery’s wine-tourism with theattractive landscape contents such as vineyards andwinery mobilized people from within and outside thearea to work together for restoration and preservationof vineyards while ensuring economic viability. It isstill too early to gauge accurately effects of the wine-tourism business endeavors based on the partnershipbetween Katashimo Winery and the volunteer groups.Nonetheless, it can be reasonably assumed that theanalysis on the role and potential of wine-tourism canprovide useful insights to find better alternatives forpreservation of local agricultural resources towardsthe future generations.

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Table 1 - Chronicle of collaborations between the volunteer groups and Katashimo Winery

Year Major events

1990 Katashimo Winery opened its vineyards to visitors, marking the first attemptof wine-tourism

2003 Restaurant Kahara, and members of restaurant owner association and liquorshop owners began working to restore abandoned vineyards

2010 Other smaller groups, such as Bar Jaz Farm, began working to restoreabandoned vineyards

2011 Wine Shop Fujimaru began working to restore abandoned vineyards (andthree years later, the group inaugurated its own winery in Osaka)

2013 Members of Mainichi Broadcasting System (MBS) began working to restoreabandoned vineyards


Argentina breaking new groundPresent and future of the Argentine wine

Magdalena Pesce

Marketing and Communications Manager, Wines of Argentina, Peatonal Sarmiento 212, 2° Floor, Mendoza, Argentina

Abstract: Argentina is redefining the future of the wine industry. Celebrated for its world-class Malbec, the country hascompletely changed the way the grape is perceived today. Yet, Argentina has much more to offer: its massive territory harborsa wealth of terroirs that simply cannot be found elsewhere. But there is more.Argentina’s wine producers are breaking new ground and redefining winemaking today. By combining exceptionalterroirs of great diversity with classic and indigenous grape varieties, and by mixing tried-and-true traditions with cuttingedge technology and modern techniques, they are able to continually improve Argentina’s wine offering.Wines of Argentina (WofA) is an organization that, since 1993, promotes Argentina wine brand and image worldwide,spreading knowledge of the winemaking regions of Argentina and enhancing its positive image in the wine trade, amongopinion leaders and consumers. In addition, WofA contributes to direct the country’s export strategy by studying andanalyzing changing trends in the consuming markets.It currently provides services to member wineries from every Argentine wine region and helps them to promote theirproducts around the world. It organizes numerous events such as fairs, trade shows, tastings and other activities in theUSA, Canada, Latin America, Asia, Europe and elsewhere.In view of the impressive growth of the wine industry in the last decade, Wines of Argentina created a new identity,reflecting the innovation and prestige of Argentine winemaking in the world.

Keywords : Argentina, future, diversity, wine, WofA



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Session IV - Health and safety aspects


Projet2 25/11/08 18:27 Page 1

A very promising molecule : resveratrol,induced synthesis and health benefitsLiliana Martínez1,2, Martín Durán3, Emiliano Malovini4, María Inés de Rosas1, Leonor Deis1 and Juan Bruno Cavagnaro2

1Cátedra de Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, UNCUYO, Almirante Brown 500, Chacras de Coria, Mendoza, 5505, Argentina2Instituto de Biología Agrícola : IBAM-CONICET-UNCUYO, Argentina3Becario Doctoral UNCUYO. Cátedra de Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de CienciasAgrarias, UNCUYO, Argentina4Becario Posdoctoral CONICET, Cátedra de Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, UNCUYO,Argentina

Abstract : Resveratrol (trans-3,4′,5-trihydroxystilbene), is an abundant stilbene compound that can be found in alarge number of plant products, including the skins and seeds of grapes and wines. Many scientific evidences havedemonstrated that resveratrol exerts a plethora of biological function, especially cardiovascular protective,antiplatelet, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, blood glucose-lowering, anti-cancer, anti-aging, and anti-obesityactivities. Recently, published data have shown that resveratrol protects also against some neurodegenerativediseases, such as Alzheimer´s disease. Its anti-inflammatory properties are thought to be responsible for anxiolyticproperties, as well as its demonstrated anti-depressant efficacy. Because of the important activities of resveratrol,there is an increasing interest in producing grapes or wines with higher contents of this compound. Many biotic andabiotic elicitors, like fungi, UV-C irradiation, jasmonic and salicylic acids, among others, can trigger resveratrolsynthesis in grape berries. Viticultural and enological factors can also substantially affect resveratrol concentrationin wine. One major concern is its poor solubility and absorption when orally administered, which may lower itsbiological effectiveness. However, different strategies have been assessed to improve resveratrol bioavailability.Many biological mechanisms of action have been proposed for the observed benefits of light to moderate wineconsumption on cognitive function in later life.

Keywords : resveratrol, elicitors, grapevine, health benefits, bioavailability



IntroductionResveratrol (trans-3,4′,5-trihydroxystilbene), apolyphenolic phytoalexin, is an abundant stilbenevery common in our diet and in dietary supplements(Kursvietiene et al., 2016). It can be found in a largenumber of plant products, including the skins andseeds of grapes, wines, peanuts, soybeans,pomegranates, mulberries and dried roots of themedicinal plant Polygonum cuspidatum (Hu et al.,2013). It can also be introduced into the diet throughItadori tea, which has long been used in Japan andChina as a traditional herbal remedy for heart diseaseand strokes.

In plants, this compound acts as a phytoalexin, a classof defense molecules that protects against infection ofbacteria, fungi and damage from exposure toultraviolet irradiation (UV) (Juan et al., 2012 ;

Bartolacci et al., 2017) and extent the life span indifferents organisms, including yeast and vertebrates(Howitz et al., 2003, Baur et al., 2006).Resveratrol biosynthesis and accumulationResveratrol biosynthesis in plants occurs via thephenylalanine pathway. The accumulation ofresveratrol in grapes varies according to the cultivar,genotype, locations, environmental conditions, andgrowing season (Mohidul Hasan et al., 2017).Varying amounts of resveratrol have been reported inberry skin, seed, stem, shoot, bud, root, and leaf (Li etal. 2006; Wang et al., 2010), ranging from 0.16 to3.54 μg/g (Kursvietiene et al., 2016). However,relatively higher amount of resveratrol can found ingrape skin, about 24 μg/g.Resveratrol biosynthesis and accumulation in grapetissues is often low under natural growing conditions

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and is related to veraison stage (Wang et al., 2015).Before veraison, resveratrol content is very low ;however, total resveratrol increases about 500 %from veraison to maturity in the main forms ofpiceids. Cis-resveratrol was not detected throughoutthe developmental period. In regards to totalresveratrol, trans-resveratrol, trans-piceid, and cis-piceid content in ‘Beihong’ (V. vinifera x V. amurensis) remained almost unchanged until aweek after veraison. Moreover, there were nosignificant differences among trans-resveratrol,trans- piceid, and cis-piceid contents. However, totalresveratrol content rapidly increased from 2 weeksafter veraison to maturity (Wang et al., 2015). Elicitation of resveratrolSeveral methods have been studied to improveresveratrol content in grapevine. Resveratrol can beinduced by biotic factors, i.e., fungi, and abioticfactors, i.e., UV-C irradiation, jasmonic acid, salicylicacid, H2O2, O3, and CaCl2 (Wang et al., 2015).Resveratrol in wineAccording to Bavaresco et al. (2016) resveratrol iscontained in considerably higher amounts in redwines than in white wines because it is mainlypresent in berry skin, and white wines are usuallyproduced with no or limited maceration with thepomace. Trans- and cis-piceid are present in grapesand their hydrolysis, occurring during fermentation,releases cis- and trans-resveratrol. Yeast choice caninfluence the final content of resveratrol in wine dueto the different actions of β-glucosidase enzymes,which transform piceids into resveratrol. To someextent, winemaking practices can also potentiallyaffect resveratrol in wine. Different processingtechniques including maceration have great impactson the improved extraction, ultimately leading to anincreased resveratrol concentration in grape juice andwine maceration was found to increase resveratrolextraction in wines by 10-fold compared with slightlypressing for a very short time on grape skins(Atanockovic et al., 2012). Prefermentation cold-soaking significantly increased trans and cis-resveratrol in free-run press in Cabernet-Sauvignongrape must during alcoholic fermentation (Clare et al.2004). In addition, maceration time, yeast type, usedenzyme, and SO2 concentration were also found to beimportant factors influencing the final resveratrolconcentration in wine (Trela et al., 1996, Wightmanet al., 1997).In general, the low levels of fining agents usuallyadded to stabilize red wines do not significantlyreduce the level of trans-resveratrol (Threlfall et al.,1999), and it is a relatively stable compound that can

remain for years in properly stored wines (i.e.,avoiding exposure to excess heat, and presence ofnormal levels of exogenous antioxidants such assulfur dioxide) (Mattivi et al., 2000). On the otherhand, unusual winemaking processes and ageing caninduce relevant losses of resveratrol.Biological activities and effects of resveratrolIn the past few year, the interest in resveratrolextensively increased due to its nutritional andmedicinal value, and lots of scientific evidence havedemonstrated that resveratrol exerts a plethora ofbiological function, especially cardiovascularprotective (Hung et al., 2000), antiplatelet (Kirk etal., 2000), antioxidant (Valdecantos et al., 2010),anti-inflammatory (de la Lastra et al., 2007), bloodglucose-lowering (Sadi et al., 2014), anti-cancer(Vanamala et al., 2010), anti-aging (Tsai et al., 2017),and anti-obesity activities (Alberdi et al., 2011). Absorption, bioavailability of resveratrol andits metabolismLow solubility of resveratrol in water, caused by itschemical structure, affects its absorption (Gambini etal., 2015). In animals and humans resveratrol isquickly metabolized in the liver, in plasma; it bindsto lipoprotein and albumin, and this facilitates itsentry to cells (Jannin et al., 2004).Orally or intravenously administered resveratrol hashigh absorption (at least 70 %) but rapid andextensive metabolism, leading to formation ofconjugated sulfates and glucuronides (Kursvietiene etal., 2016). It was reported by Walle et al. (2004) thatthe sulfatation of resveratrol might limit thebioavailability of this compound. In humans and rats,trans-resveratrol rapidly undergoes conjugationresulting in one percent of the oral dose beingobserved as free trans-resveratrol in blood plasma(Nguyen et al., 2017). Trans-resveratrol efficiencydepends on a sufficient level of active molecule inbloodstream and target tissue.The maximum peak in plasma concentration ofnative resveratrol was reached after 30-90 min afteroral intake. Appearance of the second peak 6 h afterresveratrol intake indicated that the entericrecirculation of conjugated metabolites byreabsorption takes place. In addition, it was found byOrtuño et al. (2010) that bioavailability of resveratrolfrom wines and grape juice is much higher (sixfold)compared to that from tablets. Also, protects against, some neurodegenerativediseases, such as Alzheimer´s disease (Sun et al.,2010), and is effective in the management of


osteoporosis in postmenopausal woman without anincreased risk of breast cancer (Sun et al., 2007).Also, it was demonstrated by Ge et al. (2017) thatresveratrol ameliorates the anxiety and depression-like behavior of subclinical hypothyroidism in rats. Data from animal studies suggests that grape andwine-derived phenolic compounds are absorbed andaccumulated in the brain in measureable amountsafter multiple or repeated oral doses (Ferruzzi et al.,2009 ; Passamonti et al., 2005). Wine-derivedphenolic compounds, and particularly resveratrol,have been shown to be cerebro or neuro-protective invarious models, in vitro and in vivo, The biological effects of resveratrol is mainly causedby the abundance and diversity of molecular targetsthat this compound has, like cyclooxygenases/lipooxygenases, a wide range of various kinases,sirtuins (Mukherjee et al., 2010), transcription factors,cytokines, DNA polymerase, adenylyl cyclase,ribonucleotide reductase, aromatase and others(Pirola et al., 2008). It is hypothesized that resveratrolprovides a complex physiological activity because ofits capability to modulate different pathways in amicromolar range (Pirola et al., 2008).Conclusion and future prospectsMany people around the world now live longer.According to the WHO, the number of peopleworldwide aged ≥60 years has doubled since 1980and is forecasted to reach 2 billion by 2050. The goalis to not only live longer but also to remain healthy aslong as possible. However, metabolic disorders,cancers, and cardiovascular and neurodegenerativediseases develop more frequently in older people anddecrease quality of life.Calorie restriction seems to extend the life expectancyof several species (from yeasts to human beings) andgenerally decreases age related pathologies.Nevertheless, calorie restriction is difficult to achievein humans. Pharmacological solutions that mimic thephysiological phenomena that occur during calorierestriction are being investigated and, in particular,those factors that act on the sirtuin pathway (Nguyenet al., 2017). Among the candidate moleculesresearched is resveratrol, which increases the lifeexpectancy of numerous species and is considered tomimic calorie restriction (Tsai et al., 2017), thoughthis point is still controversial. Furthermore, trans-resveratrol has shown some anticancer properties, ithas antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, andcan help protect against ischemia-reperfusion,neurodegenerative processes, metabolic diseases suchas glucolipidic metabolism imbalance and

cardiovascular pathologies in both in vitro andanimal models (Kursvietiene et al., 2016).Because of the important properties of trans-resveratrol, there is an increasing interest inproducing grapes or wines with higher contents ofthis compound and a higher nutritional value. Manybiotic and abiotic elicitors can trigger the resveratrolsynthesis in the berries. Under the same elicitationpressure, viticultural and enological factors cansubstantially affect resveratrol concentration in thewine. The production of high resveratrol-containinggrapes and wines relies on quality-orientedviticulture (suitable terroirs and sustainable culturalpractices) and winemaking technologies that avoiddegradation of the compound (Bavaresco et al.,2016).In elders in particular, but also in younger adults,light to moderate wine consumption is associatedwith neuro-protective effects although binge andheavy alcohol consumption is neuro-toxic (Stockley,2015).However, one major concern is the poorsolubility and absorption of resveratrol when is givenorally, which may lower its biological effectiveness.Poor bioavailability of resveratrol is attributed to itsextensive hepatic gluconuridation and sulfation(Nguyen et al., 2017). Recent studies showed that themethoxylation on the free hydroxyl groups ofresveratrol could reduce its metabolization andincrease its plasma exposure (Nguyen et al., 2017). ReferencesAlberdi G, Rodriguez VM, Miranda J, Maccarrulla MT,

Arias N, Andrés-Lacueva C, Portillo M., 2011.Changes in white adipose tissue metabolism inducedby resveratrol in rats. Nutr Metab. 8(1):29-35.

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Bartolacci C, Andreani C, Amici A, Marchini C., 2017.Walking a tightrope : a perspetctive of resveratroleffects on breast cancer. Current Prot Pep Sci.18:1.

Baur JA, Pearson KJ, Price NL, Jamieson HA, Lerin C,Kalra A. 2006. Resveratrol improves health andsurvival of mice on a high-calorie diet. Nature. 444:337-42.

Bavaresco L, Lucini L, Busconi M, Flamini R, DeRosso M., 2016. Wine resveratrol : from the groundup. Nutrients. 8 (222): 1-8.

Clare SS, Skurray G, Shalliker RA. 2004. Effect ofpomace-contacting method on the concentrationof cis- and trans-resveratrol and resveratrol glucosideisomers in wine. Am J Enol Vitic. 55: 401-6.

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de la Lastra CA, Villegas I. 2007. Resveratrol as anantioxidant and pro-oxidant agent mechanism andclinial implications. Biochem Soc T. 235(5):1156-60.

Ferruzzi MG, Lobo JK, Janle EM, Cooper B, Simon JE,Wu QL, Welch C, Ho L, Weaver C, Pasinetti GM.2009. Bioavailability of galic acid and catechins fromgrape seed polyphenol extract is improved byrepeated dosing in rats: implications for treatment inAlzheimer’ s disease. J Alzheimer’s Dis. 18: 113-24.

Gambini J, Inglés M, Olaso O, Lopez-Grueso R, Bonet-Costa W, Gimeno-Mallench L et al., 2015. Propertiesof resveratrol in vitro and in vivo studies aboutmetabolism, bioavailability, and biological effects inanimal models and humans. Oxid Med Cell Longev.837042.

Ge JF, Xu YY, Qin G, Cheng JQ, Chen FH., 2016.Resveratrol ameliorates the anxiety- and depression-like behavior of subclinical hypothyroidism rat :possible involvement of the HPT axis, HPA axis, andWnt/β-catenin pathway. Front Endocrinol. 7(44):1-11.

Howitz KT, Bitterman KJ, Cohen HY, Lamming DW,Lavu S, Wood JG. 2003. Small molecule activatorsof sirtuins extend Saccharomyces cerevisiae lifespan.Nature. 425: 191-6.

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Passamonti S, Vrhovsek U, Vanzo A, Mattivi F. 2005. Fastaccess of some grape pigments to the brain. J AgrFood Chem. 53: 7029-34.

Pirola L, Projdo S. 2008. Resveratrol : one molecule, manytargets. IUBMB Life. 60(5):323-32.

Sadi G, Bozan D, Yildiz HB., 2014. Redox regulation ofantioxidant enzymes : post-translational modulationof catalase and glutathione peroxidase activity byresveratrol in diabetic rat liver. Mol Cell Biochem.393(1):111-22.

Stockley C., 2015. Wine consumption, cognitive functionand dementials- A relationship?. Nutr Aging.125-137.

Sun AY, Wang Q, Simonyi A, Sun GY., 2010. Resveratrolas a therapeutic agent for neurodegenerative diseases.Mol Neurobiol. 41(2-3):375-83.

Su JL, Yang CY, Zhao M, Kuo ML, Yen ML. 2007.Forkhead proteins are critical for bonemorphogenesis protein-2-regulation and anti-tumoractivity of resveratrol. J Biol Chem. 282(27):19385-98.

Threlfall RT, Morris JR, Mauromoustakis A., 1999. Effectof variety, ultraviolet light exposure, and enologicalmethods on the trans-resveratrol level of wine. Am JEnol Vitic. 50: 57-64.

Trela BC, Waterhouse AL., 1996. Resveratrol : Isomericmolar absorptivities and stability. J Agric FoodChem. 44: 1253-7.

Tsai HJ, Ho CT, Chen YK., 2017. Biological actions andmolecular effects of resveratrol, pterostilbene, and 3´-hydroxypterostilbene. J Food Drug Anal. 25: 134-47.

Valdecantos MP, Perez-Mature P, Quinter P, Martinez JA.,2010. Vitamin C, resveratrol and lipoic acid actionson isolated rat liver mithocondia: all antioxidants butdifferent. Redox Rep. 15(5):207-16.

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via suppression of IGF-1R/Wnt and activation of p53signaling pathways. BMC Cancer. 10: 238.

Valle T, Hsieh F, DeLegge MH, Oatis Jr JE, Walle UK.2004. High absorption but very low bioavailability oforal resveratrol in humans. Drug Metab Dispos.32(12):1377-82.

Wang W, Tang K, Yang HR, Wen PF, Zhang P, Wang Hl,Huang WD., 2010. Distribution of resveratrol andstilbene synthase in young grape plants (Vitisvinifera L. cv. Cabernet-Sauvignon) and the effect of

UV-C on its accumulation. Plant Physiol Bioch. 48:142-52.

Wang JF, Maa L, Xi HF, Wang LJ, Li SH., 2015.Resveratrol synthesis under natural conditions andafter UV-C irradiation in berry skin is associatedwith berry development stages in “Beihong” (V. vinifera x V. amurensis). Food Chem.168: 430-8.

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Session V - Innovation in sustainable production for vines and wines


Projet2 25/11/08 18:27 Page 1

Sustainability research and innovation at Viña Concha y Toro

Gerard Casaubon1*, Valentina Lira2 and Alvaro González1

1Center for Research and Innovation, Viña Concha y Toro S.A., Fundo Pocoa s/n, Pencahue, Chile2Sustainability Management, Viña Concha y Toro S.A., Avda. Nueva Tajamar 481, Torre Norte, Piso Nº 15Las Condes, Santiago, Chile

Abstract : Viña Concha y Toro (VCT) integrates sustainability as a central pillar of its mission. This way, theCompany is advancing towards the production of high-quality wines with a philosophy that incorporates a balancebetween sustainable growth, the creation of value for each stakeholder, and its commitment to become a leader inenvironmental practices. Since 2012, VCT has a sustainability strategy with six main pillars : products, suppliers,customers, employees, society and environment. Each pillar has specific foci, initiatives and performance goals,with business leaders in charge of managing and monitoring compliance. These efforts in sustainability researchand innovation are carried out at The Center for Research and Innovation (CRI) and are part of the CRI strategicplan 2020 and its R&D Programs : (i) strengthening of plant materials, (ii) water resources and climate change, (iii)quality assessment of grapes and wines, (iv) smart wine industry, and (v) new product design. Some examples ofcurrent CRI projects on sustainable viticulture are presented in this extended abstract : production of high-qualityplant materials by the use of new diagnosis, control, cleaning and reinforcement procedures ; evaluation of CabernetSauvignon clones to adapt viticultural practices to warmer conditions, and a project devoted to improve thevineyard irrigation water use efficiency.

Keywords : climate change, clones, plant material, viticultural practices, water use efficiency



IntroductionFounded in 1883 Viña Concha y Toro (VCT) is thelargest wine company in Chile and Latin America,the fifth-largest company in the world in terms ofvolume sold, and the second largest in plantedvineyards. Its successful business modelaccompanied by persistent efforts in innovation andsustainable development, have enabled it to grow andexpand its presence to more than 140 countries,leading VCT to become a global recognizedcompany. This business model is based on fivestrategic pillars : (i) excellence in production, (ii)brand building, (iii) global reach, (iv) sustainability,and (v) innovation (Viña Concha y Toro, 2017).

VCT integrates sustainability as a central pillar of itsmission. The Company is advancing towards theproduction of high-quality wines with a philosophythat incorporates initiatives all throughout theproduction chain. These initiatives contribute toestablishing a balance between sustained growth, thecreation of value for each stakeholder, and VCT’scommitment to become a leader in environmental

practices. Sustainability involves everything that isdone in the vineyard, including economics,environmental impacts of everything done on thefarm, and all aspects of human resources, includingemployees and the surrounding community (Ohmart2009). In recent years, international best practices anddiverse metrics that allow managing environmentalimpact have been incorporated in VCT. Theseinclude the measurement and reduction of carbonfootprint, water footprint, biodiversity conservationprograms, and initiatives with suppliers among otherprojects (Viña Concha y Toro, 2017).The Company took a major step in 2014 with theinauguration of the Center for Research andInnovation (CRI) in Maule Region (Chile). The CRIwas designed to conduct applied research andexperimental development (R&D) in the areas ofviticulture and oenology. The CRI is seeking tocontribute to the development and competitiveness ofthe wine industry in Chile and worldwide, providingknowledge and new developments that address futurechallenges in this sector. R&D comprises creative andsystematic work undertaken in order to increase the

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stock of knowledge ; including knowledge ofhumankind, culture, and society, and, to devise newapplications of available knowledge (OECD, 2015a).On the other hand, innovation is the implementationof a new or significantly improved product (good orservice), or process, a new marketing method, or anew organizational method in-business practices,workplace organization or external relations (OECD,2005b). In accordance to VCT’s Corporate SocialResponsibility policy, the CRI allows the Companyto make a positive contribution to its environment.CRI’s Extension Center and the diverse trainingalternatives that have been developed allow thedissemination of new knowledge and technologies.These are being incorporated into grapegrowing andwinemaking practices, benefiting the global wineindustry and making a significant leap incompetitiveness for VCT (Viña Concha y Toro,2017).

Concha y Toro Sustainability StrategySince 2012 VCT has implemented a sustainabilitystrategy addressed through a top-down approach ;starting with the vision and mission at its highestpoint, followed by six strategic pillars (Figure 1).Each pillar has specific foci, initiatives, andperformance goals, with business leaders in charge ofmanaging and monitoring compliance.

The definition of the contents and strategic foci isbased on the analysis and relevant topics for thewinery’s main stakeholders; identifying the areas thatrequire internal and/or external management toachieve the strategic goals (Viña Concha y Toro,2016a).

The components of VCT’s strategic modelincorporate sustainability into the winery’s centralbusiness, the production of high-quality wines. Thesustainability strategy considers the central elementto be the product, and the strategic pillars originateand are developed from there.

Furthermore, the pillars are arranged to show the wayin which the strategy has been developed toincorporate the central elements of sustainabledevelopment:

- Economic Scope : Graphically represented by thebusiness value chain : supply chain, product andcustomers.

- Social Scope : Represented by VCT´s employeesand the society.

- Environmental Scope : Represented by theenvironmental pillar.

VCT’s sustainability strategy is lined up with theSustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of theUnited Nations Development Program (UNDP).These are comprised of a set of 17 goals to endpoverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity forall as part of a new sustainable development agenda(UNDP, 2015). VCT’s contribution to achieve thespecific targets over the next 15 years is focused on10 of the principal SDGs (Table 1):- Goal 3 : Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.- Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and quality education forall, and promote lifelong learning.- Goal 6 : Ensure access to water and sanitation forall.- Goal 7 : Ensure access to affordable, reliable,sustainable, and modern energy for all.- Goal 8 : Promote inclusive and sustainableeconomic growth, employment, and decent workfor all.- Goal 9 : Build resilient infrastructure, promotesustainable industrialization, and foster innovation.- Goal 10 : Reduce inequality within and amongcountries.- Goal 12 : Ensure sustainable consumption andproduction patterns.- Goal 13 : Take urgent action to combat climatechange and its impacts.- Goal 15 : Sustainably manage forests, combatdesertification, halt and reverse land degradation,halt biodiversity loss.To implement and monitor the VCT sustainabilitystrategy, an organizational structure responsible formonitoring and management has been established atan executive and operational level. Each pillar has a

Figure 1. Viña Concha y Toro sustainability strategicpillars.


leader whose scope of management corresponds tothe issues addressed by the pillars. These leadersrepresent their respective pillar by participating in theSustainability Executive Committee. Their mainresponsibility is to monitor progress in meeting goals,with the support of the Department of SustainableDevelopment (Viña Concha y Toro, 2016).During 2017, VCT has entered into the Top 10ranking of the Dow Jones Sustainability Index(DJSI), in the beverages category. The DJSI, which isthe most prestigious international sustainabilityindex, evaluates companies’ environmental, social,economic, and governance performance. VCT hasbeen invited to participate in the index since 2015,achieving prominent positions each year. Theevaluation includes aspects such as corporategovernance, supply chain management, innovationmanagement, climate change, water management,human rights, corporate citizenship, and philanthropyamong others. In the majority of assessment criteriaVCT achieved scores above 80 %, and even obtained100 % in two criteria. In the 2017 edition, VCT madesignificant progress in each of the dimensionsassessed, improving their scores compared to theprevious year in all areas of evaluation, and standingout in the top third of the beverages category.Sustainability research and innovation atCenter for Research and Innovation (CRI)1. Strategic plan and programs 2016-20The CRI has a strategic R&D plan for 2016-20 thatconstitutes a unique opportunity to structure andmanages activities, in order to produce, andcommunicate, high impact applied results for VCTand the wine industry (Viña Concha y Toro, 2016b).The implementation of this strategic R&D planenables the CRI to manage and prioritize its ongoingprojects, adjust needs or opportunities to the supplyof financing instruments, determine socio-economic

valuation metrics for the R&D activities, promotecollaboration with academia, and finally maximizethe benefits generated by R&D for the Company andthe industry. Five major programs constitute the plan(Figure 2):(i) Strengthening of plant materials,(ii) Water resources and climate change,(iii) Quality assessment of grapes and wines,(iv) Smart wine industry,(v) New product design,2. Current projects on sustainability viticultureThe phenomenon of climate change constitutes amajor challenge for the future of the wine industry,which needs to adapt current viticultural/enologicalpractices to warmer and drier conditions in order toproduce quality wines, and maintain an economicallyviable grape productivity. Some of the moreadvantageous strategies are the use of high-qualityadapted plant material. This can be seen as anenvironmentally friendly and cost effective strategy(van Leeuwen and Darriet, 2016).3. Production of high-quality plant material atnursery levelEconomically sustainable vineyard plantationsdepend on the plant material quality. Viral and trunkdiseases have become a high impact problem.However, conventional detection tools for thesepathogens demand a lot of time and labor. In recentyears, the ability to identify pathogens has improvedgreatly through methods of comparative analysis ofRNA and/or DNA. Quantitative assays can beperformed through QRT-PCR, and have been used todetect plant pathogens such as bacteria, fungi,oomycetes and viruses, as well as a simultaneousdetection (Multiplex) approach to detectcombinations of these pathogens. Using thesetechnologies, the CRI is working to establish thebases of a mitigation and quality control system for

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Table 1. Contribution of Viña Concha y Torosustainable strategic pillars to the United NationsDevelopment Programme (UNDP) SustainableDevelopment Goals (SDGs).

3 4 6 7 8 9 10 12 13 15ProductsSuppliersCustomersEmployees

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Figure 2. Center for Research and Innovation (CRI)Strategic Programs.


the VCT nursery. The CRI have implemented ananalytical panel of 15 viruses. The first prospectionof over 413 grapevine samples for Grapevine FanleafVirus (GFLV), and Grapevine Leafroll associatedvirus 1, 2 and 3 (GLRaV1, 2 and 3), shows a higherincidence of GLRaV3.3. Evaluation of Cabernet-Sauvignon clones in thearea of Cauquenes, ChileThe search for adapted grapevine clones to specificterroirs can be seen as an environmentally friendlyand cost effective strategy to obtain a long-termsustainable vineyard. The use of clonal selections inviticulture allows for vineyards with more definedand uniform characteristics. Different clonalselections of a same cultivar can have differentproductive and quality based characteristics, whichare dependent on environmental factors. The CRI hasset up an experimental project with the objective tocharacterize three grapevine clonal selectionsENTAV-INRA (169, 191, and 337), and a massalselection of Cabernet-Sauvignon; submitted to threeyield range management by a cluster thinningtreatment (Penot et al., 2017). Viticultureperformance, cluster characterization, must and winechemical analyses, and wine sensory quality(Figure 3) have been evaluated during fiveconsecutive seasons (2013-2017) in a commercialVSP vineyard located in the Cauquenes area, Chile.The results show significant differences in thequalitative and productive performance of the plantmaterials under the five season’s climatic condition.The clones 191 and 337 showed the bestperformance, corresponding to a good level ofproductivity with satisfactory quality characteristics,especially for the clone 191. Considering theseresults, it is possible to state that these clones, whengrown in conditions similar to the experimental site,

are the most adapted to the production of premiumwines, especially when the yields are adequatelycontrolled for clone 337. The results presented by themassal selection in this study show complementaryfeatures that could allow production at a smaller scalefor Super-Premium wine, corresponding to low yieldbut high quality.4. Adaptation of viticultural practices to warmerand drier conditionsThe adaptation of current viticultural practices towarmer and drier conditions needs to be furtherstudied. The effect of fruit zone leaf removal andharvest maturity level was studied in commercialCabernet-Sauvignon vineyards in Maipo and Maulevalleys (Chile) during three growing seasons : from2013/2014, to 2015/2016 (Vargas et al. 2017a ;Vargas et al. 2017b). In Maipo, three factors werecombined using a multifactorial yearly blockeddesign : (1) defoliation intensity, composed by twolevels of leaf removal on the VSP cluster zone: (a)60 % on the east side during pea size, and (b) 60 %on the east side during pea size plus 40 % on the westside during veraison ; (2) type of defoliation : (a)hand-made or (b) mechanical ; and (3) harvestmaturity level determined by a commercial maturitytracking system: (a) fresh fruit profile and (b) ripefruit profile. Winemaking replicates were 700-800 kggrapes (24 experimental units). Measurementsincluded climatic, physiological, and canopystructural parameters, as well as standard winecomposition and phenolic characterization by HPLC-DAD. In this experiment harvest maturity level hadthe highest effect on fruit and wine composition, byeffect of increased must Brix and wine pH, alcohol,total tannins, color index, DO280, monomeric andtotal anthocyanins ; and by decreased must yeastassimilable nitrogen and total acidity. Mechanical leafremoval was more severe than manual leaf removal,exposing the clusters more directly to the sun. Themain effect of leaf removal was on must flavonolsand monomeric flavan-3-ols, which increased withdefoliation intensity.5. Vineyard irrigation water use efficiencyThe corporate goal of the VCT sustainability strategyis to reduce by 10 % the total water footprint by2020. CRI’s goal is the evaluation of the impact ofRegulated Deficit Irrigation on the quality andproductivity of cv. Cabernet Sauvignon vineyards andwine. To address this goal, the CRI is using newtechnologies like Surface Renewal, for thedetermination of the vineyard actual water demands;and evapotranspiration models using satellite data, forthe extensive and low cost estimation of the vineyard

72


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Figure 3. Principal component analysis of 2015 winesensory attributes (8 judges). M = massal; YC = Control Yield (without clusterthinning); Y1 = Target Yield 14 ton/ha;Y2 Target Yield 9 ton/ha.


crop coefficients (Kc). With these new methodo-logies, the objective is to determine a new strategyfor the irrigation of productive and quality vineyards,and optimize water use efficiency.ReferencesOECD, 2005a. Oslo Manual : Guidelines for Collecting

and Interpreting Innovation Data, The Measurementof Scientific and Technological Activities, ThirdEdition, OECD Publishing, Paris. DOI 10.1787/9789264013100-en

OECD, 2015b. Frascati Manual 2015: Guidelines forCollecting and Reporting Data on Research andExperimental Development, The Measurement ofScientific, Technological and Innovation Activities,OECD Publishing, Paris. DOI : 10.1787/9789264239012-en.

Ohmart, C. Sustainable Winegrowing : What is it andWhere Does it Come From? pp 7-24, in Striegler, R.,Allen, A., Bergmeier, E. and Harris, J. (Edts.)Procedings of the Symposium on Sustainability inVineyards and Wineries. Feb 7-9, 2009, MidwestGrape and Wine Conference, Osage Beach, Missouri.

Penot M., J. Darder, D. Von Baer, S. Vargas-Soto,A. Gonzalez-Rojas, 2017. Comparative evaluation ofproductive parameters and wine quality of Cabernet-Sauvignon selections on the Cauquenes area during2015/2016 season. 20th GIESCO InternationalMeeting, Mendoza, Argentina. Book of FullManuscripts. Pp 1113-1118.

Vargas S., M. Cazorla, E. Bordeu, G. Casaubon.A. Gonzalez, 2017a. Evaluation of leaf removal

strategies and cluster radiation protection on grapeand wine quality of Vitis vinifera L. ‘Cabernet-Sauvignon. Acta Hortic. 1188. ISHS 2017. Eds. :M. Pezzotti et al. Proc. X Int. Symp. on GrapevinePhysiology and Biotechnology. DOI 10.17660/ActaHortic.2017.1188.13

Vargas S., E. Bordeu, G. Casaubon, A. González, 2017b.Harvest ripeness level has a larger effect than leafremoval on grape and wine quality in cv. cabernet-sauvignon from maipo valley. 20th GiESCOInternational Meeting, Mendoza, Argentina. Book ofFull Manuscripts. Pp 522-527.

van Leeuwen, C., Ph. Darriet, 2016. The Impact ofClimate Change on Viticulture and Wine Quality.Journal of Wine Economics, 11(1):150–167. doi :10.1017/jwe.2015.21

UNDP, 2015. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).Retrieved from : http://www.un.org/ sustainabledevelopment/

Viña Concha y Toro, 2016a. Sustainability Report. 119 pp.Retrieved from: https://www.con-chaytoro.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/ Sustainability-Report-2016.pdf

Viña Concha y Toro, 2016b. Strategic Research andDevelopment 2016-2020. Retrieved from :http://www.cii.conchaytoro.com/strategic-research-and-development-2016-2020/

Viña Concha y Toro, 2017. Press Kit 2017. Pp 1-5.Retrieved from: https://www.conchaytoro.com/ wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Press-Kit-2017-ENG-1.pdf

73



Science to preserve nature and culture

Fernando Buscema1* and Laura Catena1

1Catena Institute of Wine, Bodega Catena Zapata, Cobos s/n, Agrelo (5509), Mendoza, Argentina

Abstract: The philosophy of the Catena Institute is to use Science to Preserve Nature and Culture.The vision of the Catena Institute of Wine is to continue elevating Argentina’s historic variety, Malbec, and the country’swinemaking regions for another 100 years. Nicolás Catena Zapata’s high-altitude wine revolution led to the discovery of anew terroir for wine, the Adrianna Vineyard at almost 5,000 feet elevation. Today, the team of the Catena Institute of Wine isdedicated to studying every meter, every rock, every insect and microorganism in the Adrianna Vineyard, making it perhapsthe most studied vineyard in the world. The Catena Institute collaborates with institutions all over the world, from CONICETto UC Davis, as well as with local research institutions. The institute’s work is widely published in reputable scientific journalsthat include the American Journal of Viticulture and Enology, Food Science, and Plant Physiology and Biochemistry.



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Sustainability program in wine productionLuis Romito

Bodegas de Argentina, Rivadavia 592, Mendoza, Argentina

Abstract: Is exposed the Sustainability Program in Wine Production developed by Bodegas de Argentina.Are described the activities in relation to the efficient management of the water resources and the proposal submitted to theGeneral Department of Irrigation for the adaptation of the regulations for the reuse of treated industrial effluents. Are presentedthe agreements signed with the General Department of Irrigation for the management of winery effluents with the participationof 53 associated wineries. A proposal is made to study the final disposition of saline-sodium solution of industrial effluents.Is described the Protocol of Self-evaluation of the Sustainability and its evolution and Sectorial Sustainability Guide requiredby Environment Ministry.Are provided details of the participation of Bodegas de Argentina in the Multinational Committee on Wine Sustainability ofthe World Wine Trade Group.Are described actions related to the Cleaner Production program, waste management, energy efficiency, climate change,sustainable wine tourism, Value Chain Program, and environmental indicators provided by wineries (on-farm waterconsumption and wine cellar, electricity consumption and waste generation), and specific examples of the implementation ofenvironmental management systems).

Keywords: Sustainability, Bodegas de Argentina, Protocol.



IntroductionBodegas de Argentina is a national winegrowingchamber, with 240 wineries throughout the country,including small, medium and large companies,representing more than 70 % of the domestic marketand 90 % of the exports of fractionated wines fromArgentina.In 2010 Bodegas de Argentina created theSustainability Program, coordinated by the author.Materials and methodThis document describes Sustainability Program ofBodegas de Argentina and is based on personalexperience of the author, on the information gatheredat meetings of the World Wine Trade Group in Chileand New Zealand and on research on equivalentinstitutions in other wine-growing countries.Results and discussionThe main aspects addressed by the Program aredescribed below.1. Water resourcesOne of the main environmental threats facingviticulture in Argentina, is the restriction of waterresources for irrigation, derived from the reduction ofriver flows, caused by the retraction of glaciersresulting from climate change.

The first work of the Commission was a procedurebefore the authorities responsible for watermanagement in the provinces of Mendoza, San Juanand La Rioja, raising the concern of the entity for thethreat, and making a collaboration offer.

Various activities were carried out on the efficientmanagement of the resource : workshops onefficiency in surface irrigation and irrigation withgroundwater, good practices in the management ofeffluents and technical workshops on wateremergency.

2. Effluents

A proposal was presented to the General IrrigationDepartment for the adequacy of the regulations forthe reuse of treated industrial effluents and a dictumof the Faculty of Agrarian Sciences supported theproposal.

Agreements signed between the General IrrigationDepartment and 53 member wineries for thesustainable management of effluents were managed.

3. Management of alkaline effluents

A proposal is made to study the management andfinal disposal of sodium solution of industrialeffluents.

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Yearly, the canning, olive and winemaking industriesdump thousands of tons of alkalis that accumulateirreversibly in the oasis, and is imperative to try atleast to slow down the process.The treatment of the alkaline effluents is carried outby the wineries, and must be resolved by them, whilethe final disposal of treated effluents generates anenvironmental problem of public concern (as is thetreatment of sewage effluents) that must be addressedby the province and the municipalities.Currently, Bodegas de Argentina works incollaboration with the Instituto Nacional deTecnología Inustrial, the collaboration of Norton, LaRural, Rutini Wines and Cooperativa Mendozawineries researching the reuse of alkalis.4. Self-assessment protocol for wine sustainabilityA Self-assessment protocol for wine sustainabilitywas developed, with the participation of partnerwineries, independent professionals, the InstitutoNacional de Vitivinicultura, the Facultad de CienciasAgrarias and the Instituto Nacional de TecnologíaAgropecuaria.The Protocol has been certified by the wineriesEsmeralda (two farms), Pernod Ricard (two farmsand one winery), Salentein (two farms and twowineries) and Callia (one farm and one winery).5. Guide for a cleaner productionCurrently, is being prepared a Sectorial Guide for aCleaner Production aimed at small farms and smallwineries, ordered by the Ministerio de Ambiente,with the collaboration of the Instituto Nacional deVitivinicultura, the Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, theInstituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria andthe Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Industrial.6. Participation in the World Wine Trade GroupBodegas de Argentina is part of the MultinationalWine Sustainability Committee of the World WineTrade Group, in which a Sustainability matrix wasagreed upon by the member countries, in whichobjectives, methods and monitoring mechanisms areshared.Bodegas de Argentina also participated in meetingson wine sustainability held in Santiago de Chile(2011) and Auckland, New Zealand (2012)7. Environmental management indicatorsWere surveyed concrete examples of environmentalindicators on water consumption in farm and winery,electricity consumption and generation, and wastemanagement, with information provided by partnerwineries.

8. Energy efficiencyThere were numerous workshops on energyefficiency, renewable energy, and meetings withenergy management service providers.The offer of wind and solar energy were exposed,and a program of implementation of an energymanagement system in a winery was launched.The mandatory use of renewable energies was madepublic, as well as the possibility of loading surplusrenewable energy into the grid.The implementation of an energy managementsystem at Bodega Norton is under development, withassistance from the Instituto Nacional de TecnologíaIndustrial.9. Waste managementBodegas de Argentina contributed to theimplementation of a solidarity campaign for bottlerecycling, and meetings were held withenvironmental management authorities and wastemanagement service providers.A pilot project was analyzed to install an anaerobicbiodigester for the processing of winery waste, thecomposting of farm and winery waste ; efforts aremade to improve the final disposal of dangerouswaste.10. Climate changeInformation was diffused regarding the Paris climateagreement (COP 21), publications of the IPCC(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), and ofthe United Nations Environment Program (UNEP),and the Encyclical of Pope Francis.Bodegas de Argentina participated as an exhibitor atthe Climate Change Forum in Mendoza organized bythe United Nations in 2015.Diffusion workshops were held on the results of theresearch carried out at the Facultad de CienciasAgrarias, on the impact of climate change on thevine, and climate forecasts.11. Environmental and social managementsystemsA survey of the work of wine sustainabilitymanagement from institutions from differentcountries of the world was carried out.Workshops were held on environmental managementsystems, Carbon Footprint, Water Footprint,Biodynamic Agriculture, Fair Trade, SustainableManagement Models, Corporate SocialResponsibility and Environmental marketrequirements


Were addressed the life cycle approach, the legalenvironmental management legislation, the draft ofthe packaging law, and the program of GoodManufacturing Practices from Instituto Nacional deVitivinicultura.Participation in the corporate social responsibilityaudit carried out by the Nordic monopolies wascarried out and the Product Environmental FootprintProgram (PEF) of the European Union was informed.12. Sustainable wine tourismWorkshops were held in San Juan and San Rafael.A cooperation agreement was signed withEarthcheck, an international organization that setsstandards for sustainable tourism, this cooperationagreement participated in the Tourism SustainabilityForum organized by Earthcheck in 1917 in Mendoza.13. Carbon footprintBodegas de Argentina participated in the document« Methodological guide for the estimation of thecarbon footprint in wine », published by theMinisterio de Agricultura, the Instituto Nacional deVitivinicultura, the Instituto Nacional de TecnologíaAgropecuaria, the Instituto Interamericano deCooperación para la Agricultura, and the Gobierno deMendoza.The Renacer winery certified carbon footprint for thecommercial stage and Bodega Salentein did it for theentire cycle, from the vineyard to the market.14. Value chainWork is being done to strengthen the wine valuechain. Efforts are being made to promote theimplementation of food safety management systems,environmental management and corporate socialresponsibility in suppliers.A supplier management protocol, an implementationguide and a check list of audits were written.15. FinancingA total of 30 partner wineries were presented to theCleaner Production Program financed with fundsfrom the Inter-American Development Bank,administered by the Ministerio de Ambiente deMendoza, which granted subsidies of up to USD28,000 to companies that compromise improvementsin environmental parameters (water, energy, waste,inputs, effluents, recyclables, etc.). In this framework,numerous training workshops were held.Diffusion of energy diagnostic financing tools,renewable energy projects, and effluent treatmentplants were carried out.

16. RiskA risk identification matrix for vitiviniculture ismade, characterizing the probability of occurrenceand consequence. They are considered risks derivedfrom climate change, commercial, political-institutional, operative, etc.17. DiffusionBodegas de Argentina exhibited its work in events:- Climate Change Congress in Mendoza (2011),- International Tourism Congress (2011),- COPAL, Coordinadora de Productos Alimenticios(2012),- Instituto Nacional del Agua (2012),- Asociación Argentina de la Vid y el Vino (2014),- Organization of Sitevinitech Technical Seminars(2014),- Meeting on Climate Change organized byMinisterio de Tierras, Ambiente y OrdenamientoTerritorial (2014),- 37th Congress of the International Organization ofVine and Wine. Wine in Moderation Program andwork of the Sustainability Commission (2014),- Valos Forum (2014),- Juice Latinoamérica in Park Hyath (2014),- MBA in Universidad Nacional de Cuyo (2014),- Climate Change Forum organized by the UnitedNations (2015),- Delegation of Scandinavia (2015),- Facultad de Enología Don Bosco (2015),- Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Industrial, waterManagement (2015),- Event Valos in San Rafael (2015),- Radial interview La Red 94.1 (2015),- Red Integral de Gestión del Agua (2015),- Maestría en Gerenciamiento de NegociosAgroindustriales, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo(2015),- Presentation in San Rafael (2016),- MBA Universidad Austral (2016),- Interview by Norma Pimienta Program in RadioNihuil (2016),- Universidad Maza (2010, 201, 2012),- Maestría en Gestión Ambiental Universidad deCongreso (2014 y 2016),- Maestría en Responsabilidad Social y DesarrolloSustentable, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo (2017),- Program EscuelAgro (2017).DistinctionsUniversidad de Congreso granted Mention to theEnvironmental Commitment to:- Bodega Furlotti (2011),

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- Comisión de Sustentabilidad de Bodegas deArgentina (2013),- Comisión de Resonsabilidad Social EmpresariaBodegas de Argentina (2014),- Verallia (2014),- Program Wine in Moderation y Bodega Esmeralda(2016),- Bodega Tapiz and Bodega Triavento (2017).Bodega Tapiz obtained in 2017 Gold Medal in theInternational Award of Excellence in SustainableWinegrowing given by Botanical Research Instituteof Texas.Institutional interactionAn active relationship is maintained with:- Asociación Argentina de la Vid y el Vino,- Bureau Veritas,- COPAL, Coordinadora de Productos Alimenticios,- COVIAR,- Dirección de Energía de Mendoza,- Dirección de Protección Ambiental de Mendoza,- Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales de la UniversidadNacional de Cuyo,- Instituto Nacional del Agua,- Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria,- Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Industrial,- Instituto Nacional de Vitivinicultura,- IRAM, Instituto Argentino de Normalización yCertificación,

- Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, UniversidadNacional de Cuyo,- Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable dela Nación,- Secretaría de Ambiente y Ordenamiento Territorialde Mendoza,- Red Integral de gestión del Agua,- Universidad de Congreso,- Universidad Maza.

Conclusions

Having learned the level of implementation ofenvironmental management systems in different winecountries, through the World Wine Trade Group, weconclude that Argentine winegrowing has achieved alevel of development of its environmental practicescomparable to those of other member countries of theGroup, despite having started this work with someyears of delay. This clearly emerges in the analysis ofthe sustainability matrix shared by the membercountries of the WWTG, in which objectives,methods and monitoring mechanisms are shared.

Recognitions

To the members of the Sustainability Commission, toBodegas de Argentina, to the World Wine TradeGroup and to all the institutions with which it hasinteracted.

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Development of a smartphone app for berry quality assessment

Li-Minn Ang1,41*, Kah Phooi Seng1,4, Alex Oczkowski1, Alain Deloire1,2 and Leigh M. Schmidtke1,32*

1 National Wine and Grape Industry Centre, Charles Sturt University, Locked Bag 588, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales 2678, Australia.2 Present Address : Department Biologie-Ecologie, Institut des Hautes Études de la Vigne et du Vin, Montpellier SupAgro, 2 Place Pierre Viala – 34060 Montpellier cedex 2.3 The Australian Research Council Training Centre for Innovative Wine Production, The University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA, Australia4 School of Computing and Mathematics, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales 2678, Australia

Abstract: This paper investigates the feasibility of developing a smartphone based imaging tool for berry quality assessmentthat can be conveniently used within vineyards to provide real time and in-field evaluation of grape berry size and color. Aftertaking a photograph of the grape bunch on the vine, the smartphone application analyses the image, detects and samples thevisible berries, and determines the volume and hue distributions of the sampled berries. Preliminary results are reported for theanalysis of Chardonnay grape bunch images from an Australian vineyard. Challenges and recommendations for smartphoneimaging in the field are also discussed.

Keywords: Smartphone, imaging tool, berry quality assessment, hue.

*Corresponding authors :[email protected]@csu.edu.au

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IntroductionSince the advent of the smartphone just over a decadeago, a fundamental shift has occurred in the wayindividuals interact with, obtain, analyze and interpretdata, and apply technology. Improvements incomputing power, incorporation of a multitude ofsensors with higher fidelity, improved connectivityand access to faster upload and download speeds hasresulted in smartphones and smart devices becomingubiquitous within most populations.

Smartphone ownership within Australia is estimatedat around 88 % of the entire population withownership amongst those aged 18-35 years well over91 %, representing an ownership level approachingmarket saturation (Drumm, White, Sweigers andDavey, 2017). Commensurate with improvedcomputing power of smartphone and tablet devices,along with higher ownership rates, a plethora of appshave been developed, and most professions wouldnow have some smartphone app for which thedevelopers purport its use to improve work relatedfunctions.

The agricultural sector has been a particularly activearea for app development. Interestingly, many appsthat target various agricultural enterprises make useof camera and global positioning sensors(Pongnumkul, Chaovalit and Surasvadi, 2015)suggesting that spatial and temporal data domains,along with data management and interpretation, willbe important features of successful apps that facilitatedecision support systems.Numerous smartphone apps targeting the viticulturalindustries have been described with significant focuson disease detection and management foreconomically important pathogens including Botrytis(Hill, Evans, Beresford and Dambergs, 2014),Erysiphe necator (Powdery mildew) (Birchmore,Scott, Zanker, Emmett and Wade, 2015) ; flower(Aquino, Millan, Gaston, Diago and Tardaguila,2015; Millan, Aquino, Diago and Tardaguila, 2017)and yield estimation (Font et al., 2015; Kicherer etal., 2015; Liu, Marden and Whitty, 2013); vine vigorand canopy architecture (De Bei et al., 2016) to namea few.The timing of grape harvest is often decided byviticulturists and winemakers using various criteria.

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Even when the harvest decision is determined by arange of objective measures of grape maturity (e.g.Brix, titratable acidity, phenols andanthocyanins/color), these indices give noinformation about the grape aromatic potential or theresulting wine flavor profiles (Calderon-Orellana,Matthews, Drayton and Shackel, 2014 ; Deloire,2014).The link between sugar accumulation and flavordevelopment in the berry is poorly defined,compound and environment dependent, and highlyinfluenced by harvest time (Antalick et al., 2015 ;Bindon, Varela, Kennedy, Holt and Herderich, 2013;Kalua and Boss, 2009 ; Suklje et al., 2017). Berrysize can be manipulated most efficiently withirrigation strategies (Etchebarne, Ojeda and Hunter,2010 ; Ojeda, Andary, Kraeva, Carbonneau andDeloire, 2002) and is one of the key determinants ofberry shrinkage (Rogiers and Holzapfel, 2015).Heterogeneity in berry volume significantly altersgrape composition (Šuklje et al., 2012) which canonly be rectified by expensive sorting techniques inthe winery, whilst berry shrivel, a major issue forShiraz (Šuklje et al., 2016) can lead to significantyield losses.White grape color transition (from green to yellow,and yellow to orange) during the ripening is linked tochlorophylls and carotenoids degradation andformation of C13 norisoprenoids (Crupi, Coletta andAntonacci, 2010; Kwasniewski, Vanden Heuvel, Panand Sacks, 2010). C13 norisoprenoids contributepositively to wine sensory properties with floralaromas (Benkwitz et al., 2012). It is also well knownthat carotenoids and chlorophyll concentrationsdecline after veraison, which is evident by grapecolor changes and overexposure to sunlight willcause sunburn (Greer, Rogiers and Steel, 2006). TheDyostem™ tool that measures berry color and sizewas successfully used in several wineries in Europe,South America and South Africa (Deloire, 2013) toassist in determining appropriate harvest dates byproviding a potential means to link berry color withwine aromatic profiles. The technique is expensive,slow and destructive. It is not portable and cannot bedeployed in the vineyard.The purpose of the work described in thisinvestigation was to determine the feasibility ofdeveloping a smartphone app that can beconveniently used within vineyards to provide realtime evaluation of grape berry size and color.App developmentThis section gives details for the user interface anddata workflow for the App. The smartphone

(a) NWGIC App screen.

(b) Image capture with reference probe.

(c) Data record.

(d) Berry detection and sampling.

(e) Sampled berries for analysis.

(f) Distribution of volume.

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application was developed on the Android platform.The development platform used was Android Studiowith OpenCV for Android add-on library modules.The OpenCV (Open Source Computer Vision) is awell-established set of routines used by imageprocessing and computer vision researchers. Thegraphical user interface (GUI) has been designed tobe simple and robust to use for growers. Figure 1(a)-(f) shows the App user interface and functionalities.The initial screen that the grower would see on thesmartphone application is shown in Figure 1(a).Figure 1(b) shows the image capture with the

reference probe. During operation, the referenceprobe is inserted into the grape bunch tofunction as a size reference for volume estimation.The reference probe used had a diameter of 0.8 mm.Figure 1(c) shows the data record screen to allow thegrower to record the details of the captured grapebunch image such as the date, vineyard, block, andgrape variety. Figure 1(d) and (e) show the berrydetection and sampling process and the resultingsampled berries for analysis respectively. Therewould be a target box that growers can drag to clipout the particular grape cluster to be analyzed.Figure 1(f) shows the distribution of volume whichwere calculated from the sampled berries. Theoverall objective is to make the smartphoneapplication easy to use for growers and the imagingsettings would be automatically tuned or defaulted towork for the majority of image capture conditionswithout the need for growers to do the tuningthemselves.The detection and sampling of the berries from thegrape bunch images is an important component forthe App. Figure 2 shows the image processing andmachine learning pipeline which was used for theberry detection. The pipeline consists of thefollowing five stages: (1) Capture of color vineyardimage with reference probe object ; (2) Conversion ofcolor image to grayscale; (3) Histogram equalizationon grayscale image ; (4) Circle detection withCircular Hough Transform (CHT) ; and (5) Berrydetection filtering with support vector machinelearning color classifier.The App flow begins by the grower taking a photo ofthe grape bunch in the field with a reference probeobject. The circular part of the reference probe has adiameter of 0.8 cm for berry size calibration. TheApp gives visual feedback to the grower on the probedetection. On successful detection of the probe, theApp gives visual feedback to the user by highlightingthe probe circumference on the screen display. Thisstage confirms that the probe has been successfullydetected during the capture stage. If the probe cannotbe detected, the grower is prompted to take anotherphoto. Only photos with successful detection of theprobe is saved for future analysis.The second stage performs a conversion of the colorimage to grayscale. The color image contains threecomponents (red, green, and blue) or RGB. Thisstage converts the captured RGB image to grayscale.The conversion to grayscale is performed for tworeasons : (1) To reduce the computationalrequirements of the App for implementation on thesmartphone platform; and (2) To prepare the image

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Figure 2. App berry detection image processingand machine learning pipeline.


for the subsequent stages of histogram equalizationand circle detection. The three color components(RGB) are converted to a single luminancecomponent (Y).The third stage performs histogram equalization onthe luminance grayscale image. The objective ofhistogram equalization is to adjust the contrast of animage by modifying the intensity distribution of thehistogram. Since the App captures images from thefield, the illumination varies depending on the timeof day, weather, and other environmental conditions.This stage performs preprocessing on the grayscaleimage for the subsequent stage of circle detection.The equalization performs a mapping from theoriginal distribution (the given histogram) to anotherdistribution (a wider and more uniform distributionof intensity values) so the intensity values are spreadover the whole range.The App models grape berries as circular objects tobe detected in the grayscale image. The detection ofcircles is a popular task in image processing. Thereare various circle detection algorithms which havebeen proposed such as the circular Hough transform(CHT) (Smereka and Dulba, 2008), EDCircles(Akinlar and Topal, 2013), and Ridge Ring Detector(Afik, 2015). The CHT was selected to beimplemented in the App due to the following : (1)The algorithm is well-established in the imageprocessing and computer vision community; and (2)The OpenCV library for Android contained a moduleimplementation of the CHT and the development didnot require a custom circle detection technique to bere-implemented.The CHT uses voting methods to detect circularshapes by finding the accumulated local maximumwhich are related to circular objects. The twoparameters which are used for the circle detection arethe berry centre and radius. The CHT module inOpenCV implements the Hough gradient methodwhich consists of two stages : (1) The first stageperforms edge detection and finding the possiblecircle centers ; and (2) The second stage locates thebest radius for each candidate center. Since the CHTperforms the circle detection task on grayscaleimages, the processing flow for white and red berrieswould be the same.To achieve more accurate detection using the CHT,the App uses a two-stage detection scheme : (1)Dividing the circle detection range into five rangescorresponding to very small (VS), small (S), medium(M), large (L), and very large (VL) berries. The CHTwas then applied for each berry range to pro-duce alist of berry candidates for that range; and (2) The

five lists of berry candidates for the different rangeswere then merged to give a final list of circularcandidates. During the merging stage, berrycandidates which overlapped with other ranges wereremoved from the final list. Experiments with thisapproach of using the CHT with overlapping rangesgave more accurate detection compared to using theCHT with a single large range for detection of thedifferent berry sizes.The outcome from the fourth stage of circle detectionis a list of potential circular candidates which may ormay not be grape berries. This is due to the CHTwhich identifies potential circular objects in thegrayscale image. To improve the berry detection task,the fifth stage uses the color features from thecaptured RGB image to filter off circular objectswhich are not berries from the list. This is performedusing two filtering stages: (1) A coarse filtering basedon the hue values of the grape berries; and (2) A finefiltering using a support vector machine classifier.The first stage performs a coarse filtering to broadlyclassify pixels that are too far out of the possible huesto be a grape berry. For example, with white grapeberries, the App will consider hue pixel values thatare below 30 or above 180 to be unlikely white grapepixels and will classify these as back-ground. Thesecond stage performs a fine filtering using a SVMclassifier. The SVM is a well-established technique inmachine learning for classification tasks. The SVM isfirst trained using a set of berry samples and taught todistinguish between berry pixels and backgroundpixels from the color features.The SVM constructs what is termed a maximummargin hyperplane to classify the samples into berrypixels and non-berry (background) pixels. Two setsof training samples were used for the App. The firstset trained a SVM classifier to distinguish pixels ofwhite berries from the background, and the secondset trained another SVM classifier to distinguishpixels of red berries from the background. Inoperation, depending on the task of detecting white orred berries, the respective SVM classifiers were used.The coarse and fine filters were used to classifypixels in potential circular objects. The object wasclassified as a grape berry if a 50 % threshold of thepixels were detected as berry pixels. Otherwise, theobject is removed from the detected berry list. TheApp uses the final detected berries, performs thesampling and calculates the estimated volume andhue distributions.Results and discussionsPhotograph images were collected for Chardonnaybunches from a vineyard in NSW in Feb. 2018. Two

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sets of images were collected : (1) The first set ofimages were taken in natural daylight ; and (2) Thesecond set of images were taken using an artificialshade to block off the sunlight on the bunches.Figure 3 shows sample photograph images for theChardonnay grape bunches in daylight and with theartificial shade. After photographing the bunches, thebunches were removed for laboratory analysis withDyostemTM. The phone App was used to analyse thebunches for hue and volume distributions and werecompared with the DyostemTM laboratory results.Figure 4 shows the scatter chart comparison be-tweenthe App and Dyostem for the bunch huemeasurements taken in daylight. An observation ofthe scatter chart shows that the App measurement isconsistently below the corresponding Dyostemmeasurement. The overall statistics for the App andDyostem are shown at the top of Figure 4. Thesegives statistical measures for the mean, standarddeviation (SD), minimum, median and maximumvalues. The statistical fit of the model are given by thecoefficient of determination (R2), correlationcoefficient (R), root mean square error (RMSE), Fvalue and p-value.

The model of App hue in daylight has a coefficient ofdetermination (R2) of 0.731 indicating that 73.1 % ofthe variation is determined by the regression line. Themodel has a correlation coefficient of 0.85 whichindicates a strong positive correlation between theApp and Dyostem for hue measurements in daylight.The p-value (<0.0001) for the F-test gives sufficientevidence at the 5 % significance level to concludethat the model fits the data better than the model withno independent variables. Overall, the results inFigure 4 indicate a strong relationship between thehue measurements from the App with Dyostem forimages taken in natural daylight. The App has thepotential to be used in place of Dyostem to givecomparable measurements at a convenient andcheaper cost.

Figure 5 shows the comparison between the App andDyostem for the bunch hue measurements taken inartificial shade. The model of App hue in shade has acoefficient of determination (R2) of 0.021 indicatingthat 2.1 % of the variation is determined by theregression line. The model has a correlationcoefficient of 0.14 which indicates a weak correlationbetween the App and Dyostem for hue measurementsin the artificial shade. The p-value (0.6089) for the F-test provides insufficient evidence at the 5 %significance level to conclude that the model fits thedata better than the model with no independentvariables. The scatter chart in Figure 5 show that theApp gave six measurements where the hue valueswere higher than Dyostem and nine measurementswhere the hue values were lower than Dyostem.Overall, the results in Figure 5 show a weakrelationship between the hue measurements from theApp with the Dyostem reference for images taken inartificial shade.

For further investigation, Figure 6 shows acomparison of the same berry bunch taken insunlight and artificial shade with the correspondingApp berry detections. For the bunch taken insunlight, the App gave a measured hue value of 60whereas for the bunch taken in the artificial shade,the App gave a measured hue value of 82. Thefollowing recommendations can be used to controland improve the colour hue measurements forsmartphone imaging in the field : (1) For correctoperation of the App, images should be captured insufficient natural sunlight conditions ; (2) A secondrecommendation is to investigate the incorporation of

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Figure 3. Sample images for Chardonnay grapebunches taken in daylight and artificial shade.

Figure 4. Comparison of phone App and Dyostemfor Chardonnay bunch hue in sunlight.

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Mean SD Minimum Median Maximum

App 58.33 2.90 52.0 58.0 65.0 Dyostem 67.7 3.3 64.0 66.0 73.0

R2 R RMSE F p-value

0.731 0.85 1.562 35.32 <0.0001

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App 71.23 14.13 57.0 65.0 96.0 Dyostem 67.7 3.3 64.0 66.0 73.0

R2 R RMSE F p-value 0.021 0.14 14.514 0.27 0.6089

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a colour reference on the probe for colour correction.This may allow images taken with insufficientsunlight to be corrected prior to analysis with the App.The results for volume estimation are not reported inthis paper. One major challenge for volume estimationis to position the probe within the bunch. The grapebunch occupies a three-dimensional space and theprobe has to be placed within the bunch. The currentpractice is to position the probe to coincide with theclosest surface berries to be detected. However, this issubject to human error in positioning the probe.Another issue is that berries deeper within the bunchwould be measured with a smaller diameter comparedwith berries at the surface of the bunch. These arechallenges which remain to be resolved for practicaldeployment of the App in vineyard management.ConclusionsThis paper has investigated the feasibility of asmartphone imaging tool which can be used for in-field evaluation of berry quality assessment.Preliminary results have shown the potential andusage of the tool although several challenges remainto be resolved for practical usage in vineyardmanagement. Image quality and illuminationconditions are important aspects of berry detectionalgorithms. The ability of the grower to position inthe vineyard to capture good quality images foranalysis is also a factor. Potential solutions to dealwith varying illumination would be to performcorrection with a color reference prior to analysis.For volume estimation, 3-D imaging to capture depthinformation within the bunch may be promisingfuture areas of investigation.AcknowledgementsWe thank Australia’s grape growers and winemakersfor their financial support through their investment

body the Wine Australia and Australian FederalGovernment. The National Wine and Grape IndustryCentre is an alliance between Charles SturtUniversity, New South Wales Department of PrimaryIndustry and the New South Wales Wine IndustryAssociation. We also acknowledge the ARC TrainingCentre for Innovative Wine Production (projectIC170100008).ReferencesAfik, E. (2015). Ridge Ring Detector. Scientific Reports, 5,

1-9.Akinlar, C. and Topal, C. (2013). EDCircles: a Real-time

Circle De-tector with a False Detection Control.Pattern Recognition, 46, 725-740.

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Aquino, A., Millan, B., Gaston, D., Diago, M.-P. andTardaguila, J. (2015). vitisFlower(®): Developmentand Testing of a Novel Android-SmartphoneApplication for Assessing the Number of GrapevineFlowers per Inflorescence Using Artificial VisionTechniques. Sensors (Basel, Switzerland), 15(9),21204-21218. doi: 10.3390/s150921204

Benkwitz, F., Nicolau, L., Lund, C., Beresford, M.,Wohlers, M. and Kilmartin, P. A. (2012). Evaluationof Key Odorants in Sauvignon Blanc Wines UsingThree Different Methodologies. Journal ofAgricultural and Food Chemistry, 60(25), 6293-6302. doi: 10.1021/jf300914n

Bindon, K., Varela, C., Kennedy, J., Holt, H. andHerderich, M. (2013). Relationships between harvesttime and wine composition in Vitis vinifera L. cv.Cabernet Sauvignon 1. Grape and wine chemistry.Food Chemistry, 138(2-3), 1696-1705. doi :10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.09.146

Birchmore, W., Scott, E., Zanker, T., Emmett, B. andWade, P. (2015). Smart-phone app field assessment

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Figure 5. Comparison of phone App and Dyostemfor Chardonnay bunch hue in artificial shade.

Figure 6. Sample bunch image taken in daylightand artificial shade with corresponding App berrydetections.

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We also acknowledge the ARC Train-i

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of powdery mildew. Australian and New ZealandGrapegrower and Winemaker, 622(Nov), 46-47.

Calderon-Orellana, A., Matthews, M. A., Drayton, W. M.and Shackel, K. A. (2014). Uniformity of Ripenessand Size in Cabernet Sauvignon Berries fromVineyards with Contrasting Crop Price. AmericanJournal of Enology and Viticulture, 65(1), 81-88. doi:10.5344/ajev.2013.13084

Crupi, P., Coletta, A. and Antonacci, D. (2010). Analysisof Carotenoids in Grapes To Predict NorisoprenoidVarietal Aroma of Wines from Apulia. Journal ofAgricultural and Food Chemistry, 58(17), 9647-9656. doi: 10.1021/jf100564v

De Bei, R., Fuentes, S., Gilliham, M., Tyerman, S.,Edwards, E., Bianchini, N., et al. (2016). VitiCanopy:A Free Computer App to Estimate Canopy Vigor andPorosity for Grapevine. Sensors, 16(4), 585.

Deloire, A. (2013). New method to determine optimalripeness for white wine styles. Practical Winery andVineyard Journal, Winter, 1-4.

Deloire, A. (2014). Physiologocal Indicators to PredictHarvest Date and Wine Style. Paper presented at the15th Australian Wine Industry Technical Conference,Sydney.

Drumm, J., White, N., Sweigers, M. and Davey,M. (2017). Smart everything, everywhere MobileConsumer Survey 2017 The Australian cut. Sydney,Australia: Deolitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited.

Etchebarne, F., Ojeda, H. and Hunter, J. J. (2010). Leaf :Fruit Ratio and Vine Water Status Effects onGrenache Noir (Vitis vinifera L.) Berry Composition:Water, Sugar, Organic Acids and Cations. [Article].South African Journal of Enology and Viticulture,31(2), 106-115.

Font, D., Tresanchez, M., Martínez, D., Moreno, J., Clotet,E. and Palacín, J. (2015). Vineyard Yield EstimationBased on the Analysis of High Resolution ImagesObtained with Artificial Illumination at Night.Sensors, 15(4), 8284.

Greer, D. H., Rogiers, S. Y. and Steel, C. C. (2006).Susceptibility of Chardonnay grapes to sunburn. Vitis,46(3), 147-148.

Hill, G. N., Evans, K. J., Beresford, R. M. and Dambergs,R. G. (2014). Comparison of methods for thequantification of botrytis bunch rot in white winegrapes. Australian Journal of Grape and WineResearch, 20(3), 432-441. doi : doi : 10.1111/ajgw.12101

Kalua, C. M. and Boss, P. K. (2009). Evolution of volatilecompounds during the development of cabernetsauvignon grapes (Vitis vinifera L.). Journal ofAgricultural and Food Chemistry, 57(9), 3818-3830.doi: 10.1021/jf803471n

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Kwasniewski, M. T., Vanden Heuvel, J. E., Pan, B. S. andSacks, G. L. (2010). Timing of Cluster LightEnvironment Manipulation during GrapeDevelopment Affects C13 Norisoprenoid andCarotenoid Concentrations in Riesling. Journal ofAgricultural and Food Chemistry, 58(11), 6841-6849. doi: 10.1021/jf904555p

Liu, S., Marden, S. and Whitty, M. (2013). TowardsAutomated Yield Estimation in Viticulture. Paperpresented at the Proceedings of AustralasianConference on Robotics and Automation, Sydney.

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Ojeda, H., Andary, C., Kraeva, E., Carbonneau, A. andDeloire, A. (2002). Influence of Pre- andPostveraison Water Deficit on Synthesis andConcentration of Skin Phenolic Compounds duringBerry Growth of Vitis vinifera cv. Shiraz. AmericanJournal of Enology and Viticulture, 53(4), 261-267.

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Projet2 25/11/08 18:27 Page 1

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

Pierre-Louis Teissedre, France - Claudia Quini, Argentina - Liliana Martinez, Argentina - Christel Renaud,France - Vittorino Novello, Italy - Summaira Riaz, USA - Leigh Schmidtke, Australia - Bruno Cavagnaro,

Argentina - Sebastian Zuccardi, Argentina - Martin Fanzone, Argentina - Albert Mas, Spain Alejandro Gennari, Argentina - Shigeaki Oda, Japan - Magdalena Pesce, Argentina - Gerard Casaubon,

Chile - Fernando Buscema, Argentina - Luis Romito, Argentina

ORGANISATION AND CONTACT

Pierre-Louis Teissedre - [email protected]él. +33 (0)5 57575853http://www.oenoviti.com

Université de Bordeaux - Institut des Sciences de la Vigne et du Vin210 Chemin de Leysotte - 33882 Villenave d’Ornon cedex - France

INTERNATIONAL PROJECT MANAGER

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ISBN

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CONCEPTION GRAPHIQUE/GRAPHC DESIGNVigne et Vin Publications Internationales - Marylène Perreaud

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1er trimestre/1st trimestre 2018

IMPRIMÉ PAR/PRINTED BY

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©VIGNE ET VIN PUBLICATIONS INTERNATIONALES 2018Il est interdit de reproduire par quel que moyen que ce soit,

même partiellement la publication sans l’autorisation écrite de l’éditeur.No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without the prior permission of the publishers.




The OENOVITI INTERNATIONAL network is the first and only international network for trainingand research in oenology and viticulture. It aims to promote exchanges of expertise and know-how between stakeholders in the academic and industrial winemaking worlds. The network offersits members a high level of visibility on the international scene, enabling them to maximiseopportunities via joint research and training projects, as well as discussions. The OENOVITIINTERNATIONAL network has nearly 57 partners across the globe, forming an internationalconsortium of institutions known for their excellence in the field. The joint OENODOC doctoralprogramme was created within this framework with the aim of developing an internationaldoctorate specific to the oenology and viticulture sector. This network, coordinated by the Universityof Bordeaux, enables the academic and industrial worlds to unite to take up the many challengesof oenology and viticulture research.

This seventh network symposium is dedicated to « Opportunities and challenges for vine andwine production by preserving resources and environment » : This topic is of great importance forthe wine sector to adapt and preserve an integrated grapes and wines production. Severalquestions are approached during this symposium :

- Viticultural aspects for wine and table grapes,- Winemaking and ageing aspects,- Economical marketing,- Consumers’ preferences aspects,- Health and Safety aspects and- Innovation in sustainable production for vines and wines.Can we change or improve practices for a better production of grapes for wine production

with preservation of resources and environment at vineyard, winery, cellar and during distributionof final product ? What practices should we encourage as sustainable practices in the vineyardand winery ? Measuring performance rather than tracking practices is also a change in approachto determine levels of sustainability. For an innovative sustainable oenology several points have tobe considered : CO2 reuse solutions, Water management and saving, Renewable energy, Goodpractices in oenology, Functional biodiversity, Management and use of by-products in oenology,Climate change adaptation in oenology. The vine and wine industry needs to be supported in orderto appreciate performance tracking, goal setting and continuous improvement. These are the majorpoints and questions of this symposium with recognized scientists and researchers in this field.

All these questions are developed in this 7th symposium of the OENOVITI INTERNATIONALnetwork. An adaptation demand for more environmentally friendly production with resourcespreservation can benefit to the vine and wine sector with potential innovation and alternatives thatneed to be encouraged.

This international symposium enjoys support from the OIV, Château Pichon-Longueville (AXAMillésimes), the Foundation Bordeaux University (original interface between the university andsocioeconomic worlds), the University of Bordeaux, ISVV, and all of the OENOVITI INTERNATIONALnetwork’s academic and industrial partners. We would like to thank all our partners and backersfor their help in supporting the development of oenology and viticulture research to collectivelyovercome the new challenges arising in this field.

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sThe 7th OENOVITI INTERNATIONAL Symposium on “Opportunities and challenges for vine and wine production by preserving resources and environment” has been supported by the following institutions :

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