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Continuous Reporting System on Migration

ANNUAL REPORT

2002 EDITION

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT


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ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATIONAND DEVELOPMENT

Pursuant to Article 1 of the Convention signed in Paris on 14th December 1960, and which came into forceon 30th September 1961, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) shall promotepolicies designed:

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FOREWORD

This twenty-seventh annual report of the OECD Continuous Reporting System on Migration draws in largepart on 32 written contributions from national correspondents (see the list at the end of this report), and onthe summary of their discussions at their last annual meeting (December 2001).

The 2002 Edition is divided into three parts and a Statistical Annex. Part I describes overall trends ininternational migration. It focuses on the magnitude, the nature and the direction of flows, as well as thepresence of foreign workers in the labour market and in the various sectors of economic activity. Specialattention is also given to changes in the countries of origin of immigrants. Two additional sections describe in

detail migration in East and South-East Asia together with migration movements in and from Central andEastern Europe. Part I is completed by an overview of migration policies, in particular those relating to thecontrol of flows, the fight against irregular migration and illegal employment of foreigners, as well as theintegration of immigrants in host countries and international co-operation between sending and receivingcountries.

Part II is devoted to a comparative analysis of recent studies of labour shortages and the needs forimmigrants. The available studies confirm the existence of labour market tightness, especially for skilledemployment. The report highlights the diversity of methods used by OECD countries to evaluate current andfuture labour shortages, with a special focus on the needs for IT workers as well as social and medicalpersonnel, and teachers. Labour market tightness also exists for some low-skilled jobs. However, not all OECDcountries are necessarily considering an increase in labour-related migration as an answer to the problem oflabour shortages. The report also shows that it is important to improve the way present and future generations

are prepared and trained to meet the needs of the labour market.Part III is composed of country notes describing recent developments in migration flows and policies in

twenty-nine OECD countries and selected non-member countries (The Baltic States, Bulgaria and Romania).

This volume is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD.


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This report analyses recent trends in migration movements and policies in OECD countries aswell as in selected non-member countr ies. It includes a detailed description of the flows, thedifferent channels of immigration and the nationalities of the migrants concerned. It highlights thecontribution of immigration to increases in the total population and the labour force and describesthe changes that have taken place in the sectoral distribution of foreign workers. It also underlines

the growth of employment-based migration and the measures implemented by some OECDcountries to facilitate the recruitment of skilled and highly skilled foreign workers.

The report notes that the control of flows remains a high priority on the agenda of migrationpolicies, as does the extension of co-operation with countries of origin. Particular attention is given tothe integration of immigrants, and notably of youth, into the labour market and society as a whole.

In addition to this overall analysis, the reader will also find in this publication:

Two sections on migration in East and South-East Asia and recent developments in migrationmovements in and from Central and Eastern European countries.

A special chapter devoted to a comparative analysis of recent studies of labour shortages andthe needs for immigrants in OECD countries.

Country notes describing in detail recent developments in migration flows and policies

A statistical annex containing the most recent available data on foreign and immigrant popula-tions, foreign workers, migration flows and naturalisations.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

GENERAL INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................................... 13

Part IMAIN TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

A. MIGRATION AND POPULATION TRENDS .......................................................................................................................... 17

1. Trends in migration movements and changes in the foreign population................................................................ 17

2. Immigration and population growth in OECD countries ............................................................................................ 52

B. IMMIGRANTS AND THE LABOUR MARKET....................................................................................................................... 58

1. The contribution of foreigners to the labour force is increasing............................................................................... 582. Participation rates of foreigners by gender and place of birth: persistent imbalances......................................... 593. Sectoral breakdown and trends in the employment of foreigners........................................................................... 614. Foreigners are more vulnerable to unemployment than nationals.......................................................................... 67

C. RECENT TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN ASIA AND CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE................... 70

1. Recent developments in migration flows within East and South-East Asia ............................................................ 712. Trends in migration flows in Central and Eastern Europe ......................................................................................... 78

D. AN OVERVIEW OF MIGRATION POLICIES.......................................................................................................................... 85

1. Policies for regulating and controlling flows ................................................................................................................ 852. Reinforcement of legislation concerning the fight against irregular migration and illegal employmentof foreigners ..................................................................................................................................................................... 88

3. Policies for the integration of immigrants .................................................................................................................... 914. Migration and international co-operation .................................................................................................................... 95

Part IILABOUR SHORTAGES AND THE NEED FOR IMMIGRANTS: A REVIEW OF RECENT STUDIES

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................................ 103

A. MEASURING CURRENT LABOUR SHORTAGES................................................................................................................. 103

1. Trends in national statistics on the number of registered vacancies by sector of employment

and occupational category ............................................................................................................................................. 1042. Causes of labour shortages ............................................................................................................................................ 1043. Labour reserves exist but it would be difficult to mobilise them rapidly ............................................................... 105

B. THE ROLE OF MIGRATION IN ADDRESSING FUTURE LABOUR MARKET NEEDS...................................................... 106

1. Demographic challenges ................................................................................................................................................ 1062. Special studies on the economic need for migration................................................................................................. 111

C. STUDIES ON LABOUR SHORTAGES AT MICRO-LEVEL AND THE NEED FOR IMMIGRANT WORKERS ................... 113

1. Sector-level studies on the need for immigrant workers........................................................................................... 1142. Studies on labour shortages by occupation ................................................................................................................ 115

CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................................................................ 117


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Part IIIRECENT CHANGES IN MIGRATION MOVEMENTS AND POLICIES

(COUNTRY NOTES)

STATISTICAL ANNEX

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................................ 283

A. SOURCES AND COMPARABILITY OF MIGRATION STATISTICS ...................................................................................... 283

1. Sources of migration statistics ....................................................................................................................................... 2832. Measurement of migration flows ................................................................................................................................... 2853. Stocks of migrants and characteristics of the immigrant population........................................................................ 287

B. STATISTICAL SERIES............................................................................................................................................................. 288

LIST OF SOPEMI CORRESPONDENTS .................................................................................................................................... 371

Australia ............................................................................. 129Austria ................................................................................ 135The Baltic States ............................................................... 140Belgium.............................................................................. 145Bulgaria .............................................................................. 149Canada ............................................................................... 153Czech Republic ................................................................. 159Denmark............................................................................. 164Finland ............................................................................... 169France................................................................................. 173Germany............................................................................. 179Greece................................................................................ 185Hungary.............................................................................. 189Ireland ................................................................................ 194

Italy ..................................................................................... 199Japan................................................................................... 205

Korea.................................................................................. 210Luxembourg ...................................................................... 214Mexico................................................................................ 218Netherlands ...................................................................... 222New Zealand ..................................................................... 226Norway ............................................................................... 230Poland................................................................................ 235Portugal.............................................................................. 239Romania............................................................................. 243Slovak Republic................................................................ 248Spain .................................................................................. 253Sweden .............................................................................. 258Switzerland........................................................................ 263Turkey ................................................................................ 269

United Kingdom ............................................................... 272United States .................................................................... 278


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List of Charts, Tables and Boxes

Part 1MAIN TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

Maps

I.1 Foreign population in the European regions, 2001 ....................................................................................................... 47I.2 Foreign-born population in the Australasian regions, 2001 ......................................................................................... 48I.3 Foreign-born population in North American regions, 2000.......................................................................................... 49

Charts

I.1 Inflows of foreigners in selected OECD countries, 1980-2000 ...................................................................................... 18I.2 Permanent or long-term immigration flows into selected OECD countries by main categories in 2000................ 22I.3 Change in inflows of migrants by country of origin to selected OECD countries, 1990-1999 and 2000 .................. 31I.4 Stocks of foreign and foreign-born populations in selected OECD countries, 2000 ................................................. 39I.5 Stocks of foreign and foreign-born populations by region of origin in all OECD countries, latest available year......... 41I.6 Foreign and national populations by age group and by sex, latest available year .................................................. 43I.7 School performance of children according to their place of birth and the place of birth of their parents ............ 46

I.8 Percentage of foreigners in total population in selected OECD countries and measurementof regional disparity, 2001................................................................................................................................................. 50

I.9 Cumulated percentage of the foreign and total population by regions, 2001 ........................................................... 50I.10 Components of total population growth in selected OECD countries and in the European Union, 1960-2000 .... 53I.11 Natural increase and net migration rates in OECD countries, 2000............................................................................ 55I.12 Foreign births in 2000........................................................................................................................................................ 56I.13 Changes in foreign and total employment during economic recoveries in selected OECD countries .................. 62I.14 Atypical employment by nationality in selected European OECD countries, 2001.................................................. 64I.15 Proportion of foreigners in total unemployment related to their proportion in the labour force..................................... 68I.16 Unemployment rate of youth unemployment according to nationality in selected OECD countries, 2001................. 69I.17 Percentage of long-term unemployment according to nationality.............................................................................. 70I.18 Naturalisation rate in selected OECD countries, 1990-2000......................................................................................... 94

Tables

I.1 Entries of temporary workers in certain OECD countries by principal categories, 1992, 1997-2000....................... 24I.2 Inflows of asylum seekers in OECD countries in 2001................................................................................................... 27I.3 Stock of foreign students in selected OECD countries, 2000....................................................................................... 28I.4 Transferees within companies in selected OECD countries, 1995-2000..................................................................... 29I.5 Cross-border workers in selected OECD countries, 1985, 1990, 1995 to 2000 ........................................................... 29I.6 Share of immigrants whose official language in their country of origin is the same as in the country

of residence, 2000 .............................................................................................................................................................. 33I.7 Relative importance of the top 5 countries in the total immigration flows and stocks of foreigners

in selected OECD countries ............................................................................................................................................. 35I.8 Intra-European mobility of EU citizens, latest available year...................................................................................... 37I.9 Stock of nationals from Nordic countries in other Nordic countries, 2000 ................................................................. 38

I.10 Foreign or foreign-born population in selected OECD countries, 1995 and 2000..................................................... 40I.11 Foreign and national adult populations classified by level of education in selected OECD countries................. 45I.12 Change in total population in OECD countries, 1950, 2000 and 2050 ......................................................................... 57I.13 Foreign or foreign-born labour force in selected OECD countries, 1995 and 2000 ................................................... 59I.14 Participation rate and unemployment rate of nationals and foreigners by sex in selected OECD countries,

2000-2001 average.............................................................................................................................................................. 60I.15 Employment of foreigners by sectors, 2000-2001 average ........................................................................................... 63I.16 Self employed by nationality, 2001................................................................................................................................. 65I.17 Employment in education, IT and health professions according to citizenship in selected OECD countries, 2001..... 66I.18 Theoretical calculation of the number of jobs to be created to absorb the discrepancy between national

and foreign unemployment rates in selected OECD countries, 2001......................................................................... 68I.19 Real GDP growth in selected Asian countries and in Australia, 1996-2001 ................................................................ 72I.20 Unemployment rates in selected Asian countries and in Australia, 1996-2001......................................................... 72


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I.21 Total fertility rates in selected Asian countries, 1980, 1990 and 1999......................................................................... 73I.22 Stocks of foreign workers in selected Asian countries, 1996-2001............................................................................... 73I.23 Stocks of students in degree-granting institutions in the United States, 1954/55, 1974/75 and 2000/01................ 75I.24 Top five nationalities of citizens from Central and Eastern Europe residing in selected OECD countries, 2000. 80I.25 Foreigners residing in some Central and Eastern European countries, by major nationality, latest available year..... 81I.26 Main regularisation programmes of immigrants in an irregular situation in selected OECD countries,

by nationality...................................................................................................................................................................... 90Annex: Probability of foreigners aged 15 to 64 to be out of the labour force according to duration of residence

and selected individual characteristics........................................................................................................................ 101

Boxes

I.1 Migration statistics: definitions and comparability....................................................................................................... 19I.2 The GATS negotiations on service provision................................................................................................................. 30I.3 Origin of new immigrants and language skills (Theme box on the Integration of Immigrants)........................................... 33I.4 School performance of children of foreign origin (Theme box on the Integration of Immigrants)...................................... 46I.5 Integration in urban areas (Theme box on the Integration of Immigrants)............................................................................ 51I.6 Immigrants age too (Theme box on the Integration of Immigrants) ................................................................................... 57I.7 Young foreigners and the labour market (Theme box on the Integration of Immigrants) ................................................... 69I.8 Linguistic competence and integration into the labour market (Theme box on the Integration of Immigrants) ............. 71I.9 EU enlargement and impact on migration from the CEECs ......................................................................................... 85

I.10 Unaccompanied minors: an increasing phenomenon and matter of concern (Theme box on the Integrationof Immigrants) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 87

I.11 Seminar on the Integration of Young Immigrants in the Labour Market (Brussels, 6-7 June 2002), (Theme boxon the Integration of Immigrants) ............................................................................................................................................ 93

Part IILABOUR SHORTAGES AND THE NEED FOR IMMIGRANTS: A REVIEW OF RECENT STUDIES

Charts

II.1 Projections of the working age population (15-64) in selected OECD countries....................................................... 108

TablesAnnex

II.1 Employer surveys of labour shortages............................................................................................................................ 124II.2 Projections of occupational labour demand in OECD countries................................................................................. 126

Boxes

II.1 Gains and losses in high skilled labour through migration.......................................................................................... 109

Part IIIRECENT CHANGES IN MIGRATION MOVEMENTS AND POLICIES

Tables

III.1 Permanent and temporary migration programme outcomes, 1998-2001 and planning levels for permanentsettlers for 2002, by category, Australia .......................................................................................................................... 130

III.2 Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks of foreign populationand labour force in Austria ............................................................................................................................................... 136

III.3 Components of population changes since 1990, Baltic States..................................................................................... 140III.4 Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks of foreign population

and labour force in Belgium ............................................................................................................................................. 146III.5 Current figures on the foreign flows and stocks in Bulgaria ......................................................................................... 150III.6 Immigrants by category, 1998-2001, Canada .................................................................................................................. 154III.7 Current figures on flows and stocks of migrants, Czech Republic ............................................................................... 160III.8 Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Denmark ........................................... 165III.9 Current figures on flows and stocks of total population, Finland................................................................................ 170


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III.10 Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, France................................................ 174III.11 Current figures on the components of total population change, on migration flows and stocks of foreign

population and labour force, Germany........................................................................................................................... 180III.12 Total labour force and immigrants who were granted a green card following the 1998 regularisation programme

in Greece, by region of residence ................................................................................................................................................. 186III.13 Current figures on migration flows and stocks of foreign population, Hungary......................................................... 190

III.14 Current figures on migration flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Ireland ............................. 195III.15 Current figures on foreign population, Italy ................................................................................................................... 201III.16 Inflows of foreigners by status of residence, 1997-2000, Japan.................................................................................... 206III.17 Current figures on migration flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Japan................................ 207III.18 Foreign workers in Korea by category, 1997-2000 ......................................................................................................... 211III.19 Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks of foreign population

and labour force, Luxembourg......................................................................................................................................... 215III.20 Mexican emigration to the United States, 1911-2000.................................................................................................... 218III.21 Foreign-born population living in Mexico in 2000, by region of origin....................................................................... 220III.22 Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign, foreign-born or allochtonous population and labour force

in the Netherlands............................................................................................................................................................. 223III.23 Persons accepted for residence, by main category of admission and by country of birth, 2000-2001,

New Zealand....................................................................................................................................................................... 227

III.24 Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population, Norway............................................................................ 231III.25 Current figures on migration flows and stocks of foreigners in Poland....................................................................... 236III.26 Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force in Portugal.......................................... 240III.27 Current migration figures in Romania.............................................................................................................................. 245III.28 Current migration figures, Slovak Republic.................................................................................................................... 249III.29 Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force in Spain.............................................. 254III.30 Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force in Sweden .......................................... 259III.31 Current figures on the components of total population change, on migration flows and stocks of foreign

population and labour force, Switzerland ..................................................................................................................... 264III.32 Immigration to Turkey, 1998-2001.................................................................................................................................... 270III.33 Current figures on migratory flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, United Kingdom............. 273III.34 Employment-based immigration, by preference, fiscal years 1997-2000, United States......................................... 281

Statistical Annex1. Summary table on the sources of migration statistics ....................................................................................................... 285

Boxes

III.1 Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Australia............................................................................................................. 132III.2 An overview of the structure and approach of Canadas immigration programme ................................................... 158III.3 Main determinants of labour market outcomes for immigrants and their descendants in Denmark..................... 168III.4 New definition for allochtonous in the Netherlands..................................................................................................... 224III.5 Illegal trafficking of women to Western Europe ............................................................................................................. 247III.6 On the situation of Roma minority in the Slovak Republic (from Joint Assessment of Employment Priorities

in the Slovak Republic)..................................................................................................................................................... 251III.7 The 2000 and 2001 regularisations in Spain ................................................................................................................... 255III.8 The new quota system in Spain ....................................................................................................................................... 256

Statistical Annex

1. Definitions of migration flows and immigrant populations developed by the United Nations. .................................. 2842. Migration systems................................................................................................................................................................... 288


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TABLES OF THE STATISTICAL ANNEX

A. Cross national tables

A.1. Foreign and/or foreign-born population: stocks and flows

A.1.1. Inflows of foreign population into selected OECD countries....................................................................................... 292

A.1.2. Outflows of foreign population from selected OECD countries .................................................................................. 293A.1.3. Inflows of asylum seekers into selected OECD countries ............................................................................................ 293A.1.4. Stocks of foreign-born population in selected OECD countries.................................................................................. 294A.1.5. Stocks of foreign population in selected OECD countries........................................................................................... 295A.1.6. Acquisition of nationality in selected OECD countries................................................................................................. 296

A.2. Foreign or foreign-born labour force: stocks and flows

A.2.1. Inflows of foreign workers into selected OECD countries ............................................................................................ 297A.2.2. Inflows of seasonal workers in selected OECD countries............................................................................................. 297A.2.3. Stocks of foreign and foreign-born labour force in selected OECD countries ........................................................... 298

B. Tables by country of origin

B.1. Foreign and/or foreign-born population: stocks and flowsB.1.1. Inflows of foreign population by nationality

B.1.1. AUSTRALIA ....................................................... 299B.1.1. AUSTRIA ........................................................... 300B.1.1. BELGIUM........................................................... 300B.1.1. CANADA............................................................ 301B.1.1. CZECH REPUBLIC ............................................ 301B.1.1. DENMARK......................................................... 302B.1.1. FINLAND ........................................................... 302B.1.1. FRANCE............................................................. 303B.1.1. GERMANY ......................................................... 303B.1.1. GREECE............................................................. 304

B.1.1. HUNGARY ......................................................... 304B.1.1. IRELAND ........................................................... 305

B.1.1. ITALY ................................................................. 305B.1.1. JAPAN ................................................................ 305B.1.1. LUXEMBOURG.................................................. 306B.1.1. NETHERLANDS ................................................ 306B.1.1. NEW ZEALAND ................................................. 307B.1.1. NORWAY............................................................ 307B.1.1. PORTUGAL ........................................................ 308B.1.1. SWEDEN............................................................ 308B.1.1. SWITZERLAND.................................................. 309B.1.1. UNITED KINGDOM .......................................... 309

B.1.1. UNITED STATES ............................................... 310

B.1.2. Outflows of foreign population by nationality

B.1.2. AUSTRALIA ....................................................... 311B.1.2. AUSTRIA ............................................................ 311B.1.2. BELGIUM........................................................... 312B.1.2. DENMARK......................................................... 312B.1.2. FINLAND ........................................................... 313B.1.2. GERMANY ......................................................... 313B.1.2. HUNGARY ........................................................ 314

B.1.2.JAPAN ............................................................... 314B.1.2. LUXEMBOURG ................................................. 315B.1.2. NETHERLANDS .............................................. 315B.1.2. NEW ZEALAND ................................................ 315B.1.2. NORWAY ......................................................... 316B.1.2. SWEDEN ......................................................... 316B.1.2. SWITZERLAND ................................................. 317

B.1.3. Inflows of asylum seekers by nationality

B.1.3. AUSTRIA ........................................................... 318B.1.3. BELGIUM .......................................................... 318B.1.3. CANADA ........................................................... 319B.1.3. FRANCE ............................................................ 319B.1.3. GERMANY ........................................................ 320

B.1.3. NETHERLANDS ............................................... 320B.1.3. SWEDEN ........................................................... 321B.1.3. SWITZERLAND ................................................. 321B.1.3. UNITED KINGDOM ......................................... 322B.1.3. UNITED STATES .............................................. 322

B.1.4. Stock of foreign-born population by country of birth

B.1.4. AUSTRALIA ...................................................... 323B.1.4. AUSTRIA ........................................................... 323B.1.4. CANADA............................................................ 324B.1.4. DENMARK ........................................................ 324B.1.4. FINLAND .......................................................... 325B.1.4. HUNGARY ........................................................ 325

B.1.4. NETHERLANDS ............................................... 326B.1.4. NEW ZEALAND ............................................... 326B.1.4. NORWAY ........................................................... 327B.1.4. SWEDEN ......................................................... 327B.1.4. UNITED STATES ............................................... 328


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B.1.5. Stock of foreign population by nationality

B.1.5. AUSTRIA ........................................................... 329B.1.5. BELGIUM ........................................................ 329B.1.5. CZECH REPUBLIC ........................................... 330B.1.5. DENMARK ........................................................ 330B.1.5. FINLAND ........................................................ 331

B.1.5. FRANCE ............................................................ 331B.1.5. GERMANY ...................................................... 332B.1.5. HUNGARY ........................................................ 332B.1.5. IRELAND .......................................................... 333B.1.5. ITALY ................................................................. 333

B.1.5. JAPAN ............................................................... 333B.1.5. KOREA .............................................................. 334B.1.5. LUXEMBOURG ................................................ 334B.1.5. NETHERLANDS ............................................. 335B.1.5. NORWAY ........................................................ 335

B.1.5. PORTUGAL ....................................................... 336B.1.5. SPAIN ................................................................ 336B.1.5. SWEDEN .......................................................... 337B.1.5. SWITZERLAND ................................................ 337B.1.5. UNITED KINGDOM ......................................... 338

B.1.6. Acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality

B.1.6. AUSTRALIA ....................................................... 339B.1.6. AUSTRIA ............................................................ 339B.1.6. BELGIUM .......................................................... 339B.1.6. CANADA .......................................................... 340B.1.6. DENMARK ........................................................ 340B.1.6. FINLAND .......................................................... 340B.1.6. FRANCE ........................................................ 341B.1.6. GERMANY ......................................................... 341B.1.6. HUNGARY ........................................................ 341B.1.6. ITALY ................................................................ 342

B.1.6. JAPAN ............................................................... 342B.1.6. LUXEMBOURG ................................................ 342B.1.6. NETHERLANDS................................................ 343B.1.6. NORWAY .......................................................... 343B.1.6. PORTUGAL ....................................................... 344B.1.6. SPAIN ................................................................ 344B.1.6. SWEDEN .......................................................... 345B.1.6. SWITZERLAND ................................................ 345B.1.6. UNITED KINGDOM ......................................... 345B.1.6. UNITED STATES .............................................. 346

B.2. Stocks of foreign or foreign-born labour force

B.2.1. Immigrant labour force by place of birth

B.2.1. AUSTRALIA ....................................................... 347B.2.1. CANADA ........................................................... 347

B.2.1. UNITED STATES .............................................. 348

B.2.2. Stock of foreign labour by nationality

B.2.2. AUSTRIA ........................................................... 349B.2.2. BELGIUM........................................................... 349B.2.2. CZECH REPUBLIC ............................................ 350B.2.2. DENMARK......................................................... 350B.2.2. FINLAND .......................................................... 351B.2.2. FRANCE............................................................. 351B.2.2. GERMANY ......................................................... 352B.2.2. HUNGARY ......................................................... 352B.2.2. ITALY.................................................................. 352B.2.2. JAPAN................................................................. 353

B.2.2. KOREA............................................................... 353B.2.2. LUXEMBOURG................................................. 354B.2.2. NETHERLANDS................................................ 354B.2.2. NORWAY ........................................................... 354B.2.2. PORTUGAL ....................................................... 355B.2.2. SPAIN ................................................................ 355B.2.2. SWEDEN ........................................................... 356B.2.2. SWITZERLAND................................................. 356B.2.2. UNITED KINGDOM ......................................... 357

Notes related to Tables

Migration flows in selected OECD countries ............................................................................................................................. 358

Inflows of asylum seekers............................................................................................................................................................. 360Foreign-born population .............................................................................................................................................................. 361Foreign population ....................................................................................................................................................................... 362Acquisition of nationality ............................................................................................................................................................. 364Inflows of foreign workers............................................................................................................................................................. 365Inflows of seasonal workers.......................................................................................................................................................... 367Foreign and foreign-born labour................................................................................................................................................. 368


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Overview of migration trends and foreign population in OECD countries

1. Excluding visitors, transit migrants, foreign government officials and students. Accompanying dependents are including.2. Austria, Greece, Italy and Spain are not included.3. 1999 for Denmark.4. Inflows of foreign workers entering Canada to work temporarily (excluding seasonal workers) provided by initial entry.5. Fiscal years (July to June of the given year) (Statistics Canada).6. Data relate to 1999-2000 average instead of 2000.7. Excluding Greece. 1999 for France instead of 2000.8. Excluding Greece and Ireland.

Sources: Refer to the notes at the end of the Statistical Annex; Statistics Canada; Labour Force Statistics, OECD, 2002.

Migration flows Stock of foreign and foreign-born population

Annual average Thousands% of total

population

1990-94 1995-99 2000 2000 1990 2000

Inflows of foreigners (Thousands) Stock of foreign populationUnited States EEA7 20 381 4.6 5.4

Permanent immigration 1 209 747 850 Japan 1 686 0.9 1.3Temporary immigration1 1 357 1 893 2 741

European economic area (EEA)2 1 614 1 352 1 4263 Stock of foreign-born populationJapan 244 251 346 United States 28 400 7.9 10.4

Australia Canada (1991 and 1996) 4 971 16.1 17.4Permanent immigration 99 87 92 Australia 4 517 22.8 23.6Temporary immigration 104 154 224

CanadaPermanent immigration 236 204 227Temporary workers4 64 69 86 Acquisition of nationality

Thousands (Annual average)Net migration (for 1 000 inhabitants)

Australia 4.3 5.1 5.4Canada5 .. 5.4 5.1United States 3.3 3.3 3.1

European economic area (EEA)

6

3.1 1.7 2.5Japan 0.03 0.04 0.3

Asylum seekers (Thousands)European economic area 516 326 427United States 136 105 57Canada 30 26 36Central and Eastern Europe 3 13 26Australia 9 9 12

1990-94 1995-99 2000

900800700600500400300200100

0

9008007006005004003002001000

United States EEA8 Canada Australia Japan

1990-94 1995-99 2000

900800700600500400300200100

0

9008007006005004003002001000


1990-94 1995-99 2000

900800700600500400300200100

0

9008007006005004003002001000



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GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Economic globalisation has been

accompanied by the growing

importance of migration flows

and the number of asylum seekers

The 1990s and the beginning of the new millennium confirmed theincreasing role of migration in the context of economic globalisation. Anoverview of migration trends during this period shows that, while theUnited States, Canada and Australia remained the major settlement coun-tries, Europe also faced significant migration flows. Within the OECD zone,Europe in fact experienced the most pronounced increase in immigrationat the beginning of the 1990s and welcomed the largest numbers of

asylum seekers. The increase in recent years of asylum applications incertain Central and Eastern European countries, and to a lesser extent insouthern Europe, will undoubtedly contribute to reinforcing this trend inthe future.

Migration plays a growing role

in contributing to the population

growth of host countries

Compared to the situation at the beginning of the 1990s, the propor-tion of foreigners or immigrants in the total population in 2000, as well asin the active population, increased in most OECD countries, especially inthe United States and Australia and, to a lesser extent, in Canada, Japanand Korea. This trend was also strong in the European Economic Area,

where the increase in foreign residents has more than compensated forthe fall in the foreign population, due to naturalisations, estimated at a

yearly average of 550 000 people.

which registered important

changes in the countries of origin

of their migrants

Geopolitical changes of the past decade, in particular the liberali-sation of movements of persons from Central and Eastern Europe, haveenlarged the geographical frame of reference for international migra-tion. Moreover, an increasing number of immigrants from Asia, sub-Saharan Africa and Central and Latin America, have fuelled the flowsheading to several OECD Member countries. For example, one canobserve the growth of migration flows originating from China, thePhilippines, Romania and, more recently, from the Ukraine, Brazil,Ecuador, Argentina, Senegal, Cape Verde and South Africa. Despite the

persistence of traditional flows, the emergence of new flows has modi-fied the distribution by nationality of the foreign population in severalhost countries. The dispersal of same-origin migrants across host coun-tries has also tended to increase. This was the case, for example, fornationals from the former Yugoslavia who are long-term residents inGermany, Austria and Switzerland, and more recently, in Italy and theScandinavian countries. Moroccan citizens first arrived in France, then

went to Belgium and the Netherlands and, more recently, have emi-grated to Italy and Spain. Chinese nationals were present in a greaternumber of OECD Member countries.


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In 2000 and 2001, the growth

of employment-related migration

and family reunification flows has

continued. Illegal immigration has

also persisted

In 2000 and, on the basis of the data available, in 2001, the growth ofinflows continued in many OECD countries, most particularly in the UnitedStates, Canada, Australia, Japan and southern Europe. Employment-related migration (and especially that of skilled temporary workers) con-tinued to increase. This was also true for asylum flows and inflows relatedto family reunification. The persistence of illegal immigration underscores

the difficulties faced by host and sending countries in controlling migra-tion flows. In 2002, most OECD countries were not able to avoid an eco-nomic slowdown, resulting from the downturn in the advanced technologysectors and the consequences of the September 11 terrorist attacks in theUnited States. It is nonetheless difficult to measure the impact of theseevents on international mobility and to predict whether there will be aneventual reversal of migration flows.

The management of migration

flows and cooperation with

sending countries remain a high

priority in migration policy

Every type of migration policy has been implemented during the pasttwo years. OECD countries have adopted a more restrictive attitudetowards the entry and residence of foreigners and some countries havetightened requirements for family reunification procedures (e.g., Austria,Denmark, the Netherlands). These policies were enacted in parallel withthose giving more importance to selection procedures for new immigrants,especially to those for skilled workers (e.g., in the settlement countries as

well as in the United Kingdom, France and Norway). Measures to acceler-ate the processing of asylum applications and to discourage clearlyunfounded applications have gained in importance. The fight against ille-gal immigration and the illegal employment of foreigners has been rein-forced on two fronts: firstly, with tighter border controls, workplaceinspections and identity checks within countries. Secondly, measuresinvolving international co-operation with sending countries were under-taken to provide for their readmission of illegal immigrants. In some cases,

these were strengthened with new bilateral labour agreements. At thesame time in some Member countries, regularisation programmes haveincluded not only undocumented migrant workers (e.g., Greece, Italy, Por-tugal, Spain), but also their family members (e.g., the United States) andrejected asylum seekers who are long-term residents and/or difficult todeport (e.g., Switzerland, Luxembourg). The integration of immigrants andforeigners remains a major issue for most OECD Member countries.

alongside the integration of

immigrants in the society and

labour market of the host country.

This years report pays particular attention to this question of socio-economic integration, especially throughout the first section with a seriesof specific boxes. These boxes shed light on the linguistic competencies ofnewly arrived immigrants and the determining role of their command of

the host countrys language on their labour market integration. Otherboxes address the school performance of foreign children and children offoreign background; the employment situation of young migrants and theneed to improve their professional skills; and urban revitalisation ofdeclining neighbourhoods, where many migrants are concentrated. Thesection also examines the fight against racism and discrimination in hous-ing and hiring practices (which mostly penalise young migrants) as wellas the situation of aging migrants and the institutional and economic dif-ficulties some of them face upon retirement. Finally, in several OECDMember countries, the increase in inflows of non-accompanied minorsraises additional questions regarding the management of migrationflows. These cases constitute serious humanitarian emergencies and


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General Introduction

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require the countries affected to create special reception centres and allo-cate additional resources to care for these children temporarily, whiledeciding either to accept them into the community or help them return totheir home country.

***

The special chapter of this years

report is devoted to labour

shortages and the resort

to immigration

The second section of this report presents a survey of recent studieson labour shortages and the role of migration in attenuating this situation.Economic growth in the late 1990s, coupled with increasing concerns aboutaging populations, led many Member countries to envision using migra-tion to ease labour shortages. While untapped resident labour reservesexist, they vary in size from country to country. Moreover, it is not clear

whether these reserves can meet the immediate needs of the labour mar-kets concerned and evidence shows that they cannot be mobilised rapidly.

Available studies confirm

the existence of labour markettightness, especially for skilled

employment

This survey highlights the diversity of methods used by some OECD

Member countries to evaluate current and future labour shortages. Eventhough workers with skills and qualifications linked to new technologiesare scarce, especially in information and communication technologies,other shortages exist. Demographic changes, which have led to aging pop-ulations and the increase in related health care needs in most OECD coun-tries, have affected the demand for social and medical personnel.Shortages have also been identified among teachers and professionals inthe biomedical and food industries. Labour market tightness also existsfor low-skilled jobs in agriculture, manufacturing, construction, catering,tourism and domestic services.

but not all OECD countries

are necessarily consideringan increase in labour-related

migration

Faced with labour shortages that may reflect more structural issues,

some countries are not necessarily considering an increase in foreignlabour recruitment. Other countries, though, are emphasising solutions tolabour shortages using larger scale selective labour immigration policies(even if only on a temporary basis) with the goal of obtaining more signifi-cant long-term benefits from migration.

It is important to prepare

and train current and future

generations since immigration

solutions have their limits

The report also shows that immigration alone will not resolve labourmarket failures, given the fact that selective labour migration policiespresent limited solutions. Recommendations include: encouraging andpursuing current efforts to make use of underutilised resident labour sup-plies; examining more effectively sectoral and regional labour market

needs; and continuing to study the long-term consequences of an increasein labour-related migration.

***

The third part of this report includes country notes on the recentdevelopments in migration flows and policies.


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Part 1

MAIN TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

The part concerning the main trends in interna-tional migration is presented in four sections. Thefirst (I.A) looks at changes in migration movementsand in the foreign population of the OECD membercountries. The second Section (I.B) focuses on the

position of immigrants in the labour market. Thethird (I.C) sheds particular light on two regions Asia and Central and Eastern Europe. This isfollowed by an overview of migration policies (I.D),

which reviews policies to regulate and control flows,along with the full range of measures to enhance theintegration of immigrants and developments in co-operation at international level in the area of migra-tion. In addition, the issue of the integration ofimmigrants into host-country societies is highlightedin theme boxes to be found in Part I.

A. MIGRATION AND POPULATION TRENDS

Over the past two decades, trends in migratoryflows and in the levels of foreign and foreign-bornpopulations in OECD member countries havereversed course on several occasions. These rever-sals have resulted from major regional geopoliticalupheavals in Central and Eastern Europe, but inAsia and Africa as well. They are also tied in with theimportant changes both legislative (amendmentsto the conditions of entry and residence of foreign-ers, naturalisation, and so on) and economic that

have taken place in a number of host countries.These changes have resulted in broad contrasts inthe dynamics of migratory flows, the main sendingcountries and the profiles of immigrants.

1. Trends in migration movements and changes

in the foreign population

During the 1980s and early 90s, immigrationflows intensified, spurred both by the opening up ofEastern Europe and the rapid economic developmentof a number of Asian countries. The trend was

reversed in 1992-93, in part because of efforts by themain receiving countries to tighten controls overmigratory flows. From that time on, and until atleast 1997, entries of foreign nationals droppedsignificantly despite the persistence of family migra-

tion and arrivals of asylum seekers, due in part tothe closing of other channels of immigration and anew flare-up of regional conflicts.

The resumption of immigration in the OECDcountries, which has been perceptible since the late1990s, was confirmed and tended to gather pace in2000 and 2001. It results primarily from greatermigration by foreign workers, both temporary andpermanent. Conditions for recruiting skilled foreignlabour have been eased in most of the OECDmember countries in order to meet labour marketneeds, especially in the new t echnologies andhealth care sectors.

In 2002, under the combined effects of the tech-nology bust and the 11 September terrorist attacksin the United States, OECD-area countries wereunable to escape recession. That recession, even ifit may be only short-lived and of moderate inten-sity, has nonetheless helped to ease the tightness oflabour markets and to limit business recruitmentrequirements, including the need for skilled work-ers. Even so, it is difficult to gauge the impact ofthose events on the international mobility of

persons, or to predict whether they will reverse thetrend in immigration flows.

a) Migratory trends very clearly on the rise

In 2000 and the first half of 2001, the increasedinflows that had been observed since 1996-97continued in a great many OECD countries (seeChart I.1). This phenomenon, more pronounced inthe non-European OECD countries, still remainedmoderate within the European Union as a whole,since EU immigration rose by only 3.2% between


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Chart I.1. Inflows of foreigners in selected OECD countries, 1980-2000

Thousands, per 1 000 inhabitants and per 100 foreigners

USADEU

GBR

JPN

ITA5

CAN

FRAAU

SNL

DCHE

BEL

AUTNZ

LSWENO

RIRLDN

KPR

THU

NLU

XFINCZE

849.8 648.8

24.5

LUX

CHENZ

LAUTDE

UCAN

BEL

IRL

GBRNO

RNL

DAU

SITA

5

SWEDN

KUS

AJPN

FRAFINPR

THU

NCZE

JPNITA

5

IRL

GBRNO

RNLDHU

NFINDEU

AUTBELDN

KPR

TSWELU

XCHEFR

ACZE

NZL

CANUS

AAU

S

1614

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

0

4

2

UE2 USA3 DEU GBR2 000

1 600

1 200

800

400

0

1980 20001985 1990 1995

JPN CAN FRA AUS

400350

300

250

200

0

150

100

50

1980 20001985 1990 1995

1980 20001985 1990 1995

NLD CHE BEL

140

120

100

80

60

0

40

20

1980 20001985 1990 1995

NZL IRL HUN LUXPRT

70

60

50

40

30

0

20

10

Inflows of foreigners,11980-2000 Inflows of foreigners in 2000Thousands, per 1 000 inhabitants and per 100 foreigners

Thousands

Thousands

Per 1 000 inhabitants

Per 100 foreigners6

AUS AustraliaAUT AustriaBEL BelgiumCAN CanadaCHE Switzerland

CZE Czech RepublicDEU GermanyDNK DenmarkFIN FinlandFRA France

GBR United KingdomHUN HungaryIRL IrelandITA ItalyJPN Japan

LUX LuxembourgNLD NetherlandsNZL New ZealandNOR NorwayPRT Portugal

SWE SwedenUSA United States

USA and CAN3

Nordic countries4

Note: Data for the United Kingdom are from the International Passenger Survey;for NewZealand, data are based on arrival cards. For Australia, Canada and the United States,data relate to new permanent immigrants; for France and South European countries,data are issued from residence permits. For all other countries, data are based onPopulation Registers.

1. The host countries have been split into 4 groups according to the volume of inflowsin 2000. No series are available for Austria, Czech Republic and Italy.

2. Belgium, Denmark, Germany, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Sweden, andthe United Kingdom.

3. Excluding immigrants legalised in the United States under IRCA regularisationprogramme.

4. Excluding Iceland.5. Including foreigners who benefited from the 1998 regularisation programme.6. For Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States, inflows in 2000 are related

to the stocks of foreign-born residents (1996 Census for Canada).Sources: National Statistical Offices (for more details on sources, refer to the notes at the

end of the Statistical Annex).

USADEU

GBR

JPN

ITA5

CAN

FRAAU

SNL

DCHE

BEL

AUTNZ

LSWENO

RIRLDN

KPR

THU

NLU

XFINCZE

849.8 648.8

24.5

LUX

CHENZ

LAUTDE

UCAN

BEL

IRL

GBRNO

RNL

DAU

SITA

5

SWEDN

KUS

AJPN

FRAFINPR

THU

NCZE

JPNITA

5

IRL

GBRNO

RNLDHU

NFINDEU

AUTBELDN

KPR

TSWELU

XCHEFR

ACZE

NZL

CANUS

AAU

S

1614

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

0

4

2


1 600

1 200

800

400

0

1980 20001985 1990 1995

JPN CAN FRA AUS

400350

300

250

200

0

150

100

50

1980 20001985 1990 1995

1980 20001985 1990 1995

NLD CHE BEL

140

120

100

80

60

0

40

20

1980 20001985 1990 1995

NZL IRL HUN LUXPRT

70

60

50

40

30

0

20

10


Thousands

Thousands


Per 100 foreigners6






USA and CAN3

Nordic countries4








USADEU

GBR

JPN

ITA5

CAN

FRAAU

SNL

DCHE

BEL

AUTNZ

LSWENO

RIRLDN

KPR

THU

NLU

XFINCZE

849.8 648.8

24.5

LUX

CHENZ

LAUTDE

UCAN

BEL

IRL

GBRNO

RNL

DAU

SITA

5

SWEDN

KUS

AJPN

FRAFINPR

THU

NCZE

JPNITA

5

IRL

GBRNO

RNLDHU

NFINDEU

AUTBELDN

KPR

TSWELU

XCHEFR

ACZE

NZL

CANUS

AAU

S

1614

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

0

4

2


1 600

1 200

800

400

0

1980 20001985 1990 1995

JPN CAN FRA AUS

400350

300

250

200

0

150

100

50

1980 20001985 1990 1995

1980 20001985 1990 1995

NLD CHE BEL

140

120

100

80

60

0

40

20

1980 20001985 1990 1995

NZL IRL HUN LUXPRT

70

60

50

40

30

0

20

10


Thousands

Thousands


Per 100 foreigners6






USA and CAN3

Nordic countries4









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1999 and 2000. It was in the United States, Canadaand Japan that growth was particularly strong.

The left-hand side of Chart I.1shows the trendin foreign migrant inflows since 1980. The host coun-tries are divided into four groups, in decreasing

order of the volume of their 2000 inflows. The right-hand side of the chart shows the volume of inflowsin absolute terms, and as a proportion of the totalpopulation and the stock of foreigners in eachcountry.

In the United States, the change in inflows wasspectacula r between 1999 and 2000 . Near ly850 000 new permanent immigrants were admittedin 2000, up more than 30% from the previous year.This dynamic is in clear contrast to what hadhappened in the three previous years, and the mainexplanation for it is the fact that major efforts were

made to reduce the number of pending applica-tions. For 2001, it is expected that over a millionpermanent entries will have been recorded, which

would constitute an all-time high, excluding thefigures for 1990 and 1991, which incorporatedamnesties under the IRCA programme.

Growth in the inflows of foreigners was just assharp in Japan, where 346 000 persons settled in2000, up almost 23% from the previous year and thehighest level in decades. The significance of this isheightened by the fact that it came at a time whenthe Japanese economy was gripped by the recessionthat began in August 2000, with unemployment at anunprecedented level (5% in 2001). Much of thisincreased inflow is attributable to returns of descen-dants of Japanese, mostly from Brazil, and to entriesof Chinese and Philippine citizens.

In Canada, the rise in permanent immigration,perceptible in 1999, continued and gathered pace in2000, since 227 000 persons settled in Canada thatyear, or nearly 20% more than in 1999. The figure for2001 will be even higher, probably exceeding250 000 entries. In the early 1990s, similar levels had

been reached (256 000 in 1993) and had constitutedall-time highs. The Canadian authorities have statedtheir determination to increase immigration gradu-ally, so that inflows amount to roughly 1% of the totalpopulation, which for 2001 was estimated at over30 million.

Box I.1. Migration statistics: definitions and comparability1

International migration statistics are patchy, of varying degrees of reliability, and subject to problems ofcomparability. These difficulties stem largely from the diversity of migration systems and legislation onnationality and naturalisation, which reflect the individual history and circumstances of each country. Forexample, in settlement countries (Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States), immigrants areclassified by their place of birth (foreign-born), while in the other OECD member countries the criterion ofnationality is applied (foreigners). Some international organisations, in particular the UN, have recommendedadopting a common definition of the concept of international migrant, but implementing theserecommendations is fraught with numerous difficulties.

The main sources of information on migration vary across countries, which poses difficulties for thecomparability of available data. Some countries (notably northern European ones) keep population registers,

while others base their statistics on records of residence and work permits issued to foreign nationals or, in the

case of workers, on information provided by social security systems. There are also data from censuses, and fromsurveys on the various characteristics of the population. In some cases, other sources may be used, such asspecific surveys on migrants, border-crossing records, disembarkation cards, studies on staff mobility inmultinational enterprises, etc.

Despite these difficulties, this report and, more generally, all OECD activities in the field of internationalmigration are aimed precisely at improving the availability, comparability and reliability of data. These activitiesare based largely on a network of national correspondents in thirty four countries (see the list of correspondentsin the Annex) and seek to enhance analysis and understanding of migration issues in the light of the socio-economic challenges facing OECD member countries.

1. For further details on migration statistics, see the Statistical Annex.


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Certain countries in southern Europe that donot necessarily possess comprehensive and accu-rate statistics on inflows also noted a significant risein immigration in the late 1990s. This is the case ofPortugal, for example, but also of Spain and Greece,both of which had instituted unprecedented legalisa-tion campaigns, involving in all more than a millionand a half people in just a few years (see below,Section I.D on migration policies).

In 2000, immigration also increased appreciablyin several other OECD member countries, includingthe Netherlands (+16.6%), the United Kingdom(+13.6%), Finland (+15.2%), Ireland (+11.6%), France(+10.3%) and Australia (+9.7%). In contrast, the trend

was more moderate in other European countriescharacterised by sharply rising immigration in thelate 1990s (as in Italy and Belgium). Inflows of

foreigners declined in Germany, Austria and anumber of Nordic countries (Norway and Sweden inparticular). In Germany, in 2000, about 649 000 newimmigrants were recorded down by half from thelevel reached in 1992 and well below the yearlyaverage for the latter half of the 1990s. Even so, inabsolute terms, Germany was still the second-ranking host amongst the OECD member countries.

The OECD countries can be divided into twogroups, according to recent trends in migratoryflows. First is a group of countries in which immigra-tion flows peaked significantly in 2000, continuing a

more or less buoyant trend. This was the case ofJapan, as mentioned above, but also of many Euro-pean countries for which the rise in flows was moremoderate in 2000, such as Belgium, the Netherlands,Portugal, Ireland, Italy and the United Kingdom. Forall of these countries, the number of foreignerstaken in was the highest in twenty years. Othercountries which would appear to have reached amaximum in 1998 or 1999 can also be put in withthis group, namely Austria, Luxembourg, Norwayand France. The latest statistics available for theUnited States and Canada would suggest that thosecountries will also have hit record high in flowsin 2001.

In reality, only a handful of countries for whichdata are available over a long period truly stand outin that the record immigration flows of the late 1980sor early 90s remain unequalled to this day. Thosecountries are Germany, Australia and Switzerland, inaddition to the Nordic countries, except for Norway.Elsewhere, however, the trend in inflows of foreign-ers appears to be more stable, and immigration isfar from its record levels. In Germany and Sweden,

there has even been a steady decline in entries offoreign citizens. This observation needs to bequalified, however, for certain countries (Australiaand Germany) by the fact that temporary labourmigration has been trending firmly upward (seeSection I.A.1.c below).

If inflows of foreigners have been rising in mostof the OECD member countries, the same is actuallytrue of outf lows (see the Statist ical Annex,Table A.1.2). Without calling the previous findingsinto question, the trends in the net migration offoreigners and the foreign-born appear to be moremoderate, at least in countries for which detailedstatistics are available. However, net migration offoreigners dropped by nearly 27% in Germanybetween 1999 and 2000, while increasing, for exam-ple, by more than 22% in the Netherlands over the

same period (see Section I.A.2.a below for an analysisof total net migration).

Recent migration trends have brought littlechange to the ranking of the main immigration coun-tries, though some differences have widenedslightly (see the right-hand part of Chart I.1). Forexample, in 2000, the United Kingdom took in some30 000 persons more than Japan, and 150 000 morethan Canada. On the basis of absolute values,however, the United States (849 400) and Germany(648 800) continued to be the two main immigration

countries. For France, Australia, the Netherlandsand Switzerland, the number of persons taken inranged from 120 000 to 87 000. Italy confirmed itspo s i t i o n be tw e e n Ca n a da a n d J a pa n w i th271 000 entries in 2000.

If these legal inflows are compared to the totalforeign or immigrant population at the beginning ofthe year, the ranking changes somewhat. Japan thenranks first, ahead of Italy and Ireland, with ratios ofbetween 20.5% and 19%, followed by the UnitedKingdom, Norway, the Netherlands, Hungary andFinland, for which the ratios range from 16% to 10%.

It is particularly hard to predict whether thesetrends will continue, given that in 2001 economicactivity suffered a number of cyclical shocks.However, the partial data available for 2001 seem toconfirm the rise reported in 1999 and 2000. In south-ern Europe, it can be expected, on the basis ofdemographic trends and labour requirements, thatmigration pressure will persist in the coming years.In the medium term, settlement by recent waves ofmigrants may generate further inflows of immigrantsto these countries for family reasons, thereby making


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them more significant immigration countries. At thesame time, the other OECD countries, despite theeconomic turndown, have not rescinded the easing ofconditions for the admission of skilled foreign work-ers, suggesting that the rise in employment-relatedmigration in the late 1990s will not be jeopardised forlong. The case of Germany, which plans a radicaloverhaul of its immigration legislation in response tolabour market needs, and that of Canada, which hasproclaimed its determination to make active use ofimmigration to preserve its medium- and long-termeconomic and demographic dynamics, are just twoexamples of this.

Nevertheless, controlling migration flowsremains a priority common to all OECD countries,

with special emphasis on curbing illegal immigrationand the growing number of asylum seekers. On the

whole, migration flows, classified by main catego-ries, have been marked over the last two years bythe continuing preponderance of family-linkedimmigration, greater numbers of asylum seekersand, above all, an increase in employment-relatedmigration.

b) An increasingly contrasting breakdown

by category of inflows

Previous editions of Trends in International Migra-

tionhave highlighted changes in the breakdown ofimmigration flows by category since the early 1990s.In particular, family-linked immigration (accompany-ing family members and family reunification) hasincreased in Australia, the United States, France andSweden, while immigration for employment hasrisen in Canada and the United Kingdom and therefugee category has grown in the Nordic countries.Recently, however, the rise in worker migration hasbeen the most salient feature in most of the receiv-ing countries.

These trends are not uniform, however, andthey reflect the effects of the migration policies,active or not, implemented by the countries inquestion. Some countries explicitly give priority toforeign workers (Australia, the United Kingdom andSwitzerland), while others, such as Canada, seek amore stable distribution amongst categories. Anumber of other OECD countries, because theyapply policies that are more restrictive, give implicitpriority to non-selective migration arising fromfamily reunification or requests for asylum (Franceand the Nordic countries).

Even if it varied sharply from one country toanother, the family component still dominated inseveral OECD countries in 2000; this was especiallyso in France, the United States and Canada (seeChart I.2). The share allotted to this category contin-ues to grow in some countries in which other officialchannels of immigration still remain limited. InFrance, family-related immigration rose by 22% ascompared to 1999, reachin

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OECD 2002 Trends in International Migration