O'Donnell 1994 Delegative Democracy

8/9/2019 O'Donnell 1994 Delegative Democracy

1/17

Guillermo A. O'Donell

Journal of Democracy, Volume 5, Number 1, January 1994, pp. 55-69

(Article)

DOI: 10.1353/jod.1994.0010

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D E LE G T IV E D E M O C R C Y

G u i l l e rm o O D o n n e l l

Gu i l lermo O Do nneU , an Argent ine pol i t ica l sc ientist , i s Helen K el logg

Pro fes sor o f ln terna t iona l S tud ies and Academ ic D irec tor o f the Ke l logg

Institute o f Internation al Studies at the University o f N otre Dam e. H is

books include

Mode r n iz a t ion a nd B ur e a uc r a t i c - Au tho r i t a r i a n i sm

(1979);

B ur e a uc r a t i c - Au tho r i t a r i a n i sm: Ar ge n t ina , 1966- 1973 , i n C ompa r a t ive

P e r spe c t ive

(1988); and, wi th Phi l ippe Schmit ter and Laurence

Whitehead, Tr a ns i t i ons f r om Au tho r i t a r i a n R u le (1986).

H e r e I d e p i c t a n e w s p e c ie s , a t y p e o f e x i s ti n g d e m o c r a c i e s t h at h a s

ye t t o be the o r i z e d . As o f t e n ha ppe ns , i t ha s ma ny s imi l a r i t i e s w i th

o the r , a lr e a dy r e c og n iz e d spe c ie s, w i th c a se s sha d ing o f f be twe e n the

former and some va r ie ty of the la t te r . S t i l l , I be l ieve tha t the d i f fe rences

a r e s ign i f i c a n t e nough to wa r r a n t a n a t t e mp t a t suc h a de p ic t ion . The

d r a w i n g o f n e a t er b o u n d a r ie s b e t w e e n t h es e t y p e s o f d e m o c r a c y d e p e n d s

on e mpi r i c a l r e se a r c h , a s we l l a s mor e r e f ine d a na ly t i c a l wor k tha t I a m

now unde r t a k ing . B u t i f I r e al ly ha ve f ound a ne w sp e c ie s ( a nd no t a

m e m b e r o f a n a l r e a d y r e c o g n i z e d f a m i l y , o r a f o r m t o o e v a n e s c e n t t o

me r i t c onc e p tua l i z a t ion ) , i t ma y be wor th e xp lo r ing i t s ma in f e a tu r e s .

S c ho la r s who ha ve wor ke d on de moc r a t i c t r a ns i t i ons a nd

c onso l ida t ion ha ve r e pe a te d ly sa id tha t , s inc e i t wou ld be wr ong to

a s sume tha t t he se p r oc e s se s a l l c u lmina te in t he sa me r e su l t , we ne e d

a t y p o l o g y o f d e m o c r a c i e s . S o m e i n t e r e s t i n g e f f o r t s h a v e b e e n m a d e ,

f o c u s e d o n t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s , i n t er m s o f t y p e s o f d e m o c r a c y a n d p o l i c y

pa t t e rns , o f va r ious pa th s to de m oc r a t i z a t ion . I M y o w n ongo ing r e se a r c h

sugge s t s , howe ve r , t ha t t he mor e de c i s ive f a c to r s f o r ge ne r a t ing va r ious

k inds o f de m oc r a c y a re no t r e l a te d to the c ha ra c t e r is t i c s o f t he

p r e c e d ing a u tho r i t a r i a n r e g ime o r t o t he p r oc e s s o f t r a ns i t i on . I n s t e a d ,

I be l i e ve tha t we mus t f oc us upon va r ious long - t e r m h i s to r i c a l f a c to r s ,

a s we l l a s t he de g r e e o f s e ve r i ty o f t he soc ioe c onomic p r ob le ms tha t

ne wly in s t a l l e d de moc r a t i c gove r nme n t s i nhe r i t .

Le t me b r i e f ly s t a t e t he ma in po in t s o f my a r gume n t : 1 ) Ex i s t ing

Journa l o f Dem ocracy Vo l. 5 No . 1 Janua ry 1994


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6 Journal of emocracy

t h e o r ie s a n d t y p o l o g i e s o f d e m o c r a c y r e f e r to represen ta t i ve d e m o c r a c y

as i t ex is t s , wi th a l l i t s va r ia t ions and subtypes , in h ighly deve loped

c a p i t a l i s t c oun t r i e s . 2 ) S ome ne wly in s t a l l e d de moc r a c i e s ( Ar ge n t ina ,

B r a z i l , P e r u , Ec ua dor , B o l iv i a , P h i l i pp ine s , Kor e a , a nd ma ny

p o s t c o m m u n i s t c o u n t r i e s ) are de moc r a c i e s , i n t he se nse tha t t he y me e t

R obe r t Da h l ' s c r i t e r i a f o r t he de f in i t i on o f po lya r c hy .2 3) Y e t th ese

d e m o c r a c i e s a r e n o t - - a n d d o n o t s e e m t o b e o n t h e p a t h t o w a r d

b e c o m i n g - - r e p r e s e n t a t i v e d e m o c r a c i e s ; t h e y p r e s e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t

p r ompt me to c a l l t he m delega t i ve d e m o c r a c i e s ( D D ) . 4 ) D D s a r e n o t

c onso l ida t e d ( i . e . , i n s t i t u t iona l i z e d ) de moc r a c i e s , bu t t he y ma y be

enduring I n ma ny c a se s , t he r e i s no s ign e i the r o f a ny immine n t t h r e a t

o f a n a u tho r i t a r i a n r e g r e s s ion , o r o f a dva nc e s towa r d r e p r e se n ta t ive

de moc r a c y . 5 ) The r e i s a n impor t a n t i n t e r a c t ion e f f e c t : t he de e p soc ia l

a nd e c onomic c r i s i s t ha t mos t o f t he se c oun t r i e s i nhe r i t e d f r om the i r

a u tho r i ta r i a n p r e de c e sso r s r e in f o r c e s c e r t a in p r a c ti c e s a nd c onc e p t ions

a bou t t he p r ope r e xe r c i se o f po l i t i c a l a u tho r i ty tha t l e a d in the d i r e c t ion

o f de l e ga t ive , no t r e p r e se n ta t ive de moc r a c y .

Th e f o l low ing c ons ide r a t ions und e r l ie t he a r gum e n t p r e se n te d a bo ve : 3

A) The in s t a l l a t ion o f a de moc r a t i c a l ly e l e c t e d gove r nme n t ope ns the

wa y f o r a s e c o nd tr a ns i ti on , o f t e n longe r a nd m or e c om ple x tha n the

in i t ia l t r ans i t ion f rom author i ta r ian ru le .

B ) Th i s s e c ond t r a ns i t i on i s suppose d to be f r om a de moc r a t i c a l ly

e l e c t e d gove r nmen t t o a n in s t i t u t iona l i z e d , c onso l ida t e d de moc r a t i c

regime

C ) No th ing gua r a n te e s , how e ve r , t ha t t h is s e c ond t r ans i t ion w i l l

oc c u r . Ne w de moc r a c i e s ma y r e g r e s s t o a u tho r i t a r i a n r u l e , o r t he y ma y

s ta l l i n a f e e b le , unc e r t a in s i t ua t ion . Th i s s i t ua t ion ma y e ndur e w i thou t

o p e n i n g a v e n u e s f o r i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d f o r m s o f d e m o c r a c y .

D) Th e c r uc i a l e l e m e n t de t e r m in ing the suc c e s s o f the se c on d

t rans i t ion i s the bui ld ing o f a se t o f ins t i tu tions tha t bec om e imp or tan t

dec is ion a l po in ts in the f low of po l i tica l pow er .

E ) F o r s u c h a s u c c e s s f u l o u t c o m e t o o c c u r , g o v e r n m e n t a l p o l i c i e s

a nd the po l i t i ca l s t ra t e g ies o f va r ious a ge n t s mu s t e m bo dy the

r e c ogn i t ion o f a pa r a moun t sha r e d in t e r e s t i n de moc r a t i c i n s t i t u t ion

bu i ld ing . The suc c e s s f u l c a se s ha ve f e a tu r e d a de c i s ive c oa l i t i on o f

b r oa d ly suppor t e d po l i t i c a l l e a de r s who t a ke g r e a t c a r e in c r e a t ing a nd

s t rengthening democra t ic po l i t ica l ins t i tu t ions . These ins t i tu t ions , in tu rn ,

ha ve m a de it e a s i e r to c ope w i th the soci a l a nd e c on om ic p r ob le m s

inhe r i t e d f r om the a u tho r i t a r i a n r e g ime . Th i s wa s the c a se in S pa in ,

P o r tuga l ( a l though no t imme d ia t e ly a f t e r de moc r a t i c i n s t a l l a t ion ) ,

Ur ugua y , a nd C h i l e .

F ) I n c on t r a s t , t he c a se s o f de l e ga t ive de moc r a c y me n t ione d e a r l i e r

ha ve a c h ie ve d ne i the r i n s t i t u t iona l p r og r e s s no r muc h gove r nme n ta l

e f f e c t ive ne ss in de a l ing w i th the i r r e spe c t ive soc i a l a nd e c onomic c r i s e s .

B e f o r e e l a bo r a t ing the se the me s in g r e a t e r de t a i l , I mus t ma ke a b r i e f


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58 Journal of Democracy

t o me e t , o r una c c e p ta b le , f o r s t i l l o the r s . The sc ope o f a n in s t i t u t ion i s

the de g r e e to wh ic h i t i nc o r po r a t e s a nd e x c lude s i t s se t o f po te n t i a l ly

re levant agents .

2 )

Institutions shape the probability distribution of outcomes.

A s

Ada m P r z e w or sk i ha s no te d , i n s ti t u tions p r oc e s s on ly c e r t a in a c to r s

a nd r e sou r c e s , a nd do so unde r c e r t a in r u l e s? Th i s p r e de te r mine s the

r a nge o f f e a s ib l e ou tc ome s , a nd the i r l i ke l ihood w i th in tha t r a nge .

De moc r a t i c i n s t i t u t ions , f o r e xa mple , p r e c lude the u se o r t h r e a t o f f o r c e

a nd the ou tc ome s tha t t h i s wou ld ge ne r a t e . On the o the r ha nd , t he

subse t o f de moc r a t i c i n s t i t u t ions ba se d on the un ive r sa l i t y o f t he vo te ,

a s P h i l i ppe S c hmi t t e r a nd W ol f ga ng S t r e e c k ha ve a r gue d , i s no t good

a t p r oc e s s ing the in t e ns i ty o f p r e f e r e nc e sP I n s t i t u t ions o f i n t e r e s t

r e p r e se n ta t ion a r e be t t e r a t p r oc e s s ing the in t e ns i ty o f p r e f e r e nc e s ,

a l though a t t he e xpe nse o f t he un ive r sa l i sm o f vo t ing a nd c i t i z e nsh ip

a nd , o f t e n , o f t he de m oc r a t i c ne s s o f t he i r de c i s ion ma k ing .

3) Institutions tend to aggregate and to stabilize the aggregation of

the level of action and organization of agents interacting with them.

The r u l e s e s t a b l i she d by in s t i t u t ions in f lue nc e s t r a t e g ic de c i s ions by

a ge n t s a s t o t he de g r e e o f a gg r e ga t ion tha t i s mor e e f f i c a c ious f o r t he m

in t e r ms o f t he l i ke l ihood o f f a vo r a b le ou tc ome s . I n s t i t u t ions , o r r a the r

the pe r sons who oc c upy de c i s ion - ma k ing r o l e s w i th in the m, ha ve l imi t e d

in f o r m a t ion - p r oc e ss ing c a pa b i li t ie s a nd a t t e n tion spa ns. C on se que n t ly ,

those pe r sons p r e f e r t o i n t e r a c t w i th r e l a t ive ly f e w a ge n t s a nd i s sue s a t

a t ime P Th i s t e nde nc y towa r d a gg r e ga t ion i s a no the r r e a son f o r t he

e xc lus iona r y s ide o f e ve r y in s t i t u t ion .

4 ) Institutions induce patterns of representation. F or the sa me

r e a sons , i n s t i t u t ions f a vo r the t r a ns f o r ma t ion o f t he ma ny po te n t i a l

vo ic e s o f t he i r c ons t i t ue nc ie s i n to a f e w tha t c a n c l a im to spe a k a s t he i r

r e p r e se n ta t ive s . R e p r e se n ta t ion invo lve s , on the one ha nd , t he

a c knowle dge d r igh t t o spe a k f o r some r e l e va n t o the r s a nd , on the o the r ,

t he a b i l i t y t o de l ive r t he c ompl i a nc e o f t hose o the r s w i th wha t t he

representa t ive dec ides . Insofa r a s th is capabi l i ty i s demonst ra ted and the

g ive n r u l e s o f t he ga me a r e r e spe c te d , i n s t i t u t ions a nd the i r va r ious

r e p r e se n ta t ive s de ve lop a n in t e r e s t i n t he i r mu tua l c oe x i s t e nc e a s

in te rac t ing agents .

5 ) Institutions stabilize agents~representatives and their expectations.

I n s t i t u t iona l l e a de r s a nd r e p r e se n ta t ive s c ome to e xpe c t be ha v io r s w i th in

a re la t ive ly na r row range of poss ib i l i t ie s f rom a se t o f ac tors tha t they

e xpe c t t o me e t a ga in in the ne x t r ound o f i n t e r a c t ions . C e r t a in a ge n t s

ma y no t l i ke the na r r owing o f e xpe c te d be ha v io r s , bu t t he y a n t i c ipa t e

tha t de v ia t ions f r om suc h e xpe c ta t ions a r e l i ke ly to be

c oun te r p r oduc t ive . Th i s i s t he po in t a t wh ic h i t ma y be sa id tha t a n

ins t i t u t ion ( wh ic h p r oba b ly ha s be c ome a f o r ma l o r ga n iz a t ion ) i s s t r ong .

The ins t i tu t ion i s in equi l ibr ium; i t i s in nobody 's in te res t to change i t ,

e xc e p t i n i nc r e me n ta l a nd ba s i c a l ly c onse nsua l wa ys .


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Guillermo O Donnell 9

6)

I n s t i tu t i o n s l e n g t h e n t h e t i m e h o r i zo n s o f a c to r s .

The s tab i l i za t ion

of agents and expecta t ions en ta i l s a t ime d imens ion: ins t i tu t ional ized

in teract ions are expected to cont inue in to the fu ture among the same (or

a s lowly and ra ther predic tab ly changing) se t of agents . This , together

wi th a h igh l eve l o f agg rega t i on o f r ep resen t a t i on and o f con t ro l o f

t he ir cons ti t uenc i es, i s t he founda t ion fo r the com pet i t ive coopera t i on

that character izes ins t i tu t ional ized democracies : one-shot pr i soner ' s

d i l e m m a s c a n b e o v e r c o m e , 7 barga in ing ( inc luding logro l l ing) i s

fac i l i t a t ed , va r ious t r ade -o f f s over t ime become feas ib l e , and sequen t i a l

a t t en t i on t o i s sues makes i t pos s ib l e t o accommoda te an o the rwi se

unmanageab l e agenda . The es t ab l i shmen t o f t hese p rac t i ces fu r the r

s t rengthens the wi l l ingness of a l l re levant agents to recognize one

another as val id in ter locutors , and enhances the value that they a t tach

to the ins t i tu t ion that shapes thei r in ter re la t ionships . This v i r tuous c i rc le

i s comple t ed when mos t democra t i c i n s t i t u t i ons ach i eve no t on ly

reasonable scope and s t rength but a l so a h igh dens i ty of mul t ip le and

s tabi l i zed in ter re la t ionships . This makes these ins t i tu t ions impor tant

poin ts of decis ion in the overal l po l i t i ca l process , and a consol idated ,

i n s t i t u t i ona l i zed democracy t hus emerges .

A wa y to summ ar i ze wha t I have sa id i s t ha t, in t he func t i on ing o f

contemporary , complex socie t ies , democrat ic pol i t i ca l ins t i tu t ions provide

a c ruc i a l l eve l o f med ia t i on and aggrega t i on be tween , on one s i de ,

s t ructura l fac tors and , on the o ther , no t only indiv iduals but a l so the

diverse groupings under which socie ty organizes i t s mul t ip le in teres t s

and i den t i t i e s . Th i s i n t e rmed ia t e - - i . e . , i n s t i t u t i ona l - - l eve l has an

impor t an t impac t on t he pa t t e rns o f o rgan i za t i on o f soc i e ty , bes towing

representa t ion upon some par t ic ipants in the pol i t i ca l process and

exc lud ing o the r s . In s t i tu t iona l i za ti on unden i ab ly en t a i l s heavy co s t s - - no t

only exclus ion but a l so the recurr ing , and a l l too real , n ightmares of

bu reaucra t i za t i on and bo redom. The a l t e rna t i ve , however , submerges

socia l and pol i t i ca l l i fe in the hel l o f a co lossal pr i soner ' s d i lemma.

This i s , o f course , an ideal typ ical descr ip t ion , but I f ind i t usefu l

for t rac ing , by way of cont ras t , the pecul iar i t i es of a s i tuat ion where

there i s a dear th of democrat ic ins t i tu t ions . A nonins t i tu t ional ized

democracy i s character ized by the res t r ic ted scope, the weakness , and

the low dens i ty of whatever pol i t i ca l ins t i tu t ions ex is t . The p lace of

we l l - func t i on ing i n s ti tu t ions i s t aken by o the r non fo rma l i zed bu t s t rong ly

ope rat ive practices----cl ientel ism, patr im onia l ism , and co rrupt ion .

C h a r a c t e r i z i n g D e l e g a t i v e

emocracy

Delega t i ve

d e m o c r a c i e s

rest

o n

t he p remise t ha t whoever wins

e l ec t i on t o t he p res idency i s t he reby en t i t l ed t o govern as he o r she

sees f i t , cons t ra ined only by the hard fact s of ex is t ing power re la t ions

and by a cons t i tu t ional ly l imi ted term of off ice . The pres ident i s t aken


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t o b e t h e e m b o d i m e n t o f t h e n a t i o n a n d t h e m a i n c u s t o d i a n a n d d e f i n e r

o f i t s i n t e r e s t s . The po l i c i e s o f h i s gove r nme n t ne e d be a r no

r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e p r o m i s e s o f h i s c a m p a i g n - - h a s n o t t h e p r e s i d e n t

been au thor ized to govern as he (or she ) th inks bes t? S ince th is pa te rna l

f igu r e i s suppose d to t a ke c a r e o f t he who le na t ion , h i s po l i t i c a l ba se

m u s t b e a m o v e m e n t , t h e s u p p o s e d l y v i b r a n t o v e r c o m i n g o f t h e

f a c t iona l i sm a nd c on f l i c t s a ssoc i a t ed w i th pa r ti e s. Ty p ic a l ly , w in n ing

p r e s ide n t i a l c a nd ida t e s i n DDs p r e se n t t he mse lve s a s a bove bo th po l i t i c a l

pa r t i e s a nd o r ga n iz e d in t e r e s t s . How c ou ld i t be o the r w i se f o r some body

who c l a ims to e mbody the who le o f t he na t ion? I n t h i s v i e w , o the r

inst i tut ions-- - - -cour ts and legisla tures, for instance--are nuisances that

c o m e a t t a c h e d t o t h e d o m e s t i c a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l a d v a n t a g e s o f b e i n g a

de moc r a t i c a l ly e l e c t e d p r e s ide n t . Ac c oun ta b i l i t y t o suc h in s t i t u t i ons

a ppe a r s a s a me r e impe d ime n t t o t he f u l l a u tho r i t y t ha t t he p r e s ide n t

ha s be e n de l e ga t e d to e xe r c i s e .

De le ga t ive de moc r a c y i s no t a l i e n to t he de moc r a t i c t r a d i t i on . I t i s

mor e de moc r a t i c , bu t l e s s l i be r a l , t ha n r e p r e se n ta t ive de moc r a c y . DD i s

s t rongly major i ta r ian . I t cons is t s in cons t i tu t ing , th rough c lean e lec t ions ,

a m a j o r i t y t h a t e m p o w e r s s o m e o n e t o b e c o m e , f o r a g i v e n n u m b e r o f

ye a r s , t he e mbod ime n t a nd in t e r p r e t e r o f t he h igh in t e r e s t s o f t he na t ion .

Of t e n , DDs use de v ic e s suc h a s r uno f f e l e c t ions i f the f i rs t r ound o f

e l e c t ions doe s no t ge ne r a t e a c l e a r - c u t ma jo r i t y . 8 Th i s m a jo r i t y mus t be

c r e a t e d to suppor t t he my th o f l e g i t ima te de l e ga t ion . F u r the r mor e , DD

is s t r ong ly ind iv idua l i s t i c , bu t mor e in a Hobbe s i a n tha n a Loc ke a n

wa y : vo te r s a r e suppose d to c hoose , i r r e spe c t ive o f t he i r i de n t i t i e s a nd

af f i l ia t ions , the ind iv idua l who i s most f i t to take respons ib i l i ty for the

de s t iny o f t he c oun t r y . E l e c t ions i n DDs a r e a ve r y e mot iona l a nd h igh -

s t a ke s e ve n t : c a nd ida t e s c ompe te f o r a c ha nc e to r u l e v i r t ua l ly f r e e o f

a l l c ons t r a in t s s a ve those impose d by na ke d , non ins t i t u t i ona l i z e d powe r

r e l a t i ons . Af t e r t he e l e c t ion , vo t e r s /de l e ga to r s a r e e xpe c t e d to be c ome

a pa s s ive bu t c he e r ing a ud ie nc e o f wha t t he p r e s ide n t doe s .

Ex t r e m e ind iv idua l ism in c ons t i tu t i ng e xe c u t ive po we r c om bine s w e l l

w i th the o r ga n ic i sm o f t he Le v ia tha n . Th e na tion and i t s a u the n t i c

po l it i ca l e xp r e s s ion , the l e a de r a nd hi s M ove m e n t , a r e pos tu l a t e d as

l i v ing o r ga n i sm s . ~ Th e l e a de r ha s t o he a l t he na t ion by un i t i ng i ts

d i spe r se d f r a gme n t s i n to a ha r mon ious who le . S inc e the body po l i t i c i s

in d isa r ray , and s ince i t s ex is t ing voices on ly reproduce i t s

f r a gme n ta t ion , de l e ga t ion inc lude s t he r i gh t ( a nd the du ty ) o f

a dmin i s t e r ing the unp le a sa n t me d ic ine s t ha t w i l l r e s to r e t he he a l th o f t he

na t ion . F o r t h i s v i e w , i t s e e ms obv ious t ha t on ly t he he a d r e a l ly knows :

the p r e s ide n t a nd h i s mos t t r u s t e d a dv i so r s a r e t he a lpha a nd the ome ga

of po l i t i c s . F u r the r mor e , some o f t he p r ob le ms o f t he na t ion c a n on ly

be so lve d by h igh ly t e c hn ic a l c r i t e r i a .

Tdcnicos

e s p e c i a l l y i n e c o n o m i c

po l i c y , mus t be po l i t i c a l l y sh i e lde d by the p r e s ide n t a ga ins t t he ma n i f o ld

r e s is t a nc e o f soc i e ty . I n t he me a n t ime , i t i s ob v io us t ha t


9/17

G u i U e r m o 0 D o n n e l l 6

res i s tance--be i t f rom congress , po l i t i ca l par t ies , in teres t groups , or

crowds in the s t ree t s - -has to be ignored . This organic i s t ic d i scourse f i t s

poor ly wi th t he d ry a rgumen t s o f t he t echnocra t s , and t he my th o f

de l ega t i on is consum m ated : t he p res iden t i so la t es h imse l f f rom mo s t

pol i t i ca l ins t i tu t ions and organized in teres t s , and bears so le respons ib i l i ty

for the successes and fa i lures of h i s pol ic ies .

Th i s cu r ious b l end o f o rgan i c i s t i c and t echnocra t i c concep t ions was

present in recent bureaucrat ic-author i tar ian reg imes . Al though the

language (but not the organic i s t ic metaphors) was d i f ferent , those

concep t ions were a l so p resen t i n communi s t r eg imes . Bu t t he re a re

impor t an t d i f f e rences be tween t hese r eg imes and DDs . In DDs , pa r t i e s ,

the congress , and the press are general ly f ree to voice thei r cr i t i c i sms .

S omet imes t he cou r t s , c i t i ng wha t t he execu t ive t yp i ca l l y d i smi s ses a s

legal i s t i c , form al i s t i c reasons , b lock unco ns t i tu t ional pol ic ies . W ork ers '

and capi ta l i s t s ' associa t ions of ten complain loudly . The par ty (or

coal i t ion) that e lec ted the pres id ent d espai rs abo ut i t s loss o f popular i ty ,

and refuses pa r l i amen ta ry suppor t fo r t he po l ic i es he has fo i s t ed on

them. This increases the pol i t i ca l i so la t ion of the pres ident , h i s

d i f f icu l t i es in forming a s tab le leg is la t ive coal i t ion , and h i s propens i ty

to s ides tep , ignore , or corrupt the congress and o ther ins t i tu t ions .

Here i t is neces sa ry t o e l abo ra t e on w ha t m akes r ep resen ta t ive

democracy d i f fe ren t f rom i t s de i ega t i ve cous in . Represen t a t i on

neces sa r i l y i nvo lves an e l emen t o f de l ega t i on : t h rough some p rocedure ,

a co l lec t iv i ty au thor izes some indiv iduals to speak for i t , and eventual ly

to commit the co l lec t iv i ty to what the representa t ive decides .

Consequent ly , representa t ion and delegat ion are not polar oppos i tes . I t

i s no t a lways easy t o make a sha rp d i s t i nc t i on be tween t he t ype o f

dem ocracy wh ich i s o rgan i zed a round rep resen t a t ive de l ega t i on and t he

type where t he de l ega t i ve e l emen t over shadows the r ep resen t a t i ve one .

Represen t a t i on en t a i l s accoun tab i l i t y : somehow rep resen t a t i ves a re

held respons ib le for thei r ac t ions by those they c la im to be en t i t l ed to

speak for . In ins t i tu t ional ized democracies , accountabi l i ty runs not only

ver t ica l ly , making e lected off ic ia l s answerable to the bal lo t box , but a l so

hor i zon t a l l y , ac ros s a ne twork o f r e l a t i ve ly au tonomous powers ( i . e . ,

o ther ins t i tu t ions) that can cal l in to ques t ion , and eventual ly punish ,

improper ways of d i scharg ing the respons ib i l i t i es of a g iven off ic ia l .

Represen t a ti on and accoun tab i l i ty en t a il t he r epub li can d im ens ion o f

democracy : t he ex i s t ence and en fo rcemen t o f a ca re fu l d i s t i nc t i on

between the publ ic and the pr ivate in teres t s of off ice holders . Ver t ica l

accountabi l i ty , a long wi th the f reedom to form par t ies and to t ry to

inf luence publ ic opin ion , ex is t s in both representa t ive and delegat ive

democracies . But the hor izonta l accountabi l i ty character i s t i c of

rep resen t a t i ve democracy i s ex t remely weak o r nonex i s t en t i n de l ega t i ve

democracies . Fur thermore , s ince the ins t i tu t ions that make hor izonta l

accoun tab i l i ty e f fec t ive a re s een by de l ega t ive p res iden ts a s un neces sa ry


10/17


e n c u m b r a n c e s t o t h e ir m i s s i o n , t h e y m a k e s t r e n u o u s e f f o rt s t o h a m p e r

the de ve lopme n t o f suc h in s t i t u t ions .

No t i c e tha t wha t ma t t e r s i s no t on ly the va lue s a nd be l i e f s o f

o f f i c i a l s ( whe the r e l e c t e d o r no t ) bu t a l so the f a c t t ha t t he y a r e

e mbe dde d in a ne twor k o f i n s t i t u t iona l i z e d powe r r e l a t ions . S inc e those

r e l a t ions ma y be mob i l i z e d to impose pun i shme n t , r a t iona l a c to r s w i l l

c a l c u la t e t he l i ke ly c os t s whe n the y c ons ide r unde r t a k ing impr ope r

be ha v io r . Of c ou r se , t he wor k ings o f t h i s sy s t e m o f mu tua l

r e spons ib i l i t y l e a ve muc h to be de s i r e d e ve r ywhe r e . S t i l l , i t s e e ms c l e a r

tha t t he r u l e - l i ke f o r c e o f c e r t a in c ode s o f c onduc t sha pe s the be ha v io r

o f r e l e va n t a ge n t s i n r e p r e se n ta t ive de moc r a c i e s muc h mor e tha n in

de le ga t ive de moc r a c i e s . I n s t i t u t ions do ma t t e r , pa r t i c u l a r ly whe n the

c ompa r i son i s no t a mong d i f f e r e n t s e t s o f s t r ong in s t i t u t ions bu t

be twe e n s t r ong in s t i t u t ions a nd e x t r e me ly we a k o r none x i s t e n t one s .

B e c a use po l i c i e s a r e c a r r i e d ou t by a s e r i e s o f r e l a t ive ly a u tonomous

powe r s , de c i s ion ma k ing in r e p r e se n ta t ive de moc r a c i e s t e nds to be s low

a nd inc r e me n ta l a nd some t ime s p r one to g r id ioc k . B u t , by th i s s a me

toke n , t hose po l i c i e s a r e u sua l ly va c c ina t e d a ga ins t g r os s mis t a ke s , a nd

t h e y h a v e a r e a s o n a b ly g o o d c h a n c e o f b e i n g i m p l e m e n t e d : m o r e o v e r ,

r e spons ib i l i t y f o r mi s t a ke s t e nds to be w ide ly sha r e d . As no te d , DD

impl ies weak ins t i tu t iona l iza t ion and , a t bes t , i s ind i f fe ren t toward

s t r e ng the n ing i t . DD g ive s the p r e s ide n t t he a ppa r e n t a dva n ta ge o f

ha v ing p r a c t i c a l ly no ho r i z on ta l a c c oun ta b i l i t y . DD ha s the a dd i t iona l

a ppa r e n t a dva n ta ge o f a l lowing swi f t po l i c y ma k ing , bu t a t t he e xpe nse

o f a h ighe r l i ke l ihood o f g r os s mis t a ke s , o f ha z a r dous imp le me n ta t ion ,

a nd o f c onc e n t r a t ing r e spons ib i l i t y f o r t he ou tc ome s on the p r e s ide n t .

No t su r p r i sing ly , p r e s ide n t s i n DD s t e nd to su f f e r w i ld sw ings in

popu la r i t y : one da y the y a r e a c c l a ime d a s p r ov ide n t i a l s a v io r s , a nd the

ne x t t he y a r e c u r se d a s on ly f a l l e n gods c a n be .

Whether i t i s due to cu l ture , t r ad i t ion , o r h is tor ica l ly- s t ruc tured

le a r n ing , t he p l e b i sc i t a r y t e nde nc ie s o f de l e ga t ive de moc r a c y we r e

de te c t a b le in mos t La t in Ame r ic a n ( a nd , f o r t ha t ma t t e r , ma ny

pos t - c ommunis t , As ia n , a nd Af r i c a n ) c oun t r i e s l ong be f o r e the p r e se n t

soc ia l and e c on om ic c r is is . Th i s k ind o f r u l e ha s be e n a n a lyz e d a s a

c ha p te r i n t he s tudy o f a u tho r i t a r i a n i sm, unde r suc h na me s a s c a e sa r i sm,

bona pa r t i sm, caudil l ismo popul ism, and the l ike . But i t should a lso be

se e n a s a pe c u l i a r t ype o f de moc r a c y tha t ove r l a ps w i th a nd d i f f e r s

f r om those a u tho r i t a ri a n f o r ms in in t e r e s t ing wa ys . E ve n i f DD be longs

to the de moc r a t i c ge nus , howe ve r , i t c ou ld ha r d ly be l e s s c onge n ia l t o

the bu i ld ing a nd s t r e ng the n ing o f de moc r a t i c po l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t ions .

om par i sons w i t h t he Pas t

The g r e a t wa ve o f de moc r a t i z a t ion p r io r t o t he one we a r e now

wi tne s s ing oc c u r r e d a f t e r W or ld W a r I I , a s a n impos i t i on by the A l l i e d


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GuiUermo O Donnell

63

powers on de fea t ed Germany , I t a l y , J apan , and t o some ex t en t Aus t r i a .

The r esu l t i ng cond i t i ons were r emarkab ly d i f f e ren t f rom the ones f aced

today by La t i n Amer i ca and t he pos t communi s t coun t r i e s : 1 ) In t he

wake o f t he des t ruc t i on wrough t by t he war , t he economic expec t a t i ons

o f t he peop l e p robab ly were ve ry modera t e . 2 ) There were mass ive

in ject ions of capi ta l , p r incipal ly but not exclus ively (e .g . , the forg iv ing

of Germany ' s fo re ign deb t ) t h rough t he Marsha l l P l an . 3 ) As a

consequence , and he lped by an expand ing wor ld economy, t he fo rmer

Axi s powers soon ach i eved rap id r a t es o f economic g rowth . These were

not the only fac tors a t work , but they great ly a ided in the consol idat ion

of democracy i n t hose coun t r i e s . F u r the rmore , t hese s ame fac to r s

cont r ibuted to pol i t i ca l s tab i l i ty and to s tab le publ ic pol icy coal i t ions :

i t t ook abou t 20 yea r s fo r a change o f t he govern ing pa r t y i n Germany ,

and t he dominan t pa r t i e s i n I t a l y and J apan he ld sway fo r nea r l y ha l f

a century .

In co nt ras t , in the t rans i t ions of the 1970s and 1980s , ref lec t ing the

much less congenia l context in which they occurred , v ic tory in the f i r s t

e lec t ion af ter the demise of the au thor i tar ian reg ime guaranteed that the

winning par ty would be defeated , i f no t v i r tual ly d i sappear , in the next

e lect ion . This happened in Spain , Por tugal , Greece , Argent ina , Bol iv ia ,

Brazi l , Ecuador , Peru , Uruguay, Korea , and the Phi l ippines . But th i s

pat tern appears together wi th impor tan t var ia t ions in the socia l and

economic pe r fo rmance o f t he new governmen t s . Mos t o f t hese coun t r i e s

inher i ted ser ious socioec ono m ic d i f f i cu l t i es f rom the preceding

au tho r i t a r i an r eg imes , and were s evere ly a f fec t ed by t he wor ldwide

eco nom ic t roubles of the 1970 s and ea r ly 1980s. In a l l o f them , the

soc ioeconomic p rob l ems a t some po in t r eached c r i s i s p ropor t i ons and

were s een t o r equ i re dec i s i ve governmen t ac t i on . Ye t however s e r i ous

the economic p rob l ems o f t he 1970s i n S ou the rn Europe may have

been , t hey appear mi ld when compared t o t hose bese t t i ng t he newly

democra t i zed pos t comrnun i s t and La t i n Amer i can coun t r i e s (wi th Ch i l e

as a par t i a l except ion) . Very h igh inf la t ion , economic s tagnat ion , a

severe f inancia l cr i s i s of the s ta te , a huge fore ign and domes t ic publ ic

debt , increased inequal i ty , and a sharp deter iora t ion of socia l po l ic ies

and wel fare provis ions are a l l aspect s of th i s cr i s i s .

Aga in , however , impor t an t d i f f e rences emerge among t he La t i n

Amer i can coun t r i e s . Dur ing i t s f i r s t democra t i c governmen t under

P res iden t S angu ine t t i, the U ruguaya n econo my per fo rmed qu i te w e l l: t he

annual ra te of inf la t ion dropped f rom three to two d ig i t s , whi le GNP,

inves tment , and real wages reg i s tered gradual increases . The government

pu rsued i nc remen ta l economic po l i c i e s , mos t o f t hem nego t i a t ed wi th

congre ss and var ious organize d in terest s. Chi le under Pres ident A ylw in

has fo l lowed the same path . By cont ras t , Argent ina , Brazi l , and Peru

opted for dras t i c and surpr i s ing econ om ic s tab i l i za t ion pac kag es : the

Aust ra l P lan in Argent ina , the Cruzado P lan in Brazi l , and the In t i P lan


12/17

64. Journal o f Democracy

in Pe ru . Bol iv ia , too , adopted th is k ind of s tab i l iza t ion package in the

1980s . A l thoug h th is p r og r am- - - -c lo se r t ha n the p r e v ious ly m e n t ione d

one s to the presc r ip t ions of the in te rna t iona l f inanc ia l o rgan iza t ions has

be e n p r a i se d f o r i t s suc c e s s in c on t r o l l i ng in f l a t ion , GNP a nd inve s tme n t

g r owth r e ma in a ne mic . Mor e ove r , t he b r u t a l i t y w i th wh ic h wor ke r

p r o te s t s a ga ins t t he p r og r a m we r e supp r e s se d ha r d ly qua l i f i e s a s

de moc r a t i c .

T h e s e p a c k a g e s h a v e b e e n d i sa s tr o u s. T h e y d i d n o t s o l ve a n y o f

the inher i ted problems; ra the r , i t i s d i f f icu l t to f ind a s ing le one tha t

the y d id no t wor se n . D i sa g r e e me n t l i nge r s a bou t whe the r t he se p r og r a ms

we r e in t r in s i c a l ly f l a we d , o r su f f e r e d f r om c o r r ig ib l e de f e c t s , o r we r e

s o u n d b u t u n d o n e b y e x o g e n o u s p o l it ic a l f a ct o rs . H o w e v e r t h at m a y

be , i t i s c lea r tha t the exper ience of these fa i lures re inforced the

de c i s ion by the de moc r a t i c l e a de r s o f C h i l e t o a vo id th i s r u inous r oa d .

T h i s m a k e s U r u g u a y - - a c o u n t r y t h a t i n h e r i t e d f r o m t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n

r e g ime a s i t ua t ion tha t wa s e ve r y b i t a s ba d a s Ar ge n t ina ' s o r

B r a z i l ' s - - a v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g c a s e . W h y d i d t h e U r u g u a y a n g o v e r n m e n t

no t a dop t i t s own s t a b i l i z a t ion pa c ka ge , e spe c ia l ly du r ing the e uphor i a

tha t f o l lowe d the f i r s t s t a ge s o f t he Aus t r a l a nd the C r uz a do p l a ns? W a s

i t be c a use P r e s ide n t S a ngu ine t t i a nd h i s c o l l a bo r a to r s we r e w i se r o r

be t t e r i n f o r me d tha n the i r Ar ge n t ine a n , B r a z i l i a n , a nd P e r uv ia n

c oun te r pa r t s ? P r oba b ly no t . The d i f f e r e nc e i s t ha t Ur ugua y i s a c a se o f

re d e m o c ra t i za t i o n w h e r e C o n g r e s s w e n t t o w o r k e f f e c ti v e l y a s s o o n a s

de moc r a c y wa s r e s to r e d . F a c ing a s t r ong ly in s t i t u t iona l i z e d l e g i s l a tu r e

a nd a s e r i e s o f c ons t i t u t iona l r e s t r i c t ions a nd h i s to r i c a l ly e mbe dde d

pr a c t i c e s , no Ur ugua ya n p r e s ide n t c ou ld ha ve go t t e n a wa y wi th

de c r e e ing a d r a s t i c s t a b i l i z a t ion pa c ka ge . I n Ur ugua y , f o r t he e na c tme n t

o f ma ny o f t he po l i c i e s t yp ic a l ly c on ta ine d in those pa c ka ge s , t he

p r e s ide n t mus t go th r ough C ongr e s s . F u r the r mor e , go ing th r ough

C ongr e s s me a ns ha v ing to ne go t i a t e no t on ly w i th pa r t i e s a nd

le g i s l a to r s , bu t a l so w i th va r ious o r ga n iz e d in t e r e s t s . C onse que n t ly ,

a ga ins t t he p r e sume d p r e f e r e nc e s o f some o f i t s t op me mbe r s , t he

e c o n o m i c p o l ic i es o f t h e U r u g u a y a n g o v e r n m e n t w e r e c o n d e m n e d t o

be inc r e me n ta l a nd l imi t e d to qu i t e mode s t goa l s - - suc h a s a c h ie v ing the

d e c e n t p e r f o r m a n c e w e h a v e s e e n . L o o k i n g a t U r u g u a y - - a n d , m o r e

r e c e n t ly , C h i l e - - - one l e a rns a bou t t he d i f f e r e nc e be tw e e n ha v ing o r no t

ha v ing a ne twor k o f i n s t i t u t iona l i z e d powe r s tha t g ive s t e x tu r e to t he

po l i c y - m a k ing p r oc e s s . Or , i n o the r wor ds , a bou t t he d i f f e r e nc e be twe e n

r e p r e se n ta t ive a nd de l e ga t ive de moc r a c y .

T h e C y c l e o f C r i s i s

Now I w i l l f oc us on som e S ou th Am e r ic a n c a se s o f de le ga t ive

de moc r a c y - - Ar ge n t ina , B r a z i l , a nd P e r u . The r e i s no ne e d to de t a i l t he

depth of the c r i s i s tha t these count r ie s inher i ted f rom the i r r e spec t ive


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Guillermo O Donnell 65

a u tho r i t a r i a n r e g ime s . S uc h a c r i s i s ge ne r a t e s a s t r ong se nse o f u r ge nc y

a nd p r ov ide s f e r t il e t e rr a in f o r un l e a sh ing the de l e ga t ive p r ope n s i t i e s t ha t

m a y b e p r e s e n t i n a g i v e n c o u n t r y . P r o b l e m s a n d d e m a n d s m o u n t u p

b e f o r e i n e x p e r ie n c e d g o v e r n m e n t s t h a t m u s t o p e r a te t h r o u g h a w e a k a n d

d i sa r t i c u l a t e d ( i f no t d i s loya l ) bu r e a uc r a c y . P r e s ide n t s ge t e l e c t e d by

p r omis ing tha t t he y - - be ing s t r ong , c ou r a ge ous , a bove pa r t i e s a nd

interests ,

m a c h o s - - w i l l

sa ve the c oun t r y . The i r s i s a go ve r n m e n t o f

sa v io r s (salvadores de la patr ia) . Thi s l e a ds t o a m a g ic a l s ty l e o f

po l i c y ma k ing : t he de l e ga t ive m a nd a te suppose d ly be s tow e d by the

ma jo r i t y , s t r ong po l i t i c a l w i l l , a nd t e c hn ic a l knowle dge shou ld su f f i c e

to f u l fi l l t he s a v io r ' s m i s s ion - - th e pa c k a ge s f o l low a s a c o r o l l a r y .

The longe r a nd de e pe r t he c r i s i s , a nd the l e s s t he c on f ide nc e tha t t he

gove r nme n t w i l l be a b l e t o so lve i t , t he mor e r a t i ona l i t be c ome s f o r

eve ryo ne to ac t : 1 ) in a h ighly d isagg rega ted m anne r , e spec ia l ly in

r e l a t i on to s t a t e a ge nc ie s t ha t ma y he lp t o a l l e v i a t e t he c onse que nc e s o f

the c r i s i s f o r a g ive n g r oup o r s e c to r ( t hus f u r the r we a ke n ing a nd

c o r r up t ing the s t a t e a ppa r a tu s ) ; 2 ) w i th e x t r e me ly sho r t t ime - ho r i z ons ;

a nd 3 ) w i th t he a s sum pt ion tha t e v e r yon e el s e w i l l do the s a me . I n

sho r t , t he r e i s a ge ne r a l s c r a mble f o r na r r ow , sho r t - t e r m a dva n ta ge . Th i s

p r i sone r ' s d i l e mma i s t he e xa c t oppos i t e o f t he c ond i t i ons t ha t f o s t e r

bo th s t r ong de m oc r a t i c i n s ti t u ti ons a nd r e a sona b ly e f f e c t ive wa ys o f

de a l ing w i th p r e s s ing na t iona l p r ob le ms .

Once the in i t ia l hopes a re dashed and the f i r s t packages have fa i led ,

c yn ic i sm a bou t po l i t i c s , po l i t i c i a ns , a nd gove r nme n t be c ome s the

pe r va d ing m ood . I f suc h gov e r nm e n t s w i sh to r e ta in some pop u la r

suppor t , t he y mus t bo th c on t r o l i n f l a t i on a nd imp le me n t soc i a l po l i c i e s

wh ic h show tha t , e ve n though the y c a nno t r a p id ly so lve mos t o f t he

unde r ly ing p r ob le ms , t he y do c a r e a bou t t he f a t e o f t he poo r a nd

( po l i t i c a l l y mor e impor t a n t ) o f t he r e c e n t ly impove r i she d se gme n t s o f

the middle c la ss . But min imal though i t may be , th i s i s a ve ry ta l l

o r de r . The se two goa l s a r e e x t r e me ly d i f f i c u l t t o ha r mon iz e , a t l e a s t i n

the sho r t r un - - a nd f o r suc h f l imsy gove r nme n t s l i t t l e o the r t ha n the

shor t run counts .

Gove r nme n t s l i ke t o e n joy sus t a ine d popu la r suppor t , a nd po l i t i c i a ns

wa n t t o be r e e l e c t e d . On ly i f t he p r e d ic a me n t s de sc r ibe d a bove we r e

so lva b le w i th in t he b r i e f c ompa ss o f a p r e s ide n t i a l t e r m wou ld e l e c to r a l

suc c e s s be a t r i umph in s t e a d o f a c u r se . How doe s one w in e l e c t ion

a nd how, onc e e l e c t e d , doe s one gove r n in t h i s t ype o f s i t ua t ion? Qu i t e

o b v i o u s l y - - a n d m o s t d e s t r u c t i v e l y i n t e r m s o f t h e b u i l d i n g o f p u b l i c

t r u s t t h a t h e l p s a d e m o c r a c y t o c o n s o l i d a t e - - b y s a y i n g o n e t h i n g d u r i n g

the c a mpa ign a nd do ing the c on t r a r y whe n in o f f i c e . Of c ou r se ,

i n s t i t u t i ona l i z e d de moc r a c i e s a r e no t immune to t h i s t r i c k , bu t t he

c onse que nc e s a r e mor e de va s t a t i ng whe n the r e a r e f e w a nd we a k

ins ti t u ti ons a nd a de e p soc io e c on om ic cr is i s a f fl i c ts t he c oun t r y .

P r e s ide n t s ha ve ga ine d e l e c t ion in Ar ge n t ina , B o l iv i a , Ec ua dor , a nd P e r u


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66 Journal o f Democracy

b y p r o m i s i n g e x P a n s i o n i s t e c o n o m i c p o l i c i e s a n d m a n y o t h e r g o o d

th ings t o c ome w i th t he m, on ly to e na c t s e ve r e s t a b i l i z a t ion pa c ka ge s

imme d ia t e ly o r sho r t l y a f t e r e n t e r ing o f f i c e . W ha te ve r t he me r i t s o f suc h

po l i c i e s f o r a g ive n c oun t r y a t a g ive n t ime , t he i r su r p r i s e a dop t ion doe s

no th ing to p r omote pub l i c t r u s t , pa r t i c u l a r ly i f t he i r imme d ia t e a nd mos t

v i s ib l e impa c t f u r the r de p r e s se s t he a l r e a dy low s t a nda r d o f l i v ing o f

mos t o f t he popu la t ion .

Mor e ove r , t he v i r t ua l e xc lus ion o f pa r t i e s a nd c ongr e s s f r om suc h

mome n tous de c i s ions ha s s e ve r a l ma l ign c onse que nc e s . F i r s t , whe n the

e xe c u t ive f i na l ly , a nd ine v i t a b ly , ne e ds l e g i s l a t i ve suppor t , he i s bound

to f ind a congress tha t i s r e sen t fu l and fee ls no respons ib i l i ty for

po l i c i e s i t ha d no ha nd in ma k ing . S e c ond , t he c ongr e s s i s f u r the r

we a k e ne d by i t s ow n hos t i le a nd a lo o f a t ti t ude , c om bine d w i th the

e xe c u t iv e ' s pub l i c c ond e m na t ions o f i ts s l owne ss a nd i r r e spons ib i l i t y .

Th i r d , t he se squa bb le s p r omote a sha r p de c l ine i n t he p r e s t i ge o f a l l

pa r t i e s a nd po l i t i c i a ns , a s op in ion po l l s f r om ma ny La t in Ame r i c a n a nd

pos t c ommuni s t c oun t r i e s a bunda n t ly show. F ina l ly , t he r e su l t i ng

ins t i t u t i ona l we a kne ss ma ke s i t e ve r mor e d i f f i c u l t t o a c h ie ve the o the r

ma g ic a l so lu t ion wh e n the pa c ka g e s f a il : the soc ioe c o nom ic pa c t.

r o m O m n i p o t e n c e t o I m p o t e n c e

I f we c ons ide r t ha t t he l og i c o f de l e ga t ion a l so me a ns tha t t he

e xe c u t ive doe s no th ing to s t r e ng the n the j ud i c i a r y , t he r e su l t i ng de a r th

o f e f f e c t ive a nd a u to nom ous in s t it u t i ons p l a c e s imm e nse r e spons ib il i ty

on the p r e s ide n t . R e me mbe r t ha t t he t yp i c a l i nc umbe n t i n a DD ha s

won e l e c t ion by p r omis ing to s a ve the c oun t r y w i thou t muc h c os t t o

a nyone , ye t soon ga mble s t he f a t e o f h i s gove r nme n t on po l i c i e s t ha t

en ta i l subs tan t ia l cos ts for many pa r t s of the popula t ion . This r e su l t s in

po l i c y ma k ing unde r c ond i t i ons o f de spa i r : t he sh i f t f r om wide

popula r i ty to genera l v i l i f ica t ion can be as r ap id as i t i s d ramat ic . The

r e su lt is a c u r ious mix tu r e o f gov e r nm e n ta l om nipo te nc e a nd im po te nc e .

Omnipo te nc e be g ins w i th t he spe c t a c u la r e na c tme n t o f t he f i r s t po l i c y

pa c ka ge s a nd c on t inue s w i th a f l u r r y o f de c i s ions a ime d a t

c omple me n t ing those pa c ka ge s a nd , una vo ida b ly , c o r r e c t ing the i r

nume r ous unwa n te d c onse que nc e s . Th i s a c c e n tua t e s t he a n t i - i n s t i t u t i ona l

b i a s o f DDs a nd r a t i f i e s t r a d i t i ons o f h igh pe r sona l i z a t ion a nd

c onc e n t r a t i on o f powe r i n t he e xe c u t ive . The o the r s ide o f t he c o in i s

e x t r e m e we a kne ss i n m a k ing those de c i s ions i n to e f f e c t ive l ong - t e r m

regula t ions of soc ie ta l l i f e .

As no te d a bove , i n s t i t u t i ona l i z e d de moc r a c i e s a r e s low a t ma k ing

de c i s ions . B u t onc e those de c i s ions a r e ma de , t he y a r e r e l a t i ve ly mor e

l ike ly to be implemented . In DDs, in cont ras t , we wi tness a

de c i s ion - m a k ing f r e nz y , wha t i n La t in Am e r i c a we c a l l d e c r e t i s m o

B e c a use suc h ha s ty , un i l a t e r a l e xe c u t ive o r de r s a r e l i ke ly t o o f f e nd


15/17

Guillermo O Donnell

7

impor t a n t a nd po l i t i c a l l y mob i l i z e d in t e r e s t s , t he y a r e un l ike ly t o be

imp le me n te d . I n t he mids t o f a s e ve r e c r i s i s a nd inc r e a s ing popu la r

impa t i e nc e , t he upsho t i s u sua l ly ne w f lu r r i e s o f de c i s ions wh ic h ,

be c a use o f t he e xpe r i e nc e ma ny se c to r s ha ve ha d in re s i s ti ng the

p r e v ious one s , a r e e ve n l e s s l i ke ly t o be imp le me n te d . F u r the r mor e ,

be c a use o f t he wa y those de c i s ions a r e ma de , mos t po l i t i c a l , soc i a l , a nd

e c onomic a ge n t s c a n d i sc l a im r e spons ib i l i t y . P owe r wa s de l e ga t e d to t he

p r e s ide n t , a nd he d id wha t he de e me d be s t . As f a i l u r e s a c c umula t e , t he

c oun t r y f i nds i t s e l f s t uc k w i th a w ide ly r e v i l e d p re s ide n t wh ose g oa l i s

j u s t t o ha ng on un t i l t he e nd o f h i s t e r m. The r e su l t i ng pe r iod o f

pa s s iv i ty a nd d i sa r r a y o f pub l i c po l i c y doe s no th ing to he lp t he s i t ua t ion

o f t he c oun t r y .

G ive n th i s s c e na r io , t he na tu r a l ou t c om e in La t in A m e r i c a in t he

pa s t wou ld ha ve be e n a suc c e s s f u l c oup d ' e t a t . C le a r ly , DDs , be c a use

o f t he i r i n s t i t u t i ona l we a kne sse s a nd e r r a t i c pa t t e r n s o f po l i c y ma k ing ,

a r e mor e p r one to i n t e r r up t ion a nd b r e a kdown tha n r e p r e se n ta t ive

d e m o c r a c i es . A t th e m o m e n t , h o w e v e r - - f o r r e a so n s m o s t l y li n k ed t o t h e

in t er na t iona l c on te x t , wh ic h I c a nno t d i s c us s he r e DD s e xh ib i t a ra the r

r e ma r ka b le c a pa c i ty f o r e ndu r a nc e . W i th t he pa r t i a l e xc e p t ion o f P e r u ,

whe r e t he c ons t i t u t i ona l b r e a kdown wa s l e d by i t s de l e ga t ive p r e s ide n t ,

no suc c e s s f u l c oups d ' e t a t ha ve t a ke n p l a c e .

T h e e c o n o m i c p o l i cy u n d e r ta k e n b y D D s i s n o t a l w a y s c o n d e m n e d

to be w ide ly pe r c e ive d a s a f a i l u r e , pa r t i c u l a r ly i n t he a f t e r ma th o f

hype r in f l a t i on o r l ong pe r iods o f e x t r e m e ly h igh in f la t ion , j~ Th i s i s t he

c a se i n Ar ge n t ina t oda y unde r P r e s ide n t Me ne m, a l t hough i t i s no t c l e a r

how sus t a ina b le t he impr ov e d e c on om ic s i t ua tion is . B u t suc h e c o no m ic

a c h ie ve me n t s , a s we l l a s t he mor e sho r t - l i ve d one s o f C o l lo r ( B r a z i l ) ,

A l f ons in ( Ar ge n t ina ) , a nd Ga r c i a ( P e r u ) a t t he he igh t o f t he a ppa r e n t

suc c e s se s o f t he i r e c onomic pa c ka ge s , c a n l e a d a p r e s ide n t t o g ive t he

u l t ima te p r oo f o f t he e x i s t e nc e o f a de l e ga t ive de m oc r a c y . A s long a s

the i r po l i c i e s a r e r e c ogn iz e d a s suc c e s s f u l by e l e c to r a l ly we igh ty

se gme n t s o f t he popu la t ion , de l e ga t ive p r e s ide n t s f i nd i t s imp ly

a bhor r e n t t ha t t he i r t e r ms shou ld be c ons t i t u t i ona l ly l imi t e d ; how c ou ld

the se f o r m a l l imi t a t ions p r e c lude the c on t inua t ion o f t he i r p r ov ide n t i a l

m i s s i o n ? C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e y p r o m o t e - - b y m e a n s t h a t f u r t h e r w e a k e n

wh a te ve r ho r iz on ta l a c c oun ta b i l i ty s t il l e x i s t s - - c o ns t i t u t i on a l r e f o r m s tha t

would a l low the i r r ee lec t ion or , f a i l ing th is , the i r cont inua t ion a t the

a pe x o f gov e r nm e n t a s p rime m in i s te r s i n a pa r l i a me n ta r y r e g ime . Od d ly

e nough , suc c e s s f u l de l e ga t ive p r e s ide n t s , a t l e a s t wh i l e t he y be l i e ve the y

a r e s u c c e s s f u l , m a y b e c o m e p r o p o n e n t s o f s o m e f o r m o f

pa r l i a me n ta r i sm. I n c on t r a s t , t h i s k ind o f ma ne uve r wa s ou t o f t he

que s t ion in t he c a se s o f t he qu i t e suc c e s s f u l P r e s ide n t S a ngu ine t t i o f

Ur ugua y a nd the ve r y suc c e s s f u l P r e s ide n t Ay lwin o f C h i l e , howe ve r

muc h the y migh t ha ve l i ke d to c on t inue in powe r . Aga in , we f ind a

c r uc ia l d i f f e r e nc e be tw e e n r e p r e se n ta t ive a nd de l e ga t ive de m oc r a c y . ~


16/17


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Guillermo O'Donnell

6 9

U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 89 ). I d r a w f u r t h e r d i s t i n c t io n s c o n c e r n i n g v a r i o u s c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s o f

p o l y a r c h i e s in a r e c e n l p a p e r e n t i tl e d O n t h e S t a t e, D e m o c r a t i z a ti o n a n d S o m e C o n c e p t u a l

P r o b l e m s ( A L a t i n A m e r i c a n V i e w w i t h G l a n c e s a t S o m e P o s t - C o m m u n i s t C o u n t r i e s ),

Worm Development 2 1 ( 1 9 9 3 ) : 1 3 5 5 - 6 9 ( a l so p u b l i s h e d a s K e l l o g g I n s t i tu t e W o r k i n g P a p e r

No. 192 (Apr i l 1993) .

3 . F o r a m o r e d e ta i l ed d i s c u s s i o n , s e e m y e s s a y T r a n s i t i o n s , C o n t i n u i t i e s a n d

P a r a d o x e s i n S c o t t M a i n w a r i n g , G u i l l e r m o O ' D o n n e l l , a n d J. S a m u e l V a l e n z u e l a , e d s . ,

Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in

Comparative Perspective

( N o t r e D a m e , I n d i a n a : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e P r e s s , 1 9 9 2 ),

17 - 56 .

4 . A d a m P r z e w o r s k i , Democracy as a Contingent Outcome of Conflicts, in Jon E l s t e r

a n d R u m e S l a g s t a d , e d s . , Constitutionalism and Democracy ( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e

Unive r s i t y P r e s s , 1988) , 59 - 80 .

5 . W o l f g a n g S tr ee c k a n d P h il i p p e C . S ch m i t t e r, C o m m u n i t y , M a rk e t , S t a t e - - a n d

A s s o c i a t i o n s ? T h e P r o s p e c t iv e C o n t r i b u t i o n o f I n t e re s t G o v e r n a n c e t o S o c i a l O r d e r , i n

W o l f g a n g S t r e e c k a n d P h i l i p p e C . S c h m i t t e r , e d s . , Private Interest Government: Beyond

Market and State ( London : S a ge P ub l i c a t ions , 1985) , 1 - 29 .

6 . S e e J a m e s M a r c h a n d J o h a n O l s e n , Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational

Basis of Politics

( Ne w Yor k : The F r e e P r e s s , 1989) .

7 . A p r i s o n e r ' s d i l e m m a e x i s t s w h e n , e v e n i f al l o f t h e a g e n t s in v o l v e d c o u l d m a k e

t h e m s e l v e s b e tt e r o f f b y c o o p e r a t i n g a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s , it n o n e t h e l e s s p r o v e s r a ti o n a l f o r

e a c h o f t he m , i r r e spe c t ive o f wha t t he o the r s de c ide , no t t o c oope r a t e . I n t h i s s e nse ,

i n s t i t u t i o n s m a y b e s e e n a s s o c i a l i n v e n t i o n s t h a t s e r v e t o m a k e c o o p e r a t i o n t h e r a t i o n a l

p r e f e r e nc e .

8 . Ar tu r o Va le nz ue la , 'La t in Am e r i c a : P r e s ide n t i a l i sm in C r i s i s ,

Journal of Democracy

4 ( Oc tobe r 1993): 17 , no t e s t ha t a l l o f t he c ou n t r i e s ( e xc e p t f o r P a r a g ua y ) t ha t d r a f t e d

n e w c o n s t i t u t i o n s i n th e 1 9 8 0 s a n d e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s ( G u a t e m a l a , E1 S a l v a d o r , C o l o m b i a ,

E c u a d o r , P e r u , C h i l e , a n d B r a z il ) i n s t i tu t e d t h e F r e n c h s y s t e m o f a ballotuge, o r s e c o n d

r o u n d , f o r p re s i d en t i al r a c e s . O f t h e s e c o u n t r i e s , G u a t e m a l a a n d E l S a l v a d o r d i d n o t

q u a l i f y a s p o l y a r c h i e s , C h i l e ' s c o n s t i t u t i o n w a s a p r o d u c t o f t h e P i n o c h e t r e g i m e , a n d

E c u a d o r , P e r u , a n d B r a z i l a r e a m o n g t h e p u r e s t c a s e s o f D D .

9 . G i o r g i o A l b e r t i h a s i n s i s t e d o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f movimientismo a s a d o m i n a n t

f e a t u re o f p o l i ti c s in m a n y L a t i n A m e r i c a n c o u n t ri e s . S e e h i s D e m o c r a c y b y D e f a u l t ,

E c o n o m i c C r i s is , a n d S o c ia l A n o m i e i n L a ti n A m e r i c a ( P a p e r p r e s e n te d to t h e T w e n t y -

f i ft h W o r l d C o n g r e s s o f P o l it ic a l S c i e n c e , B u e n o s A i r e s , 1 9 9 1 ).

1 0. I d i s c u s s th e s e t h e m e s i n m y e s s a y O n t h e S ta t e , D e m o c r a t i z a ti o n , a n d S o m e

C o n c e p t u a l P r o b l e m s , c i te d i n n o t e 2 ab o v e .

1 1. I d o n o t i g n o r e t h e i m p o r t a n t d i s c u s s i o n s c u r r e n t l y u n d e r w a y a b o u t v a r i o u s f o r m s

o f p r e s i d e n t i a l i s m a n d p a r l i a m e n t a r i s m , o f w h i c h r e c e n t a n d i n t e r e st i n g e x p r e s s i o n s a r e

S c o t t M a i n w a r i n g a n d M a t t h e w S h u g a r t , J u a n L i n z , P r e s i d e n ti a l i s m , a n d D e m o c r a c y : A

C r i ti c a l A p p r a i s a l, K e l l o g g I n s t it u t e W o r k i n g P a p e r N o . 2 0 0 ( J u ly 1 9 9 3 ) ; A l f r e d S t e p a n

a n d C i n d y S k a c h , C o n s t i t u t i o n a l F r a m e w o r k s a n d D e m o c r a t i c C o n s o l i d a t i o n :

P a r l i a m e n t a r i s m v e r s u s P r e s i d e n t i a l i s m , World Politics 46 ( Oc tobe r 1993) : 1 - 22 ; a nd

Ar tu r o Va le nz ue la , 'La tin Am e r i c a : P r e s ide n t i a l i sm in C r i s i s , c i t e d in no te 8 a bove . In

the p r e se n t t e x t 1 d i sc u ss pa t t e r ns t ha t a re i nd e pe n de n t o f t hose in s t i t u t i ona l f a c to r s ,

a l t h o u g h t h e y m a y b e c o n v e r g e n t i n t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s . C l e a r l y , p r e s i d e n t i a l i s m h a s m o r e

a f f i n i t y w i t h D D t h a n p a r l i a m e n t a r i s m . H o w e v e r , i f d e l e g a t i v e p r o p e n s i t i e s a r e s t r o n g i n

a g i v e n c o u n t r y , t h e w o r k i n g s o f a p a r l i a m e n t a r y s y s t e m c o u l d b e r a t h e r e a s i l y s u b v e r t e d

o r l e a d t o i m p a s s e s e v e n w o r s e t h a n t h e o n e s d i s c u s s e d h e r e.

1 2. 1 m u s t r e fe r a g a i n t o m y e s s a y O n t h e S t at e . D e m o c r a t i z a t i o n , a n d S o m e

C o n c e p t u a l P r o b l e m s , c i te d i n n o t e 2 a b o v e .

Documents

O'Donnell 1994 Delegative Democracy