ISLAMIC HISTORYA FRAMEWORK FOR INQUIRY

REVISED EDITION

R. STEPHEN HUMPHREY S

PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS

PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY

Humphreys, Stephen "The sources: an analytical survey". Islamichistory: a framework for inquiry. Princeton, NJ: PrincetonUniversity Press, 1991. 25-65

ISBN: 0691031452 MASON/OCR SAS14091813.pdf

.4 S

OO

*CE

S A

ND

RE

SE

AR

CH

TO

OL

S

2.Un

iver

sity

of C

hica

go. C

atal

og o

f the

Mid

dle

East

Col

lect

ion.

Firs

t Sup

ple-

men

t (19

77).

3.Ne

w Yo

rk P

ublic

Lib

rary

, Ref

eren

ce D

epar

tmen

t. D

ictio

nary

Cat

alog

of t

heO

rient

al C

olle

ctio

n (1

6 vol

s., 19

60).

4.Ne

w Yo

rk kt

p, blic

Lib

rary

, the

Res

earc

h Li

brar

ies. D

ictio

nary

Cat

alog

of t

he

Orie

ntal

Col

lect

ion

Firs

t Sup

plem

ent (

8 vol

s., 19

76).

5.Ha

rvard

Univ

eiNity

. Cat

alog

ue o

f Ara

bic,

Per

sian,

and

Otto

man

Tur

kish

Boo

ks(5

vols.

, 196

8).

6.H

arva

rd U

nive

rsit

Cat

alog

of t

he A

rabi

c C

olle

ctio

n (6

vols.

, 198

3).

7.Sc

hool

of O

rient

al

Afric

an S

tudi

es, U

nive

rsity

of L

ondo

n. Li

brar

y C

ata-

logu

e (2

8 vg

ls., 1

963)

. Fir

stup

plem

ent (

16 v

ols.,

196

8). S

econ

d Su

pple

men

t (16

vols.

, 197

3). T

hird

Sup

plem

ent 9

vol

s., 19

79).

8.Br

itish

Mus

eum

. Cat

alog

ue )9

1 A

rabi

c Pr

inte

d Bo

oks i

n th

e Br

itish

Mus

eum

(3vo

ls., 1

894-

1901

). Su

pple

men

tary

eci

talo

gue

(192

6). S

econ

d Su

pple

men

tary

Cat

a-

logu

e (1

959)

.9.

Briti

sh L

ibra

ry. T

hird

Sup

plem

enta

ry C

atal

ogue

of A

rabi

c Pr

inte

d B

ooks

inth

e B

ritis

h Li

brar

y, 1

958-

1969

(4 vo

ls., 1

977)

.10

.Brit

ish M

useu

m. A

Cat

alog

ue o

f Per

sian

Prin

ted

Boo

ks in

the

Brit

ish

Mu-

seum

(192

2).

As c

ompu

ter t

echn

olog

y an

d ac

cess

impr

oves

, it i

s pos

sible

that

such

mas

sive

com

pila

tions

will

bec

ome

obso

lete

. But

unt

il pr

ogra

mm

ers d

evis

e ad

equa

tetra

nslit

erat

ions

and

reco

rd th

e m

ount

ain

of e

xist

ing

bibl

iogr

aphy

, cat

alog

s of

this

kind

will

rem

ain

an e

ssen

tial p

art o

f the

scho

lar's

repe

rtory

.

Cha

pter

Tw

o

THE

SOU

RC

ES

AN

AN

ALY

TICA

L SU

RVEY

ISLA

MIS

TS li

ke to

com

plai

n ab

out t

he st

ate

of th

eir s

ourc

es, b

ut in

fact

wha

t the

y ha

ve is

ext

raor

dina

rily

rich

and

varie

d, fa

r sur

pass

ing

the

mise

r-ab

le fr

agm

ents

whi

ch c

halle

nge

the

stud

ent o

f the

late

Rom

an E

mpi

re o

rea

rly m

edie

val E

urop

e. T

he re

al p

robl

em is

to u

se th

is pa

trim

ony

effe

ctiv

ely.

To a

larg

e de

gree

that

is a

mat

ter o

f ask

ing

good

que

stion

s, bu

t goo

d qu

estio

nsin

turn

dep

end

on u

nder

stand

ing

the

char

acte

r of o

ne's

sour

ces.

The

aim

of t

his

chap

ter,

then

, is t

o ou

tline

the

mat

eria

ls a

t our

dis

posa

l, an

d to

sugg

est i

nge

nera

l ter

ms w

hat k

inds

of q

uest

ions

thes

e ca

n an

d ca

nnot

ans

wer

. Ide

ally

such

a su

rvey

wou

ld b

e ba

sed

on so

me

rigor

ous a

nd th

eore

tical

ly sa

tisfy

ing

clas

sific

atio

n, a

nd se

vera

l hist

oria

ns h

ave

mad

e va

luab

le e

fforts

in th

is di

rec-

tion.

(An

old

but v

ery

good

exa

mpl

e is

Erns

t Ber

nhei

m, L

ehrb

uch

der h

isto

ris-

chen

Met

hode

[5th

-6th

rev.

ed.

, 190

8], 2

55-2

59, 4

65-5

06.)

In th

e en

d, h

ow-

ever

, I h

ave

foun

d su

ch c

lass

ifica

tions

not

rigo

rous

but

rigi

d, fo

r any

giv

ensy

stem

can

refle

ct o

nly

one

of m

any

poss

ible

per

spec

tives

on

the

past.

I ha

veth

us c

hose

n to

arra

nge

my

disc

ussio

n sim

ply

acco

rdin

g to

the

exte

rnal

feat

ures

of th

e so

urce

s: w

ritte

n or

non

-writ

ten,

pap

er o

r dur

able

subs

tanc

es li

ke m

etal

and

stone

, lite

rary

or d

ocum

enta

ry in

form

. Wha

teve

r may

be l

ost i

n th

eore

tical

soph

istic

atio

n w

ill, I

hop

e, b

e ga

ined

in c

larit

y an

d fle

xibi

lity.

A. N

AR

RA

TIV

E A

ND

LIT

ERA

RY

TEX

TS

Und

er th

is he

adin

g I i

nclu

de a

ll th

ose

wor

ks w

hich

wer

e w

ritte

n fo

r gen

eral

circ

ulat

ion

amon

g so

me

broa

d an

d lo

osel

y de

fined

gro

up o

f int

eres

ted

pers

ons,

rath

er th

an c

ompo

sed

as a

dire

ct in

strum

ent o

f bus

ines

s or a

dmin

istra

tion.

Inth

e fra

mew

ork

of th

is bo

ok, o

f cou

rse,

the

mos

t im

porta

nt g

enre

of s

uch

writ

-in

gs w

ould

be

chro

nicl

es a

nd b

iogr

aphi

cal d

ictio

narie

s. Bu

t thi

s cat

egor

y in

-cl

udes

man

y ot

her t

hing

s as w

ell:

adm

inis

trativ

e ha

ndbo

oks,

anth

olog

ies o

fen

terta

inin

g an

d ed

ifyin

g an

ecdo

tes,

juris

prud

ence

, lyr

ic a

nd sa

tiric

al p

oetry

,fo

lklo

re, e

tc. I

t see

ms a

ver

y di

spar

ate

lot,

but m

ater

ial w

hich

has

littl

e to

offe

rth

e st

uden

t of p

oliti

cs m

ay h

ave

muc

h fo

r a h

isto

rian

of so

cial

mor

es a

ndva

lues

. In

any

case

it is

a g

rave

erro

r to

excl

ude

a pr

iori

any

lite

rary

gen

re a

sa

poss

ible

sour

ce o

f evi

denc

e w

hate

ver t

he n

atur

e of

one

's su

bjec

t.O

bvio

usly

we

cann

ot e

xpec

t to

achi

eve

anyt

hing

of v

alue

just

by p

lung

ing

into

a p

ile o

f tex

ts. O

n th

e m

ost e

lem

enta

ry le

vel,

it is

esse

ntia

l to

begi

n w

ith

26 S

OU

RC

ES

AN

D R

ES

EA

RC

H T

OO

LS

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

27

a su

rvey

of a

ll th

e so

urce

s whi

ch m

ay p

erta

in to

the

prob

lem

und

er in

vesti

ga-

tion,

and

to d

eter

min

e th

e re

latio

nshi

ps (b

orro

win

gs, c

omm

on so

urce

s, et

c.)

amon

g th

em. M

oreo

ver,

since

the

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

any

text

dep

ends

on

an u

n-de

rsta

ndin

g of

its c

once

ptua

l stru

ctur

e an

d rh

etor

ic, w

e ne

ed to

acq

uire

a b

road

over

view

of t

he sc

ient

ific-

liter

ary

tradi

tion

with

in w

hich

it w

as c

ompo

sed.

The

intro

duct

ions

to A

rabi

c, P

ersi

an, a

nd T

urki

sh p

hilo

logy

dis

cuss

edab

ove

(p. 1

2) c

an b

e a

usef

ul b

egin

ning

for s

uch

task

s, bu

t ser

ious

wor

k re

sts

on a

serie

s of b

io-b

iblio

grap

hic

wor

ks w

hich

surv

ey in

det

ail t

he w

hole

rang

eof

lite

rary

pro

duct

ion

in th

e cl

assi

cal I

slam

ic la

ngua

ges.

Non

e of

thes

e is

or

coul

d be

wh9

lly a

dequ

ate:

all

are

affli

cted

with

an

inev

itabl

e qu

ota

of g

aps a

nder

rors

, and

all

are

on th

e ro

ad to

obs

oles

cenc

e th

e m

omen

t the

y ar

e pu

blish

ed.

Even

so th

ey a

re th

e in

disp

ensa

ble

foun

datio

n fo

r res

earc

h in

Isla

mic

stud

ies,

a hi

storia

n's m

ost c

onsta

nt c

ompa

nion

s.Th

e m

ost f

amou

s of t

hese

is c

erta

inly

Car

l Bro

ckel

man

n, G

esch

icht

e de

rar

abis

chen

Litt

erat

ur (a

bbr.

GA

L). T

his i

s in

fact

not

a "h

istor

y" a

t all,

but

an

anno

tate

d re

perto

ry o

f Ara

bic

man

uscr

ipts,

arr

ange

d by

aut

hor a

nd o

rgan

ized

in a

gen

eral

ly c

hron

olog

ical

ord

er. F

or e

ach

auth

or w

e ar

e gi

ven

a ca

psul

ebi

ogra

phy,

a sh

ort l

ist o

f ref

eren

ces (

both

sour

ces a

nd st

udie

s) fo

r his

life,

and

a bi

blio

grap

hy o

f his

ext

ant w

orks

com

pris

ing

both

man

uscr

ipts

and

prin

ted

editi

ons.

GA

L ha

s a c

ompl

ex p

ublic

atio

n hi

stor

y an

d th

us c

an b

e so

mew

hat

conf

usin

g an

d cu

mbe

rsom

e to

use

: 2 v

ols.,

189

8-19

02; 3

supp

lem

enta

ry v

ol-

umes

, 193

7-42

; rev

ised

editi

on o

f the

orig

inal

Vol

s. I-

11,1

943-

49. T

he th

ree

supp

lem

enta

ry v

olum

es d

id n

ot in

any

way

repl

ace

the

orig

inal

two,

but

onl

yad

ded

new

mat

eria

ls—

auth

ors,

wor

ks, o

r add

ition

al m

anus

crip

ts. F

or a

nyto

pic,

then

, bot

h th

e or

igin

al a

nd su

pple

men

tary

vol

umes

mus

t be

cons

ulte

d.B

y th

e tim

e th

e su

pple

men

tary

vol

umes

had

bee

n pu

blis

hed,

ther

e w

as st

illm

ore

mat

eria

l to

be in

clud

ed, b

ut th

is ti

me

it w

as d

one

thro

ugh

a th

orou

ghre

visi

on o

f the

orig

inal

two

volu

mes

. The

revi

sed

Vol

s. I-

II w

ere

of c

ours

ere

pagi

nate

d, b

ut th

e or

igin

al p

age

num

bers

of t

he 1

898-

1902

edi

tion

wer

ere

tain

ed in

the

mar

gins

, so

as to

faci

litat

e us

e of

the

indi

ces a

nd c

ross

-ref

er-

ence

s in

the

supp

lem

enta

ry v

olum

es. I

n sc

hola

rly u

sage

, cita

tions

are

alw

ays

mad

e to

the o

rigin

al p

agin

atio

n of

Vol

s. 1-

11, a

lthou

gh ev

eryo

ne is

in fa

ct re

fer-

ring

to th

e da

ta o

f the

revi

sed

editi

on.

The

auth

or a

nd ti

tle in

dice

s for

the

entir

e se

t are

loca

ted

in S

uppl

emen

tban

d11

1. T

he a

lpha

betiz

atio

n fo

r the

aut

hors

' nam

es d

iffer

s som

ewha

t fro

m n

orm

alus

age,

but

Bro

ckel

man

n ex

plai

ns h

is ru

les c

lear

ly. A

utho

rs c

an n

orm

ally

be

loca

ted

both

und

er th

eir "

com

mon

" nam

es (a

l-Tab

ari)

and

thei

r giv

en n

ames

(Muh

amm

ad b

. Jar

ir). T

he ti

tle in

dex

unfo

rtuna

tely

giv

es ti

tles w

ithou

t ref

er-

ence

to th

eir a

utho

rs a

nd w

ithou

t ind

icat

ing

diff

eren

t wor

ks u

sing

the

sam

ena

me

or v

aria

nt ti

tles (

whi

ch a

re v

ery

com

mon

) for

a si

ngle

wor

k.Be

yond

such

mec

hani

cal d

iffic

ultie

s, th

ere

are

prob

lem

s inh

eren

t in

GA

L's

orga

niza

tion

and

appr

oach

. GA

L on

ly in

clud

es a

utho

rs a

nd w

orks

for w

hich

we

have

cat

alog

ued

man

uscr

ipts

. As a

resu

lt, B

rock

elm

ann'

s sur

vey

is ra

di-

cally

inco

mpl

ete,

esp

ecia

lly fo

r the

ear

lier p

hase

s of A

rabi

c lit

erat

ure

(dow

n to

the

4th/

10th

cen

tury

or s

o). M

any

writ

ers (

incl

udin

g so

me

of g

reat

hist

oric

alim

porta

nce)

are

not

liste

d at

all,

and

for t

hose

who

are

we

have

onl

y a

parti

alco

nspe

ctus

of t

heir

oeuv

re. N

or c

an w

e le

t our

selv

es b

e m

isle

d by

GA

L's

or-

gani

zatio

n, fo

r eac

h au

thor

is li

sted

onl

y on

ce, u

nder

a si

ngle

(alb

eit b

road

lyde

fined

) lite

rary

gen

re. T

his s

eem

s cle

ar a

nd si

mpl

e en

ough

, but

it le

ads t

onu

mer

ous a

bsur

ditie

s. M

ost a

utho

rs c

ultiv

ated

seve

ral f

ield

s of l

earn

ing,

soth

at w

e co

nsta

ntly

enc

ount

er c

ases

like

that

of I

bn eU

nayn

, a n

oted

7th

/13t

hce

ntur

y sa

tiric

al p

oet l

isted

und

er G

esch

icht

e on

the

stren

gth

of a

sing

le m

isun-

ders

tood

title

. Bro

ckel

man

n's a

chie

vem

ent i

s an

impo

sing

one

, but

a n

aive

user

will

get

littl

e be

nefit

from

it.

An

ambi

tious

and

larg

ely

succ

essf

ul a

ttem

pt to

sup

plan

t G

AL

is F

uat

Sezg

in, G

esch

icht

e de

s ar

abis

chen

Sch

rift

tum

s (a

bbr.

GA

S; 9

vol

s., 1

967–

inpr

ogre

ss).

The

volu

mes

so fa

r iss

ued

cove

r onl

y th

e pe

riod

dow

n to

430

/104

0,an

d ev

en w

ithin

thes

e lim

its su

ch m

ajor

gen

res a

s geo

grap

hy, p

hilo

soph

y, a

ndbe

lles-

lettr

es re

mai

n to

be

deal

t with

. How

man

y to

mes

will

be

requ

ired

toco

mpl

ete

this

vast

ent

erpr

ise is

alm

ost b

eyon

d ca

lcul

atio

n; fo

urte

en a

re p

ro-

ject

ed fo

r the

firs

t per

iod

alon

e:

1.Q

ur'an

wiss

ensc

hafte

n, H

adit,

Ges

chic

hte,

Fig

h, D

ogm

atik

, Mys

tik (

1967

)2.

Poes

ie (1

975)

3.M

ediz

in-P

harm

azie

, Zoo

logi

e-Ti

erhe

ilkun

de (1

971)

4.A

lchi

mie

-Che

mie

, Bot

anik

-Agr

ikul

tur (

1971

)5.

Mat

hem

atik

(197

4)6.

Astr

onom

ie (1

978)

7.A

strol

ogie

-Met

eoro

logi

e an

d V

erw

andt

es (

1979

)8.

Lexi

cogr

aphi

e (1

982)

9.G

ram

mat

ik (1

984)

10-1

1. L

itera

tur (

Lite

ratu

rges

chic

hte,

Lite

ratu

rthe

orie

, Erb

auun

gslit

erat

ur,

Kun

stpro

sa) (

in p

repa

ratio

n)12

.Phy

sik-T

echn

ik, G

eogr

aphi

e, M

usik

(in

prep

arat

ion)

13.P

hilo

soph

ie, L

ogik

, Eth

ik, P

olla

k (i

n pr

epar

atio

n)14

.Ein

fiihr

ung

in d

ie G

esch

icht

e de

r ara

bisc

h-is

larn

isch

en V

Vis

sens

chaf

ten

(inpr

epar

atio

n)

Alth

ough

Sez

gin

is by

no

mea

ns im

mun

e to

am

bigu

ity a

nd e

rror

, his

wor

ksu

rpas

ses i

ts p

rede

cess

or in

man

y ar

eas.

Firs

t, it

is ba

sed

on a

muc

h br

oade

rsu

rvey

of A

rabi

c m

anus

crip

ts. S

ezgi

n ha

s ben

efitt

ed fr

om th

e en

erge

tic e

fforts

of M

uslim

scho

lars

in re

cent

dec

ades

to re

cord

the

hold

ings

in th

eir c

ount

ries'

libra

ries a

nd to

col

lect

new

man

uscr

ipts.

(In

the

latte

r reg

ard

the

Ara

b Le

ague

'sco

llect

ion

of p

hoto

grap

hed

man

uscr

ipts

from

all

over

the

Mus

lim w

orld

, in-

clud

ing

man

y pr

ivat

e co

llect

ions

, is e

spec

ially

not

ewor

thy.

) To

this

he c

an a

ddhi

s ow

n un

rival

led

know

ledg

e of

the

imm

ense

hol

ding

s of T

urki

sh li

brar

ies,

not o

nly

thos

e of

Ista

nbul

but

of m

any

prov

inci

al c

ente

rs a

s wel

l. H

is su

rvey

28

SO

UR

CE

S A

ND

RE

SE

AR

CH

TO

OL

S

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

29

is th

us n

ot o

nly

larg

er b

ut fa

r mor

e re

pres

enta

tive

than

Bro

ckel

man

n's.

The

scop

e of

his

eff

orts

can

be

seen

in th

e sy

stem

atic

repe

rtory

of l

ibra

ries a

ndm

anus

crip

t col

lect

ions

giv

en in

Vol

. I, a

nd th

en a

gain

, tho

roug

hly

revi

sed

and

upda

ted,

in V

ol. V

I.Se

cond

, Sez

gin's

phi

lolo

gica

l and

hist

oric

al co

mm

enta

ry o

n ea

ch o

f the

fiel

dsw

hich

he

cove

rs is

muc

h ric

her t

han

Bro

ckel

man

n's.

His

stat

emen

ts a

re a

ttim

es c

ontro

vers

ial o

r ove

rly se

lf-as

sure

d, b

ut th

ey a

re si

gnifi

cant

all

the

sam

e.Fi

nally

, Sez

gin'

s arr

ange

men

t of h

is m

ater

ials

is fo

r som

e pu

rpos

es m

ore

ratio

nal t

han

Broc

kelm

ann'

s, th

ough

it c

an b

e tim

e-co

nsum

ing

to u

se. I

n V

ol.

I he

stick

s to

Broc

kelm

ann'

s pla

n: e

ach

auth

or, w

ith a

ll hi

s ext

ant w

ritin

gs, i

slis

ted

once

lund

er th

e he

adin

g of

a si

ngle

lite

rary

-sci

entif

ic fi

eld.

The

late

rvo

lum

es, h

owev

er, l

ist e

ach

auth

or se

para

tely

with

in e

ach

of th

e fie

lds w

hich

he c

ultiv

ated

. Thu

s, if

we

are

inte

rest

ed in

the

med

ical

writ

ings

of a

n au

thor

know

n al

so fo

r phi

loso

phic

and

mat

hem

atic

al c

once

rns,

we

can

be re

ason

ably

conf

iden

t of f

indi

ng th

em in

Vol

. HI.

On

the

othe

r han

d, if

we

wan

t to

surv

eyal

l the

wor

ks o

f a g

iven

aut

hor o

r to

defin

e a

broa

d in

telle

ctua

l tra

ditio

n, th

eta

sk is

like

ly to

pro

ve p

rofo

undl

y fr

ustra

ting.

Sezg

in fo

cuse

s on

exta

nt a

utho

rs a

nd w

orks

, and

thus

like

Bro

ckel

man

n he

give

s us o

nly

a pa

rtial

surv

ey o

f the

Ara

bic

liter

ary

univ

erse

. How

ever

, he

also

reco

rds w

ritin

gs w

hich

surv

ive

in su

bsta

ntia

l cita

tions

or a

re w

ell a

ttest

ed b

yot

her a

utho

rs; e

spec

ially

for t

he fi

rst t

wo

Isla

mic

cen

turie

s, w

here

so li

ttle

has

com

e do

wn

in it

s orig

inal

form

, thi

s per

mits

a fa

r mor

e ad

equa

te if

som

etim

esm

ore

spec

ulat

ive

pict

ure

than

we

had

from

GA

L.Se

vera

l wor

ks c

an su

pple

men

t GA

L an

d G

AS;

of t

hese

we

shal

l men

tion

thre

e. 1.e U

mar

Ric

la K

abba

la, M

ujam

al-m

u'al

lifin

(15

vols.

, 195

7-61

).K

abba

la g

ives

cap

sule

bio

grap

hies

(arra

nged

in a

lpha

betic

al o

rder

) of a

ll au

thor

s,bo

th m

edie

val a

nd m

odem

, kno

wn

to h

ave

writ

ten

in A

rabi

c, to

geth

er w

ith th

e tit

les

of th

eir m

ajor

wor

ks. H

e lis

ts n

o m

anus

crip

ts b

ut d

oes

give

refe

renc

es to

GAL

.Th

ough

ters

e, h

is en

tries

are

bas

ed o

n a

thor

ough

kno

wle

dge

of th

e A

rabi

c bi

ogra

ph-

ical

lite

ratu

re, i

nclu

ding

sour

ces a

vaila

ble

only

in m

anus

crip

t.2.

Kha

yr a

l-Din

al-Z

irild

i, al

-Ad l

am (1

st ed

., 19

27-2

8; 2

nd re

v. e

d., 1

1 vo

ls. p

lus

supp

lem

ent,

1954

-59;

3rd

rev.

ed.

, 8 v

ols.,

197

9).

A w

ork

simila

r to

the

prec

edin

g th

ough

mor

e br

oadl

y fo

cuse

d, si

nce

it gi

ves t

heliv

es o

f not

able

figu

res i

n A

rab-

Isla

mic

hist

ory

in g

ener

al (i

nclu

ding

maj

or W

este

rnO

rient

alist

s), n

ot ju

st w

riter

s. In

Vol

s. 10

-11,

Ziri

kli p

rodu

ces a

gre

at m

any

facs

imi-

les o

f aut

ogra

ph m

anus

crip

ts, re

ader

's ce

rtific

ates

, etc

. pro

duce

d by

the

auth

ors i

n hi

ssu

rvey

. Bot

h K

abhä

lah

and

Ziril

di in

clud

e 20

th-c

entu

ry fi

gure

s.3.

Haj

ji K

halif

a, K

ashf

al-z

umin

Can

asãm

i al-k

utub

wa q

ium

in: e

d. a

nd tr

ans.

byG

usta

v Fl

iigel

as

Lexi

con

Bib

liogr

aphi

cum

et E

ncyc

lopa

edic

um (7

vol

s., 1

835–

1858

); A

rabi

c te

xt e

d. fr

om th

e au

thor

's au

togr

aph

by S

eref

ettin

Yal

tkay

a an

d K

ilisli

Rifa

t Bilg

e (2

vol

s., 1

941-

43).

The

man

uscr

ipt c

olle

ctio

ns o

f Ista

nbul

hav

e ne

ver b

een

adeq

uate

ly su

rvey

ed a

nd

cata

logu

ed, t

houg

h im

porta

nt st

eps a

re n

ow u

nder

way

(see

bel

ow, p

. 38)

. For

that

reas

on th

is li

th/1

7th

cent

ury

com

pila

tion

by a

n ou

tsta

ndin

g O

ttom

an sc

hola

r (on

who

m se

e "K

atib

Cel

ebi,"

EP,

iv, 7

60-7

62) i

s stil

l a v

ery

usef

ul b

iblio

grap

hic

tool

.H

ajji

Kha

lifa

lists

in a

lpha

betic

al o

rder

som

e 14

,500

title

s of w

orks

ava

ilabl

e in

the

Ista

nbul

libr

arie

s in

his d

ay, e

ach

one

with

a c

apsu

le d

escr

iptio

n of

its a

utho

r and

cont

ents.

In a

dditi

on, h

e in

clud

es a

serie

s of d

iscou

rses

(also

arra

nged

in a

lpha

betic

alor

der)

on

the

vario

us Is

lam

ic sc

ienc

es. T

he K

ashf

al-z

umin

has

no

shel

f-m

arks

or

loca

tions

, but

it d

oes t

ell u

s whe

ther

man

uscr

ipts

of a

par

ticul

ar w

ork

mig

ht b

e fo

und

in Is

tanb

ul (s

ome

have

bee

n lo

st si

nce

the

auth

or's

day,

and

man

y ot

hers

add

ed).

Mor

e th

an th

at, b

ecau

se it

is b

ased

on

a di

rect

surv

ey o

f the

man

uscr

ipts

, it i

s ver

yhe

lpfu

l in

verif

ying

the

auth

ors a

nd ti

tles m

entio

ned

in th

e m

edie

val b

iogr

aphi

cal

dict

iona

ries.

A s

uppl

emen

t to

Haj

ji K

halif

a, w

hich

dra

ws

larg

ely

on li

brar

ies

foun

ded

afte

r his

deat

h, w

as w

ritte

n ar

ound

the

begi

nnin

g of

this

cent

ury:

Bag

dath

Isman

1 Pa

§a, !

;1ä!

t al-m

akni

in ft

al-d

hayl

cal

ã ka

shf a

l-qua

il, e

d. Y

altk

aya

and

Bilg

e(2

vol

s., 1

945-

47).

Impr

essiv

e as

thes

e m

assiv

e su

rvey

s are

, the

y so

met

imes

fail

us, a

nd th

enw

e m

ust h

ave

reco

urse

to th

e m

edie

val I

slam

ic b

iogr

aphi

cal c

ompi

latio

ns.

Her

e Pa

ul A

ucht

erlo

nie,

Ara

bic

Bio

grap

hica

l Dic

tiona

ries

: a S

umm

ary

Gui

dean

d B

iblio

grap

hy (1

987)

, can

be

help

ful.

Auc

hter

loni

e is

very

sele

ctiv

e, b

ut h

eis

judi

ciou

s and

writ

es w

ith th

e pr

actic

al n

eeds

of l

ibra

rians

and

rese

arch

ers i

nm

ind. Sinc

e th

e ov

erw

helm

ing

maj

ority

of a

utho

rs w

ritin

g in

Ara

bic

wer

e M

us-

lims,

it is

natu

ral t

hat B

rock

elm

ann

and

Sezg

in sh

ould

focu

s on

spec

ifica

llyIs

lam

ic sc

ienc

es a

nd li

tera

ry g

enre

s. H

owev

er, A

rabi

c-sp

eaki

ng C

hris

tians

com

pose

d a

very

con

side

rabl

e bo

dy o

f lite

ratu

re a

s wel

l, an

d m

uch

of th

eir

wor

k is

of th

e hi

ghes

t im

porta

nce

for I

slam

ic st

udie

s. It

will

suffi

ce to

men

tion

the

scie

ntifi

c tra

nsla

tions

from

Gre

ek a

nd S

yria

c by

the

Nes

toria

n lju

nayn

b.

Isha

q, o

r the

chr

onic

les o

f the

Mel

kite

Yab

yä a

l-Ant

:aid

and

the

Copt

Saw

irfis

b. a

l-Muq

affa

e. So

me

of th

is m

ater

ial c

an b

e fo

und

in G

AL

and

GA

S, b

ut th

em

ost t

horo

ugh

surv

ey is

Geo

rg G

raf,

Ges

chic

hte

der c

hris

tlich

en a

rabi

sche

nL

itera

tur (

5 vo

ls., 1

944-

53).

A re

late

d bo

dy o

f mat

eria

l is c

over

ed in

Ant

on B

aum

stark

, Ges

chic

hte

der

syri

sche

n L

itera

tur,

mit

Aus

schl

uss

der

chri

stlic

h-pa

liist

inen

sisc

hen

Tex

te(1

922,

repr

inte

d 19

68).

Syria

c w

ritin

g, w

ith it

s foc

us o

n th

eolo

gy, l

iturg

y, a

ndth

e m

iracu

lous

live

s of t

he sa

ints,

may

seem

mar

gina

l to

the

norm

al c

once

rns

of th

e Is

lam

ic h

istor

ian,

but

for c

erta

in to

pics

it is

ver

y im

porta

nt in

deed

. Syr

-ia

c ch

roni

cles

, suc

h as

thos

e by

the

pseu

do-D

iony

sius

of T

ell M

ahre

(fl.

ca.

800)

, Mic

hael

the S

yria

n (d

. 119

9), a

nd B

ar H

ebra

eus (

d. 1

286)

, ofte

n ad

d vi

tal

mat

eria

l to

the

acco

unts

of M

uslim

his

toria

ns. E

spec

ially

for t

he e

arlie

st Is

-la

mic

cen

turie

s, va

luab

le in

form

atio

n an

d pe

rspe

ctiv

es c

an b

e ex

tract

ed fr

omha

giog

raph

y, se

rmon

s, et

c. B

aum

star

k is

mor

e an

inte

grat

ed li

tera

ry h

istor

yth

an th

e ot

her b

io-b

iblio

grap

hic

wor

ks re

view

ed a

bove

, but

in th

e no

tes h

egi

ves c

ompl

ete

man

uscr

ipt r

efer

ence

s.

30 S

OU

RC

ES

AN

D R

ES

EA

RC

H T

OO

LS

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

31

In re

gard

to th

e ot

her "

Chr

istia

n" la

ngua

ges

of th

e m

edie

val N

ear E

ast

(Gre

ek, A

rmen

ian,

and

at c

erta

in p

oint

s eve

n La

tin),

by fa

r the

mos

t im

porta

ntre

fere

nce

is G

yula

Mor

avcs

ik, B

yzan

tino-

Turc

ica

(2 v

ols.;

orig

. ed.

, 194

2-43

;2n

d re

v. e

d., 1

958)

, whi

ch th

row

s lig

ht o

n m

any

aspe

cts o

f med

ieva

l Tur

kish

histo

ry a

nd c

ultu

re. V

ol. I

surv

eys t

he B

yzan

tine

sour

ces w

hich

touc

h on

Tur

k-ish

hist

ory,

whi

le V

ol. I

I tre

ats t

he T

urki

sh li

ngui

stic

data

yie

lded

by

Byza

ntin

ete

xts.

Of p

artic

ular

val

ue in

Vol

. II

is th

e ex

tens

ive

glos

sary

of T

urki

sh w

ords

and

prop

er n

ames

whi

ch o

ccur

in th

e G

reek

text

s.A

mon

g th

e la

ngua

ges o

f med

ieva

l Isl

am, P

ersi

an is

seco

nd in

impo

rtanc

eon

ly to

Ara

bic.

Beg

inni

ng in

the

5th/

1 lth

cen

tury

, Per

sian

bec

ame

the

chie

flit

erar

y to

ngue

not

onl

y of

Iran

pro

per b

ut a

lso o

f Ana

tolia

, Tra

nsox

iana

, and

Nor

th In

dia;

it is

thus

an

esse

ntia

l too

l for

any

scho

lar s

tudy

ing

the

land

s eas

tof

the

Tigr

is Ri

ver o

r nor

th o

f the

Tau

rus M

ount

ains

.In

this

light

, it i

s unf

ortu

nate

that

we

still

have

no

real

equ

ival

ent f

or B

rock

-el

man

n an

d Se

zgin

. A se

rious

beg

inni

ng in

this

dire

ctio

n w

as m

ade

by C

. A.

Stor

ey, P

ersi

an L

itera

ture

: a B

io-B

iblio

grap

hic

Surv

ey (3

vol

s., 1

927-

in p

ro-

gres

s) b

ut th

is re

mai

ns a

n un

finish

ed if

impr

essiv

e to

rso.

As i

t sta

nds i

t con

sists

of th

e fo

llow

ing

parts

:

Vol

. I, P

art 1

(192

7-39

): Q

ur'an

ic L

itera

ture

; Hist

ory

Vol

. I, P

art 2

(195

3): B

iogr

aphy

; Add

ition

s and

Cor

rect

ions

Vol

. H, P

art 1

(195

8): M

athe

mat

ics;

Wei

ghts

and

Mea

sure

s; A

stron

omy

and

Astr

olog

y; G

eogr

aphy

Vol

. H, P

art 2

(197

1): M

edic

ine

Vol

. H, P

art 3

(197

7): E

ncyc

lopa

edia

s, A

rts a

nd C

rafts

, Sci

ence

, Occ

ult A

rtsV

ol. I

H, P

art 1

(198

4): L

exic

ogra

phy,

Gra

mm

ar, P

roso

dy a

nd P

oetic

s

The

gaps

her

e ar

e al

l too

evi

dent

, esp

ecia

lly th

e la

ck o

f a v

olum

e on

poe

try, t

hepr

oude

st ac

hiev

emen

t of m

edie

val P

ersia

n le

tters

.So

me

of th

e pr

oble

ms i

n St

orey

are

add

ress

ed in

the

Russ

ian

trans

latio

n an

dre

visi

on b

y Y

uri B

rege

l, Pe

rsid

skai

a lit

erat

ura:

bio

-bib

liogr

afic

hesk

ii ob

zor

(3 v

ols.,

197

2). B

rege

l was

abl

e to

dra

w o

n th

e va

st a

nd st

ill o

nly

parti

ally

cata

logu

ed P

ersia

n m

anus

crip

t hol

ding

s in

the

Sovi

et U

nion

, and

cla

ims t

hat

his v

ersio

n co

ntai

ns tw

ice

as m

uch

mat

eria

l as t

he e

quiv

alen

t par

ts of

the

En-

glish

edi

tion.

How

ever

, onl

y th

e co

nten

ts of

Vol

ume

I, so

mew

hat r

earr

ange

d,w

ere

actu

ally

tran

slate

d, th

ough

for m

ost h

istor

ians

this

is ad

mitt

edly

the

mos

tim

porta

nt se

ctio

n.Fo

r Tur

kish

lite

ratu

re w

e ha

ve o

nly

parti

al su

rvey

s. In

the

cont

ext o

f the

pres

ent b

ook

this

may

not

seem

a c

ruci

al p

robl

em, s

ince

Tur

kish

em

erge

d as

a m

ajor

lite

rary

lang

uage

(in

both

the

Otto

man

and

Tim

urid

land

s) o

nly

to-

war

ds th

e en

d of

the

9th/

15th

cen

tury

. Eve

n so

, the

rela

tivel

y fe

w e

arlie

r wor

ksw

hich

do

exist

are

ver

y im

porta

nt, a

nd a

com

plet

e bi

o-bi

blio

grap

hic

surv

ey is

clea

rly b

adly

nee

ded.

For

the

time

bein

g, a

solid

ass

essm

ent o

f the

situ

atio

nca

n be

foun

d in

Ele

azar

Birn

baum

, "Tu

rkish

Man

uscr

ipts

: Cat

alog

uing

sinc

e

1960

and

Man

uscr

ipts

Still

Unc

atal

ogue

d,"

JAO

S, c

iii (1

983)

, 413

-420

,515

-53

2, 6

91-7

08; c

iv (1

984)

, 303

-314

,465

-504

.Fo

r our

pur

pose

s the

mos

t use

ful r

efer

ence

is d

oubt

less

Fra

nz B

abin

ger,

Die

Ges

chic

htss

chre

iber

der

Osm

anen

und

ihre

Wer

ke (1

927)

. So

old

a w

ork

is by

defin

ition

obs

olet

e, o

bvio

usly

, but

the

slow

pro

gres

s of O

ttom

an m

anus

crip

tan

d hi

stor

iogr

aphi

c st

udie

s mea

ns th

at it

has

reta

ined

muc

h of

its v

alue

. For

othe

r fie

lds o

f Otto

man

lite

ratu

re th

ere

is no

thin

g sim

ilar,

but u

sefu

l inf

orm

a-tio

n ca

n be

got

ten

from

Bur

sali

Meh

met

Tah

ir, O

sman

li M

iielli

fler

i (3

vols.

,13

33-4

2, in

Otto

man

scrip

t; ne

w e

d., 1

970-

75, i

n m

odem

Tur

kish

).Fo

r Eas

tern

Tur

kish

(Cha

ghat

ay) w

ritin

g, a

maj

or su

rvey

is n

ow in

pro

gres

s:H

. F. H

ofm

an, T

urki

sh L

itera

ture

, a B

io-B

iblio

grap

hica

l Sur

vey.

Sec

tion

DEL

Mos

lim C

entr

al A

sian

Tur

kish

Lite

ratu

re. P

art I

: Aut

hors

. (6

vols.

, 196

9). A

sH

ofm

an n

otes

, thi

s wor

k is

a ki

nd o

f ann

otat

ed in

dex,

arra

nged

alp

habe

tical

ly,

to th

e au

thor

s men

tione

d in

M. F

. KO

priil

ii's s

tudy

, "Ca

gata

y Ed

ebiy

ati,"

IA

,iii

, 270

-323

. How

ever

, the

cur

rent

vol

umes

om

it th

e w

ork

of th

e m

ost f

amou

san

d in

fluen

tial w

riter

in th

is d

iale

ct, '

Ali

Shir

Nev

ei, p

ropo

sing

to d

eal w

ithhi

m se

para

tely

.A

few

bio

-bib

liogr

aphi

c su

rvey

s dea

l with

par

ticul

ar fi

elds

, tho

ugh

not

near

ly a

s man

y as

one

mig

ht e

xpec

t. A

s one

exa

mpl

e of

thes

e, w

hich

cou

ldst

and

as a

mod

el fo

r oth

ers,

see

Ism

ail K

. Poo

naw

ala,

Bio

bibl

iogr

aphy

of

Ism

aili

Lite

ratu

re (1

977)

. Poo

naw

ala

arra

nges

his

mat

eria

l acc

ordi

ng to

the

sect

s whi

ch m

ade

up th

e Is

mdi

liyya

, and

then

acc

ordi

ng to

the

auth

ors

with

in e

ach

sect

. The

kno

wn

wor

ks o

f eac

h, e

xtan

t or n

ot, a

re li

sted

and

conc

isel

y de

scrib

ed. A

nony

mou

s wor

ks, w

hich

abo

und

amon

g th

e Is

mdi

lis,

are

give

n in

a s

epar

ate

sect

ion.

Poo

naw

ala

incl

udes

all

the

rele

vant

lan-

guag

es—

not o

nly

Ara

bic

and

Pers

ian,

but

Urd

u an

d G

ujar

ati a

s wel

l. Fo

r any

scho

lar d

ealin

g w

ith Is

lam

ic re

ligio

us h

istor

y, a

nd n

ot ju

st Is

mai

li sp

ecia

lists,

this

is ob

viou

sly a

n in

valu

able

reso

urce

, and

def

initi

vely

supp

lant

s the

old

ersu

rvey

s of M

assig

non

(192

2), H

. F. H

amda

ni (1

933)

, and

W. I

vano

w (1

933,

1963

).A

ll th

e bi

o-bi

blio

grap

hic

surv

eys w

e ha

ve e

xam

ined

shar

e a

conf

usin

g an

dof

ten

frus

tratin

g po

int o

f usa

ge. W

hen

they

refe

r to

man

uscr

ipts

list

ed in

prin

ted

cata

logs

, the

y gi

ve o

nly

the

cata

log

num

bers

; the

se a

re u

sual

ly n

ot th

esh

elfli

st or

acc

essio

n nu

mbe

rs u

sed

by th

e lib

rarie

s hol

ding

thes

e m

anus

crip

ts.Si

nce

libra

rians

can

not f

ind

a vo

lum

e w

ithou

t its

shel

fmar

k, a

nd si

nce

scho

l-ar

ly m

onog

raph

s and

arti

cles

alm

ost a

lway

s ide

ntify

text

s by

shel

fmar

k as

wel

l, on

e m

ust g

o to

the

prin

ted

cata

logs

to g

et th

is nu

mbe

r. (C

atal

og re

fer-

ence

s in

the

bio-

bibl

iogr

aphi

c w

orks

shou

ld a

lway

s be

chec

ked

out i

n an

yca

se, s

ince

eve

n th

e be

st of

them

are

full

of e

rrors

.) Th

us, G

AL

may

refe

r to

am

anus

crip

t as "

Rieu

465

"—i.e

., no

. 465

in C

. Rie

u, S

uppl

emen

t to

the

Cat

a-lo

gue

of th

e A

rabi

c M

anus

crip

ts in

the

Bri

tish

Mus

eum

(189

4). U

nder

no.

465

,al

ong

with

an

iden

tific

atio

n an

d de

scrip

tion

of th

e vo

lum

e, it

s she

lfmar

k is

give

n—in

this

cas

e "O

r. 42

15"

(e.g

., O

rient

al M

anus

crip

ts, n

o. 4

215)

. The

32 S

OU

RC

ES

AN

D R

ES

EA

RC

H T

OO

LS

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

33

usua

l ref

eren

ce in

the

scho

larly

lite

ratu

re w

ould

thus

be

"BM

Or.

4215

" (or

since

197

3, "B

L" fo

r Brit

ish L

ibra

ry).

The

bio-

bibl

iogr

aphi

c w

orks

per

mit

a re

ason

ably

eff

icie

nt su

rvey

of o

urpo

tent

ial s

ourc

es a

nd a

pro

visio

nal s

elec

tion

of th

e te

xts t

o be

exa

min

ed. B

utth

ey a

re o

f litt

le h

elp

in th

e ne

xt st

age,

that

of d

ecid

ing

whi

ch v

ersio

ns o

f the

sete

xts w

e w

ill u

se. T

he g

reat

bul

k of

med

ieva

l Isla

mic

boo

k pr

oduc

tion

is sti

llin

man

uscr

ipt,

and

man

y pr

inte

d ed

ition

s are

so p

oor t

hat m

anus

crip

ts m

ust b

eco

nsul

ted

to e

stab

lish

relia

ble

read

ings

. In

Isla

mic

his

tory

, at l

east

, tex

tual

criti

cism

and

pal

aeog

raph

y ar

e no

t a re

fuge

for e

rudi

te d

rudg

es b

ut a

n ab

solu

tere

quire

men

t for

effe

ctiv

e re

sear

ch.

The

stud

y of

med

ieva

l man

uscr

ipts

shou

ld b

e fo

unde

d on

an

exac

t kno

wl-

edge

of h

ow b

ooks

wer

e m

ade,

dist

ribut

ed, a

nd u

sed.

Tho

ugh

muc

h re

mai

ns to

be d

one,

we

have

an

attra

ctiv

e an

d sc

hola

rly in

trodu

ctio

n to

the

subj

ect i

nJo

hann

es P

eder

sen,

The

Ara

bic

Boo

k (tr

ans.

Geo

ffre

y Fr

ench

, 198

4). T

his

wor

k w

as o

rigin

ally

pub

lishe

d in

Dan

ish

in 1

946,

thus

ens

urin

g th

at m

ost

scho

lars

cou

ld n

ot u

se it

whe

n it

was

new

, and

by

now

subs

tant

ial p

arts

of it

are

of c

ours

e ob

sole

te. B

ut P

eder

sen

had

a de

ep k

now

ledg

e of

Isla

mic

relig

ion

and

cultu

re, a

nd th

e no

tes a

nd b

iblio

grap

hy h

ave

been

bro

ught

up

to d

ate

in th

etra

nsla

tion.

Alto

geth

er, t

his i

s stil

l the

bes

t pla

ce to

beg

in. A

lso v

ery

valu

able

,th

ough

mor

e na

rrow

ly fo

cuse

d, is

Fra

nz R

osen

thal

, Th

e Te

chni

que

and

Ap-

proa

ch o

f Mus

lim S

chol

arsh

ip (1

947)

, whi

ch a

naly

zes t

he n

orm

s and

pra

ctic

esw

hich

gov

erne

d th

e co

pyin

g of

man

uscr

ipts.

Pala

eogr

aphy

is o

bvio

usly

the

one

indi

spen

sabl

e sk

ill fo

r the

wou

ld-b

ere

ader

of m

anus

crip

ts. I

t is e

ssen

tial n

ot so

muc

h be

caus

e it

enab

les o

ne to

deci

pher

diff

icul

t scr

ipts—

som

e ha

ndw

ritin

g is

beyo

nd a

ny sc

ienc

e—bu

t mor

eim

porta

ntly

, bec

ause

it p

rovi

des c

riter

ia fo

r esti

mat

ing

the

age

and

prov

enan

ceof

und

ated

and

uns

igne

d m

anus

crip

ts.Fo

r Ara

bic

liter

ary

man

uscr

ipts

ther

e is

unfo

rtuna

tely

no

real

han

dboo

k of

pala

eogr

aphy

. For

the

scho

lar w

ho si

mpl

y ne

eds t

o m

ake

out t

he te

xt in

fron

tof

him

, how

ever

, the

gap

is n

ot a

s cru

cial

as i

t mig

ht se

em. L

itera

ry m

anu-

scrip

ts in

Ara

bic,

no

mat

ter w

here

or w

hen

they

wer

e co

pied

, are

alm

ost a

lway

sw

ritte

n in

som

e va

riant

of a

scrip

t cal

led

nask

hi, w

hich

in p

rinci

ple

at le

ast i

scl

ear a

nd p

reci

se. T

he m

ajor

exc

eptio

ns to

this

rule

are

two:

(1) v

ery

early

man

uscr

ipts

, esp

ecia

lly o

f the

Qur

'an, a

re d

one

in th

e m

uch

mor

e di

ffic

ult

Kuf

ic sc

ript;

(2) t

he sc

ribes

of A

ndal

us a

nd N

orth

Afr

ica

evol

ved

a ve

ry d

is-tin

ctiv

e th

ough

eas

ily le

arne

d M

aghr

ibi s

crip

t whi

ch re

tain

s som

e ar

chai

cK

ufic

ele

men

ts. In

nas

kizi

man

uscr

ipts,

the

mai

n pr

oble

ms s

tem

from

the

indi

-vi

dual

hab

its o

f the

scrib

e—le

gibi

lity

and

care

, the

use

or n

egle

ct o

f vow

els

and

diac

ritic

al p

oint

s, et

c. B

ut n

o ha

ndbo

ok is

muc

h he

lp in

equ

ippi

ng o

ne to

deal

with

per

sona

l idi

osyn

cras

ies o

f thi

s kin

d; o

nly

expe

rienc

e an

d a

solid

know

ledg

e of

Ara

bic,

such

that

one

kno

ws w

hat w

ords

an

auth

or is

usin

g ev

enw

hen

they

can

not b

e de

ciph

ered

, will

turn

the

trick

.A

goo

d ov

ervi

ew o

f the

pro

blem

s of A

rabi

c pa

laeo

grap

hy is

giv

en b

y J.

Sour

del-T

hom

ine,

"Kha

tt,"

Er,

iv, 1

113-

1122

. The

bes

t pre

sent

atio

n of

the

varie

ty o

f han

ds w

hich

one

can

exp

ect t

o en

coun

ter i

s pro

babl

y B

ernh

ard

Mor

itz, A

rabi

c Pa

laeo

grap

hy: A

Col

lect

ion

of T

exts

from

the

Firs

t Cen

tury

of

the

Hijr

a til

l the

Yea

r 10

00 (1

905)

—a

mun

ifice

ntly

pro

duce

d co

llect

ion

ofpl

ates

in e

leph

ant f

olio

form

at. B

ased

alm

ost e

ntire

ly o

n th

e ho

ldin

gs o

f wha

tw

as th

en th

e K

hedi

vial

Lib

rary

in C

airo

(now

the

Da

al-K

utub

al-M

isriy

ya),

it co

ntai

ns 1

88 p

late

s; th

ere

are

how

ever

no

trans

crip

tions

or n

otes

. On

a m

ore

mod

est s

cale

are

the

follo

win

g—al

so w

ithou

t tra

nscr

iptio

ns o

r ann

otat

ion:

a.A

. J. A

rber

ry, T

he C

hest

er B

eatt

y L

ibra

ry: A

Han

dlis

t of

the

Ara

bic

Ma-

nusc

ript

s (6

vol

s., 1

955-

66).

Plat

es o

f sel

ecte

d m

anus

crip

ts in

this

truly

rem

arka

ble

colle

ctio

n at

the

end

of e

ach

volu

me.

b.A

. J. A

rber

ry, e

d., S

peci

men

s of

Ara

bic

and

Pers

ian

Pala

eogr

aphy

(193

9).

Con

tain

s 48

exam

ples

, hal

f in

Ara

bic

and

half

in P

ersi

an, f

rom

the

Indi

a O

ffic

eLi

brar

y, L

ondo

n; a

lmos

t all

are

6th/

12th

cen

tury

or l

ater

.C.

Sal

a) al

-Din

al-M

unaj

jid, a

l-Kite

ib a

l-e a

rabi

al-q

arn

Juz'

1, a

l-N

amad

hij (

1960

). A

n ex

celle

nt c

olle

ctio

n in

folio

size

of e

xam

ples

from

the

Ara

b Le

ague

's In

stitu

te o

f Man

uscr

ipts,

but

man

y of

the

plat

es se

em fa

int

or o

ut o

f foc

us.

d. G

eorg

es V

ajda

, Alb

um d

e pa

leog

raph

ie a

rabe

(195

8). C

onta

ins 9

4 pl

ates

dra

wn

from

man

uscr

ipts

in th

e Bib

lioth

eque

Nat

iona

le, P

aris

, cho

sen

expr

essly

to il

lustr

ate t

heba

sic p

robl

ems o

f Ara

bic

pala

eogr

aphy

. In

gene

ral t

he m

ost r

epre

sent

ativ

e vo

lum

e in

this

grou

p, a

nd sa

ve fo

r the

Che

ster B

eatty

cat

alog

s the

bes

t pro

duce

d.

A p

ropo

sed

sum

ma

by A

dolf

Gro

hman

n, A

rabi

sche

Pal

aogr

aphi

e, u

nfor

-tu

nate

ly re

mai

ned

unfin

ishe

d at

its a

utho

r's d

eath

. Vol

. I (1

967)

dis

cuss

esw

ritin

g m

ater

ials,

and

Vol

. II (

1971

), su

btitl

ed D

ie L

apid

arsc

hrif

t, de

als e

ssen

-tia

lly w

ith K

ufic

lette

r-for

ms,

whi

ch h

ave

only

a li

mite

d sig

nific

ance

for m

an-

uscr

ipts.

Dow

n to

Tim

urid

tim

es a

t lea

st, t

he sc

ripts

use

d in

Per

sian

and

Tur

kish

liter

ary

man

uscr

ipts

are

muc

h th

e sa

me

as th

ose

used

for A

rabi

c. H

owev

er,

from

the

10th

/16t

h ce

ntur

y, P

ersia

n an

d (to

a le

sser

deg

ree)

Tur

kish

scrib

esfa

vore

d an

ele

gant

but

ofte

n di

ffic

ult h

and

calle

d na

sta e

lig.

A te

rse

intro

duc-

tion

to P

erso

-Tur

kish

pal

aeog

raph

y is

Ali

Alp

arsla

n, "K

hatt,

"E/ 2

, iv,

112

2-26

,an

d ex

ampl

es o

f Per

sian

scrip

t, m

ostly

of I

ndia

n pr

oven

ance

, are

giv

en in

Arbe

rry, S

peci

men

s. T

he p

late

s at t

he e

nd o

f eac

h vo

lum

e in

A. J

. Arb

erry

et

al.,

The

Che

ster

Bea

tty L

ibra

ry. A

Cat

alog

ue o

f the

Per

sian

Man

uscr

ipts

and

Min

iatu

res

(3 v

ols.,

195

9-62

), ar

e ve

ry b

eaut

iful,

but m

ost o

f the

m fo

cus o

nth

e ill

ustra

tions

of t

hese

man

uscr

ipts

rath

er th

an th

e te

xts

per

se; V

ol. I

, dea

l-in

g w

ith th

e ol

der i

tem

s, ha

s som

e im

porta

nt e

xam

ples

of P

ersia

n sc

ript,

how

-ev

er. Th

e ar

t of c

allig

raph

y, so

hig

hly

este

emed

am

ong

Mus

lims i

n m

oder

n as

wel

l as m

edie

val t

imes

, rea

lly li

es o

utsid

e ou

r con

cern

s her

e. E

ven

so, i

t can

thro

w so

me

light

ont

o th

e cr

iteria

whi

ch g

over

ned

ordi

nary

scrib

al p

ract

ice.

Abr

ief b

ut a

ttrac

tive

intro

duct

ion

to it

is A

nnem

arie

Sch

imm

el, I

slam

ic C

allig

-ra

phy

(197

0).

34 S

OU

RC

ES

AN

D R

ES

EA

RC

H T

OO

LS

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

35

How

ever

cor

rect

ly it

may

be

read

, a m

anus

crip

t is n

ot e

vide

nce

for a

nyth

ing

until

its p

rove

nanc

e, a

uthe

ntic

ity, a

nd a

ccur

acy

have

bee

n as

sess

ed. S

ince

Is-

lam

ists

seld

om e

njoy

the

luxu

ry o

f sci

entif

ic c

ritic

al e

ditio

ns, t

hey

have

no

choi

ce b

ut to

lear

n th

e sk

ills o

f tex

tual

crit

icism

. An

histo

rian,

unl

ike

an e

dito

ror

tran

slato

r, is

not c

alle

d on

to re

solv

e ev

ery

text

ual p

robl

em in

the

text

bef

ore

him

, but

he

mus

t be

able

to c

ope

with

any

issu

e w

hich

subs

tant

ivel

y af

fect

s the

ques

tions

he

is pu

rsui

ng. I

t is e

ssen

tial t

o kn

ow h

ow to

iden

tify

the

signi

fican

tm

anus

crip

ts o

f a te

xt, d

eter

min

e th

e af

filia

tions

am

ong

thes

e m

anus

crip

ts,

choo

se a

mon

g di

ffer

ing

vers

ions

of t

he sa

me

pass

age,

and

em

end

a co

rrup

t or

unin

telli

gibl

e pa

ssag

e.Th

ese

skill

s, to

geth

er w

ith th

e pr

inci

ples

und

erly

ing

them

, are

disc

usse

d in

man

y pl

aces

. Sou

nd g

ener

al g

uide

lines

can

be

foun

d in

the

clas

sic E

urop

ean

text

book

s on

his

toric

al m

etho

d: E

. Ber

nhei

m,

Leh

rbuc

h de

r hi

stor

isch

enM

etho

de, 3

30-4

64; a

nd C

h. V

. Lan

gloi

s and

Ch.

Sei

gnob

os, I

ntro

duct

ion

aux

etud

es h

isto

riqu

es (1

898)

, 51-

78; t

rans

., G

. G. B

erry

, Int

rodu

ctio

n to

the

Stud

yof

His

tory

, (18

98),

pp. 7

1-10

0. (T

he la

tter i

s cer

tain

ly c

lear

, but

als

o fa

r les

snu

ance

d an

d m

ore

dogm

atic

than

Ber

nhei

m.)

In a

dditi

on, h

owev

er, I

wou

ldstr

ongl

y ur

ge tw

o tit

les i

n Cl

assic

al st

udie

s, w

hich

was

the

birth

plac

e of

text

ual

criti

cism

and

is st

ill th

e m

ost s

ophi

stica

ted

field

in th

is re

gard

. The

mos

t rig

or-

ous s

tate

men

t of m

etho

d is

Pau

l Maa

s, Te

xtkr

itik

(orig

inal

ed.

, 192

7; 4

th re

v.ed

., 19

60; E

nglis

h tra

nsla

tion

by B

arba

ra F

low

er, T

extu

al C

ritic

ism

, 195

8). A

nhi

stor

ical

per

spec

tive

is g

iven

by

a so

lid a

nd v

ery

appr

oach

able

stud

y of

the

trans

mis

sion

of G

reek

and

Lat

in li

tera

ture

from

Ant

iqui

ty to

ear

ly m

oder

ntim

es: L

. D. R

eyno

lds a

nd N

. G. W

ilson

, Scr

ibes

and

Sch

olar

s (1

968)

. In

asu

bsta

ntia

l app

endi

x, th

e au

thor

s also

pre

sent

a p

erce

ptiv

e cr

itiqu

e of

the

un-

derly

ing

assu

mpt

ion

of M

aas'

wor

k—vi

z., t

hat e

very

man

uscr

ipt t

radi

tion

ulti-

mat

ely

stem

s fro

m a

sing

le a

uthe

ntic

arc

hety

pe.

The

prin

cipl

es o

f tex

tual

crit

icis

m o

ften

emer

ge m

ost v

ivid

ly in

the

intro

-du

ctio

ns to

goo

d sc

ient

ific

editi

ons.

We

will

gla

nce

at th

ree

parti

cula

rly in

-st

ruct

ive

exam

ples

. For

the

prob

lem

s inv

olve

d in

con

firm

ing

the

auth

orsh

ipan

d as

sess

ing

the

cont

ents

of a

sing

le m

anus

crip

t (a

"uni

cum

"), s

ee Ib

n eA

qil,

Kitn

b al

-fun

un, e

d. b

y G

eorg

e M

akdi

si (P

t. I,

1970

). A

som

ewha

t diff

eren

tca

se is

repr

esen

ted

by J

. A

. Bel

lam

y's

editi

on o

f Ibn

Abi

al-D

unyä

, Kit

am

aknr

im a

l-akh

lä q

(197

3). H

ere

the

edito

r not

onl

y gi

ves a

n as

tute

and

met

ho-

dolo

gica

lly v

ery

cons

ciou

s exa

min

atio

n (b

ased

on

a cr

itica

l use

of M

aas)

of t

here

latio

nshi

ps b

etw

een

his t

wo

man

uscr

ipts

and

thei

r hyp

othe

tical

arc

hety

pe,

but a

lso

illum

inat

es th

e tra

nsm

issi

on o

f a m

anus

crip

t tra

ditio

n in

med

ieva

lIs

lam

ic c

ultu

re. F

inal

ly, F

ranz

Ros

enth

al's

surv

ey o

f the

text

ual h

istor

y of

Ibn

Ithal

dan'

s M

uqad

dim

a (2

nd. e

d., 1

967;

Vol

. I, p

p. lx

xxvi

ii–cx

v) is

a m

odel

for

the

study

of a

text

tran

smitt

ed b

y nu

mer

ous m

anus

crip

ts re

pres

entin

g se

vera

ldi

ffere

nt re

cens

ions

.W

ritte

n te

xts,

espe

cial

ly th

ose

with

hig

h re

ligio

us v

alue

, wer

e ve

ry o

ften

trans

mitt

ed o

rally

thro

ugh

a pr

oces

s of f

orm

al re

cita

tion

and

dict

atio

n. T

hese

prac

tices

are

disc

usse

d in

thei

r bro

ad in

stitu

tiona

l con

text

by

Geo

rge

Mak

disi,

The

Ris

e of

Col

lege

s (1

981)

; see

esp

ecia

lly p

p. 9

9-10

5,14

0-14

6. A

cade

mic

dict

atio

n is

studi

ed b

y M

ax W

eisw

eile

r, "D

as A

mt d

es M

usta

mli

in d

er a

rabi

s-ch

en W

issen

scha

ft,"

Ori

ens,

iv (1

951)

, 27-

57. O

ne e

lem

ent o

f thi

s sys

tem

was

the

"cer

tific

ate

of re

cita

tion"

(sa

md)

insc

ribed

on

the

title

pag

e of

cer

tain

man

uscr

ipts

; an

impo

rtant

bod

y of

such

cer

tific

ates

is a

naly

zed

by G

eorg

esVa

jda i

n L

es c

ertif

icat

e de

lect

ure

et d

e tr

ansm

issi

on d

ans

les

man

uscr

its a

ra-

bes

de la

Bib

lioth

eque

Nat

iona

le d

e Pa

ris

(195

6). (

They

are

not

com

mon

,un

fortu

nate

ly; i

n a

colle

ctio

n of

som

e 70

00 A

rabi

c m

anus

crip

ts, t

here

are

only

seve

nty-

two

sam

dCzt

.) Th

e w

hole

syst

em w

as ro

oted

in th

e ef

fort

toes

tabl

ish ri

goro

us st

anda

rds f

or th

e tra

nsm

issio

n of

Pro

phet

ic h

adith

, and

so it

is u

sefu

l to

deve

lop

som

e ac

quai

ntan

ce w

ith th

is s

cien

ce. I

n ad

ditio

n to

Sezg

in's

disc

ussio

n in

GA

S I (

see

abov

e, p

. 22)

, see

two

med

ieva

l Isla

mic

text

son

met

hod:

1.al

-Hak

im a

l-N

aisä

biir

i, A

n In

trod

ucti

on to

the

Scie

nce

of T

radi

tion

, tra

ns.

Jam

es R

obso

n (1

953)

.2.

W. M

arai

s, "

Le

Tag

rib

de e

n-N

awaw

i," J

A, s

er. 9

: no.

xvi

(190

0), 3

15-3

46;

no. x

vii (

1901

), 1

01-1

49, 1

93-2

32, 5

24-5

40; n

o. x

viii

(190

1), 6

1-14

6.

al-N

aisA

bari'

s tre

atm

ent i

s ext

rem

ely

ters

e, b

ut it

is o

ne o

f our

ear

li-es

t tre

atm

ents

on

hadi

th m

etho

dolo

gy a

nd is

eas

y to

follo

w. A

l-Naw

awi's

wor

k is

an

abrid

gem

ent o

f the

stan

dard

trea

tise

on th

e su

bjec

t, th

e U

liim

al-

kidi

th o

f Ibn

al-S

hahr

azik

i (d.

643

/124

5).

Her

e w

e ca

nnot

dea

l in

any

syst

emat

ic w

ay w

ith th

e pr

oble

ms o

f tex

tual

criti

cism

, but

a fe

w g

ener

al p

oint

s whi

ch e

spec

ially

con

cern

hist

oria

ns sh

ould

be m

ade.

In e

very

cas

e, th

e fir

st ste

p m

ust b

e to

esta

blish

the

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

the

man

uscr

ipt w

e ar

e us

ing

and

the

orig

inal

wor

k of

whi

ch it

cla

ims t

o be

a c

opy.

Oth

erw

ise

we

cann

ot k

now

if th

e st

atem

ents

bef

ore

us a

re c

opyi

sts'

corr

up-

tions

or e

ven

forg

erie

s. Es

tabl

ishin

g th

e lin

k be

twee

n co

py a

nd o

rigin

al is

no

easy

task

: dat

ed a

nd si

gned

col

opho

ns a

re ra

re, a

nd a

utho

rs' a

utog

raph

s or

dire

ct tr

ansm

issio

ns g

uara

ntee

d by

cer

tific

ates

of r

ecita

tion

are

rare

r stil

l. To

ala

rge

degr

ee, o

ne's

judg

men

t mus

t be

base

d on

such

elu

sive

dat

a as

scrip

ts,

unus

ual e

rrors

shar

ed b

y tw

o or

mor

e m

anus

crip

ts, e

tc.

Even

in th

e ca

se o

f a u

nicu

m w

ith fe

w e

xter

nal i

ndic

atio

ns o

f dat

e an

dpr

oven

ance

, how

ever

, we

are

not w

ithou

t res

ourc

es. I

n th

e fie

lds o

f hist

ory,

biog

raph

y, a

nd ju

rispr

uden

ce in

par

ticul

ar, m

edie

val M

uslim

aut

hors

tend

ed to

abso

rb th

e w

ork

of th

eir p

rede

cess

ors,

eith

er b

y di

rect

quo

tatio

n (n

ot a

lway

sat

tribu

ted)

or b

y ex

tens

ive

para

phra

se. T

hus t

he te

xt o

f the

vas

t chr

onic

le o

fal

-Tab

ari (

d. 3

10/9

23) o

ften

rest

s on

a sin

gle

man

uscr

ipt,

but t

he re

adin

gs o

fth

ese

sect

ions

can

be

subs

tant

ially

con

firm

ed b

y co

mpa

ring

them

to Ib

n al

-A

thir

(d. 6

30/1

234)

, who

se e

arly

vol

umes

follo

w a

l-Tab

ari v

ery

clos

ely,

alb

eit

with

som

e ab

ridge

men

t. Li

kew

ise, t

he o

ne p

artia

l man

uscr

ipt o

f CIz

z al

-Din

b.

36

SO

UR

CE

S A

ND

RE

SE

AR

CH

TO

OL

S

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

37

Shad

dad's

life

of S

ulta

n Ba

ybar

s can

be

chec

ked

and

com

plet

ed b

y a

chro

nicl

ew

ritte

n ha

lf a

cent

ury

late

r by

al-Y

anin

i, w

ho a

ppea

rs to

hav

e ci

ted

the

bulk

of

Ibn

Shad

dad

alm

ost v

erba

tim. O

bvio

usly

this

tech

niqu

e w

ill n

ot y

ield

a c

om-

plet

ely

secu

re te

xt; o

n th

e ot

her h

and,

we

get s

ome

com

pens

atio

n by

lear

ning

how

a g

iven

wor

k w

as u

sed

and

unde

rsto

od w

ithin

the

scho

larly

trad

ition

of

med

ieva

l Isla

m.

In th

e ha

ppy

even

t tha

t we

have

two

or m

ore

man

uscr

ipts

of th

e sa

me

text

,th

ere

are

othe

r pitf

alls

. In

parti

cula

r, th

e te

mpt

atio

n to

har

mon

ize

the

con-

tent

s of d

iffer

ent m

anus

crip

ts m

ust b

e st

renu

ousl

y av

oide

d, fo

r thi

s is l

ikel

yto

blo

t out

sign

ifica

ntly

diff

eren

t rec

ensi

ons o

f the

wor

k be

ing

stud

ied.

If,

for e

xam

ple,

Ms.

A re

pres

ents

a ro

ugh

but d

etai

led

draf

t ver

sion

of a

giv

ench

roni

cle

and

Ms.

B a

pol

ishe

d bu

t som

ewha

t abr

idge

d re

wor

king

of i

t,ev

ery

effo

rt m

ust b

e m

ade

to p

rese

rve

the

diff

eren

ces b

etw

een

them

. A p

ar-

ticul

arly

cle

ar c

ase

of th

is k

ind

is th

e M

ieät

al-

zam

an f

t ta

'rikh

al-

dyän

of

Sibt

ibn

al-J

awzi

(d. 6

54/1

256)

, one

of t

he m

ost i

mpo

rtant

and

influ

entia

lch

roni

cles

of t

he 7

th/1

3th

cent

ury,

whi

ch st

ill a

wai

ts a

n ad

equa

te e

ditio

n;se

e th

e re

view

by

Cla

ude

Cah

en o

f a p

artia

l edi

tion,

Ara

bica

, iv

(195

7),

191-

194,

and

the

sam

e au

thor

's ge

nera

l rem

arks

in "E

ditin

g A

rabi

c C

hron

i-cl

es: a

Few

Sug

gest

ions

," Is

lam

ic S

tudi

es (1

962)

, 1-2

5; re

prin

ted

in P

eupl

esm

usul

man

s, 1

1-36

. A se

cond

exa

mpl

e, th

is ti

me

draw

n fr

om ju

rispr

uden

ce,

wou

ld b

e th

e M

uwat

ta' o

f Mäl

ik ib

n A

nas,

who

se c

ompl

ex te

xtua

l his

tory

can

be fo

llow

ed in

SE

I, 32

1f.;

GA

S, I,

458

-460

; and

Igna

z G

oldz

iher

, Mus

limSt

udie

s, (t

rans

. S. M

. Ste

rn a

nd C

. R. B

arbe

r, 19

67-7

1), I

I, 20

4-20

9. In

shor

t,th

e de

finiti

ve "

orig

inal

text

" is

mos

t ofte

n a

chim

era;

bet

ter t

o fo

cus o

ne's

ener

gies

on

doin

g ju

stic

e to

all

the

data

than

to tr

y to

cap

ture

such

an

elus

ive

beas

t.In

an

idea

l wor

ld, w

ith ti

me

and

expe

nse

no o

bjec

t, w

e w

ould

exa

min

edi

rect

ly a

ll kn

own

man

uscr

ipts

of a

ny te

xt w

e in

tend

ed to

use

, and

wou

ld m

ake

our c

hoic

e of

var

iant

s and

rece

nsio

ns a

ccor

ding

to th

e st

anda

rds o

f a g

ood

criti

cal e

ditio

n. O

bvio

usly

this

is se

ldom

feas

ible

, and

eve

n m

icro

film

s (w

hich

are

no su

bstit

ute

for t

he re

al th

ing)

are

ofte

n ex

trem

ely

diff

icul

t to

obta

in,

espe

cial

ly fr

om E

aste

rn E

urop

e an

d A

sia. I

n su

ch c

ircum

stanc

es, w

e m

ust t

urn

to th

e pr

inte

d ca

talo

gs a

nd h

andl

ists

pro

duce

d by

mos

t of t

he w

orld

's m

ajor

man

uscr

ipt r

epos

itorie

s. In

add

ition

to a

utho

rs, t

itles

, and

shel

flist

num

bers

,th

ese

norm

ally

giv

e su

ch d

ata

as th

e nu

mbe

r of p

ages

or f

olio

s in

each

vol

ume,

its si

ze, t

he n

umbe

r of l

ines

per

pag

e, a

des

crip

tion

of th

e bi

ndin

g, a

nd (i

fkn

own)

the

date

it w

as c

opie

d. A

few

cat

alog

s go

muc

h fu

rther

, giv

ing

quite

deta

iled

sum

mar

ies o

f the

con

tent

s of e

ach

man

uscr

ipt,

anal

yses

of i

ts d

ate,

prov

enan

ce, a

nd tr

ansm

issio

n, a

nd e

ven

refe

renc

es to

rela

ted

man

uscr

ipts

inot

her c

olle

ctio

ns. T

he o

utst

andi

ng a

chie

vem

ent i

n th

is fi

eld

is n

o do

ubt t

hem

agni

ficen

t sur

vey

of th

e Is

lam

ic m

anus

crip

ts o

f Ber

lin m

ade

late

in th

e la

stce

ntur

y, so

thor

ough

and

exa

ct th

at it

alm

ost c

onsti

tute

s a h

istor

y of

the

thre

elit

erat

ures

:

Wilh

elm

Ahl

war

dt, V

erze

ichn

is d

er a

rabi

sche

n H

ands

chrz

ften

der

kiin

iglic

hen

Bib

-lio

thek

zu

Ber

lin (

10 v

ols.

, 188

7-18

99).

Wilh

elm

Per

tsch

, Ver

zeic

hnis

der

per

sisc

hen

Han

dsch

rzft

en d

er k

iinig

liche

n B

iblio

-th

ek z

u B

erlin

(18

88);

Ver

zeic

hnis

der

tiir

kisc

hen

Han

dsch

rift

en d

er k

iinig

liche

nB

iblio

thek

zu

Ber

lin (1

889)

.

Cat

alog

s of s

imila

r qua

lity,

thou

gh o

n a

smal

ler s

cale

, wer

e pr

epar

ed fo

rse

vera

l oth

er E

urop

ean

libra

ries a

t abo

ut th

e sa

me

time,

but

the

20th

cen

tury

has s

een

the

near

-dem

ise o

f suc

h ef

forts

, dou

btle

ss d

ue to

thei

r im

men

se c

ost

and

limite

d au

dien

ce. T

here

are

hap

pily

som

e im

porta

nt e

xcep

tions

. Wes

t Ger

-m

any

has m

ount

ed a

susta

ined

pro

ject

to su

rvey

the

coun

try's

Orie

ntal

man

u-sc

ript r

esou

rces

: Ver

zeic

hnis

der

ori

enta

lisch

en H

ands

chnf

ten

in D

euts

chla

nd(a

bbr.,

VO

HD

; 196

1—in

pro

gres

s). T

he w

ork

has b

een

divi

ded

into

thirt

y-tw

ovo

lum

es (m

any

of th

em in

seve

ral p

arts)

, one

for e

ach

of th

e la

ngua

ges t

o be

cove

red.

In a

dditi

on, a

sepa

rate

ly n

umbe

red

serie

s of s

uppl

emen

tary

vol

umes

,de

alin

g w

ith sp

ecifi

c pr

oble

ms o

r man

uscr

ipts

, is a

lso

bein

g is

sued

; to

date

twen

ty-s

ix o

f the

se h

ave

appe

ared

. With

in V

OH

D th

ree

volu

mes

are

of c

entra

lin

tere

st fo

r Isla

mic

hist

ory:

B. M

IL T

iirki

sche

Han

dsch

nfte

n. 5

Tei

le (1

968-

81)

B. X

IV. P

ersi

sche

Han

dsch

rift

en. 2

Tei

le (1

968-

80)

B. X

VII

, Rei

he A

. Mat

eria

lien

zur

arab

isch

en L

itera

turg

esch

icht

e. 2

Tei

le(1

976-

87)

B. X

VII

, Rei

he B

. Ara

bisc

he H

ands

chri

ften

. 1 T

eil (

1976

)

VO

HD

can

be

supp

lem

ente

d by

Fua

t Sez

gin,

Bei

trag

e zu

r Ers

chlie

ssun

g de

rar

abis

chen

Han

dsch

rift

en in

deu

tsch

en B

iblio

thek

en (

3 vo

ls.,

1987

), w

hich

asse

mbl

es a

use

ful (

albe

it an

tiqua

ted)

set o

f stu

dies

des

crib

ing

Ger

man

man

u-sc

ript c

olle

ctio

ns o

f the

mid

and

late

19t

h ce

ntur

y. V

ols.

II an

d III

repr

int t

heol

d ca

talo

gs fo

r Mun

ich

and

Tubi

ngen

resp

ectiv

ely;

the

artic

les i

n V

ol. I

focu

son

a n

umbe

r of p

erso

nal l

ibra

ries (

by L

andb

erg,

Har

tman

n, S

pren

ger,

et a

l.)w

hich

bec

ame

the

very

hea

rt of

the

grea

t pub

lic c

olle

ctio

ns in

Ber

lin a

nd e

lse-

wher

e.Th

e va

st m

ajor

ity o

f prin

ted

cata

logs

do

not b

egin

to a

ppro

ach

Ger

man

stand

ards

. Per

haps

wor

st-se

rved

of a

ll is

Turk

ey, t

he c

ount

ry w

hich

pos

sess

esby

far t

he ri

ches

t Isla

mic

man

uscr

ipt h

oldi

ngs i

n th

e w

orld

. For

the

libra

ries o

fIs

tanb

ul, w

hich

con

tain

at l

east

125,

000

volu

mes

, sch

olar

s hav

e ha

d to

mak

edo

with

a se

ries o

f han

dlist

s (a

sepa

rate

one

for e

ach

of fo

rty o

r so

insti

tutio

ns)

publ

ished

at t

he tu

rn o

f the

cen

tury

. The

se a

re o

bsol

ete,

laco

nic,

and

ridd

led

with

erro

rs. F

or m

any

othe

r maj

or c

ente

rs, s

uch

as K

onya

or B

ursa

, we

do n

otha

ve e

ven

this

muc

h. In

vie

w o

f thi

s situ

atio

n, F

uat S

ezgi

n ha

s per

form

ed a

real

serv

ice

with

his

rece

nt a

ntho

logy

of a

rticl

es d

escr

ibin

g se

lect

ed m

anu-

scrip

ts in

Ista

nbul

and

oth

er T

urki

sh li

brar

ies:

Bei

trag

e zu

r Ers

chlie

ssun

g de

rar

abis

chen

Han

dsch

nfte

n in

Ista

nbul

and

Ana

tolie

n (4

vol

s., 1

986)

. Vol

. IV

is

38 S

OU

RC

ES

AN

D R

ES

EA

RC

H T

OO

LS

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

39

an in

dex

to th

e m

anus

crip

ts d

escr

ibed

in th

e fir

st th

ree,

org

aniz

ed b

y lib

rary

and

shel

flist

num

ber.

The

pape

rs c

olle

cted

her

e w

ere

publ

ishe

d be

twee

n th

ela

te 1

9th

cent

ury

and

1961

, and

all

are

by G

erm

an o

r Tur

kish

scho

lars

. The

rear

e un

fortu

nate

om

issio

ns—

e.g.

, an

impo

rtant

stud

y of

hist

oric

al m

anus

crip

tsin

Ista

nbul

by

Cla

ude

Cah

en, "

Les c

hron

ique

s ara

bes c

once

rnan

t la

Syrie

,tg

ypte

, et l

a M

esop

otam

ie d

e la

con

quet

e ar

abe

a la

con

quet

e ot

tom

ane

dans

les b

iblio

theq

ue. s

d'Is

tanb

ul,"

RE

I, x

(193

6), 3

33-3

62. B

ut S

ezgi

n's i

nitia

tive

is a

mos

t use

ful o

ne e

ven

so.

The

situa

tion

has s

low

ly b

egun

to im

prov

e. F

. E. K

arat

ay, f

or e

xam

ple,

did

a co

mpe

tent

set o

f cat

alog

s for

the

Topk

api S

aray

r Miiz

esi (

7 vo

ls., 1

961-

69),

whi

ch fo

r the

firs

t tim

e m

ade

this

grea

t rep

osito

ry o

f som

e 12

,000

man

uscr

ipts

read

ily a

cces

sible

to m

oder

n sc

hola

rshi

p. T

he m

ost c

ruci

al st

ep, h

owev

er, h

asbe

en th

e de

cisi

on o

f the

Min

istry

of C

ultu

re in

the

mid

-197

0's t

o pr

epar

e a

com

preh

ensiv

e un

ion

cata

log

of a

ll th

e m

anus

crip

ts in

Tur

key:

Turk

iye

Cum

huriy

eti K

ultu

r ye T

uriz

m B

akan

hgi,

Kiit

iipha

nele

r Gen

e!T

iirki

ye Y

azm

alan

Top

lu K

atal

o§u

I The

Uni

on C

atal

ogue

of

Man

uscr

ipts

in T

urke

y (1

1 vo

ls., 1

979–

in p

rogr

ess;

abb

r., T

UYAT

OK).

This

imm

ense

cam

paig

n w

ill in

evita

bly

stret

ch o

n fo

r dec

ades

, and

the

initi

alvo

lum

es h

ave

tend

ed to

focu

s on

smal

l and

hen

ce re

lativ

ely

man

agea

ble

col-

lect

ions

. The

ent

ries a

re v

ery

ters

e, o

ften

with

out r

efer

ence

s to

prin

ted

editi

ons

or th

e re

leva

nt b

io-b

iblio

grap

hica

l sou

rces

. How

ever

, the

re a

re a

utho

r and

title

indi

ces f

or e

ach

colle

ctio

n, a

s wel

l as f

ull-p

age

plat

es o

f sel

ecte

d m

anus

crip

ts.A

nd n

ot le

ast,

the

qual

ity o

f the

prin

ting

is qu

ite h

igh.

The

org

aniz

atio

n of

the

proj

ect i

s som

ewha

t con

fusin

g. F

irst,

each

vol

ume

is de

vote

d to

one

or m

ore

of th

e co

llect

ions

in a

giv

en p

rovi

nce

(as d

efin

ed b

y cu

rrent

bou

ndar

ies)

. How

-ev

er, t

he p

rovi

nces

are

not

trea

ted

in se

quen

ces:

Ada

na is

cov

ered

in V

ols.

IXan

d X

I, Is

tanb

ul (s

o fa

r) in

Vol

s. II

I and

VII

I. Se

cond

—in

con

trast

to m

ost

Euro

pean

cat

alog

s—TU

YA

TOK

dea

ls w

ith c

olle

ctio

ns, n

ot li

brar

ies p

er se

.Th

us, t

here

will

be

no o

vera

ll su

rvey

of t

he v

ast S

iiley

man

iye

Libr

ary

in Is

-ta

nbul

; rat

her,

each

of t

he in

num

erab

le c

olle

ctio

ns w

hich

mak

e it

up w

ill b

eca

talo

gued

sepa

rate

ly. F

or e

xam

ple,

Vol

. In

is de

vote

d to

the

colle

ctio

n of

425

mss

ass

embl

ed b

y A

li N

ihat

Tar

lan,

whi

ch h

appe

ns to

be

hous

ed a

t the

Siil

ey-

man

iye.

In sp

ite o

f suc

h sh

ortc

omin

gs, T

UY

ATO

K is

an

exci

ting

vent

ure

and

will

sure

ly h

ave

a pr

ofou

nd im

pact

.A

use

ful a

ttem

pt to

est

ablis

h a

unio

n ca

talo

g of

Per

sian

man

uscr

ipts

was

unde

rtake

n by

Alm

nad

Mun

zavi

, Fih

rist

-i N

uskh

and-

i Kha

tti-i

Fiir

si (

6 vo

ls.,

1348

-51/

1969

-72)

, und

er th

e sp

onso

rshi

p of

the

Regi

onal

Cul

tura

l Ins

titut

e in

Tehr

an. M

unza

vi d

oes n

ot c

laim

to a

dd n

ew m

ater

ials,

but

sim

ply

abstr

acts

the

avai

labl

e pr

inte

d ca

talo

gs; e

ven

so, t

hese

repr

esen

t col

lect

ions

all

over

Eur

ope,

Indi

a, a

nd th

e M

iddl

e Ea

st, a

nd so

me

49,0

00 m

anus

crip

ts ar

e in

clud

ed.

We

have

alre

ady

note

d th

at a

rticl

es d

ealin

g w

ith se

lect

ed m

anus

crip

ts c

anhe

lp a

scho

lar f

aced

with

non

-exi

stent

or i

nade

quat

e pr

inte

d ca

talo

gs. I

n ad

di-

tion

to th

e th

e tw

o an

thol

ogie

s by

Sezg

in fo

r Ger

man

y an

d Tu

rkey

, mos

t of t

heim

porta

nt o

nes d

own

to th

e m

id-1

970'

s can

be

foun

d in

the

thor

ough

surv

eyof

man

uscr

ipt c

olle

ctio

ns in

GA

S V

I, 31

1-46

6. A

supe

rbly

pro

duce

d ne

w jo

ur-

nal d

evot

ed sp

ecifi

cally

to Is

lam

ic m

anus

crip

ts m

ade

its a

ppea

ranc

e in

198

6:M

anus

crip

ts o

f th

e M

iddl

e E

ast (

abbr

., M

ME)

a ve

ry w

elco

me

addi

tion

in-

deed

. For

cur

rent

Eur

opea

n-la

ngua

ge c

ontri

butio

ns, I

ndex

Isla

mic

us is

the b

est

refe

renc

e, a

lbei

t a so

mew

hat c

umbe

rsom

e on

e. In

add

ition

, suc

h ar

ticle

s ap-

pear

regu

larly

in a

num

ber o

f Mid

dle E

aste

rn jo

urna

ls w

hich

the

Inde

x do

es n

otsu

rvey

:

a.M

ajal

lat M

a e h

ad a

l-M

akhg

igit

al- eA

rabi

yya

(abb

r., M

MM

A; A

rab

Leag

ue,

Cairo

; sin

ce 1

982

publ

ished

in K

uwai

t, w

ith v

olum

es n

umbe

red

in a

new

serie

s)b.

Mél

ange

s de

l'In

stit

ut D

omin

icai

n d'

Etu

des

Ori

enta

les

du C

aire

(abb

r.,M

IDEO

)c.

Maj

alla

t Maj

ma e a

l-L

ugha

al-

e Ara

biyy

a bi

-Dim

ashq

lRev

ue d

e l'A

cade

mie

Ara

be d

e D

erm

as (a

bbr.,

RAA

D)d.

Maj

alla

t al-

Maj

md

al- e

Ilm

i al-

e Irc

iqi (

abbr

., M

MII

; Bag

hdad

)e.

Nas

hriy

a-i K

iteib

khän

a-i M

arka

zi-i

Tihr

iin d

ar b

arra

-i N

uskh

ahci

-iK

halil

(Uni

vers

ity o

f Teh

ran;

abb

r., N

uskh

ahei

-i K

halli

)

The

surv

ey o

f Ara

bic

man

uscr

ipt c

olle

ctio

ns in

GA

S V

I has

larg

ely

sup-

plan

ted

two

olde

r bib

liogr

aphi

c w

orks

: A.J.

W. H

uism

an, L

es m

anus

crits

ara

-be

s da

ns le

mon

de: u

ne b

iblio

grap

hie

des

cata

logu

es (

1967

); an

d G

eorg

esVa

jda,

Rep

erto

ire

des

cata

logu

es e

t inv

enta

ires

de

man

uscr

its a

rabe

s (1

949)

.Se

e also

Kiir

lds `

Aw

wdd

, Fan

dris

al-

mak

htiit

at a

l-e a

rabi

yyaf

l al-

' War

n. C

ata-

logu

es o

f th

e A

rabi

c M

anus

crip

ts in

the

Wor

ld (2

vol

s. 14

05/1

984)

. eA

ww

ddtri

es to

be

exha

ustiv

e, a

nd p

rovi

des b

rief e

valu

atio

ns o

f the

cat

alog

ues h

e lis

ts;in

spite

of n

umer

ous m

inor

misp

rints,

he

is w

orth

con

sulti

ng. F

or P

ersia

n co

l-le

ctio

ns, i

n ad

ditio

n to

Sto

rey

and

Breg

el, s

ee th

e ex

celle

nt th

ough

now

obs

o-le

scen

t sur

vey

of 'r

aj A

fshd

r, B

iblio

grap

hie

des

cata

logu

es d

es m

anus

crits

pers

ans

(133

7/19

58).

For T

urki

sh w

e se

em to

hav

e no

thin

g of

this

kin

d,th

ough

VO

HD

has

ann

ounc

ed th

at a

repe

rtory

by

G. H

azai

is in

pre

para

tion

(Sup

pl. X

XII

); in

the

mea

ntim

e, se

e E.

Birn

baum

, "Tu

rkis

h M

anus

crip

ts"

(men

tione

d ab

ove,

pp.

30-

31).

A b

road

ove

rvie

w, g

oing

far b

eyon

d th

e lim

itsof

Isla

mic

stud

ies,

is pr

ovid

ed b

y J.

D. P

ears

on, O

rien

tal M

anus

crip

ts in

Eu-

rope

and

Nor

th A

mer

ica:

a S

urve

y (1

971)

. Pea

rson

brie

fly d

escr

ibes

and

as-

sess

es e

ach

of th

e co

llect

ions

whi

ch h

e in

clud

es, a

nd th

ough

he

has o

mitt

edTu

rkey

he

does

dis

cuss

the

Sovi

et U

nion

. His

com

men

ts o

n th

e U

SSR

(stil

lte

rra in

cogn

ita fo

r mos

t sch

olar

s) c

an b

e su

pple

men

ted

by R

. D. M

cChe

sney

,"A

Gui

de to

Orie

ntal

ist R

esea

rch

in S

ovie

t Cen

tral A

sia,"

MES

A B

ull.,

xii,

no.

1 (1

978)

, 13-

25. O

n th

e U

nite

d St

ates

and

Can

ada,

fina

lly, s

ee T

hom

as J.

Mar

tin, N

orth

Am

eric

an C

olle

ctio

ns o

f Is

lam

ic M

anus

crip

ts (1

977)

.Th

e co

nclu

sion

s to

be d

raw

n fr

om th

is d

iscu

ssio

n ar

e da

untin

g: m

edie

val

Isla

mic

man

uscr

ipts

are

like

ly to

be

full

of e

rror

s, w

ritte

n in

bar

ely

legi

ble

40 S

OU

RC

ES

AN

D R

ES

EA

RC

H T

OO

LS

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

41

scrip

ts, a

nd sc

atte

red

in u

nlik

ely

and

inac

cess

ible

loca

tions

. Tha

t is a

ll pe

r-fe

ctly

true

; as h

istor

ians

we

are

clea

rly b

ette

r off

whe

n w

e ha

ve o

ur so

urce

s in

a cr

itica

l prin

ted

editi

on. B

ut it

is a

lso tr

ue th

at m

anus

crip

ts ar

e al

ive

in a

way

that

prin

ted

text

s can

nev

er b

e. M

anus

crip

ts pu

t us i

n im

med

iate

con

tact

with

the

men

and

wom

en w

hom

we

stud

y; th

roug

h th

em w

e ou

rsel

ves b

ecom

epa

rtici

pant

s in

a liv

ing

scho

larly

and

lite

rary

trad

ition

. For

this

priv

ilege

, mer

ein

conv

enie

nce

is a

smal

l pric

e to

pay

.

B. A

RC

FIT

VE

S A

ND

DO

CU

ME

NT

S

In m

edie

val I

slam

ic h

istor

y w

e ar

e po

or in

arc

hive

s but

rich

in d

ocum

ents.

For

the

mos

t par

t we

have

onl

y be

gun

to id

entif

y an

d st

udy

thes

e, le

t alo

ne in

te-

grat

e th

em in

to th

e m

ain

stre

am o

f his

toric

al re

sear

ch, w

hich

still

dep

ends

over

whe

lmin

gly

on n

arra

tive

and

liter

ary

sour

ces.

But d

ocum

enta

ry m

ater

ials

are

quic

kly

mov

ing

from

the

perip

hery

to th

e ce

nter

of h

istor

ical

thin

king

inth

e Is

lam

ic fi

eld,

and

a se

rious

his

toria

n ca

n no

long

er a

void

the

hard

job

ofle

arni

ng h

ow to

use

them

eff

ectiv

ely.

As a

con

sequ

ence

, doc

umen

ts a

nd th

epr

oble

ms s

urro

undi

ng th

em w

ill o

ften

clai

m o

ur a

ttent

ion

in th

e pa

ges w

hich

follo

w, a

nd in

thre

e ch

apte

rs in

Par

t II (

7, 9

, 11)

we

will

exp

lore

cer

tain

gro

ups

of th

em in

con

side

rabl

e de

tail.

For

this

reas

on th

e pr

esen

t ana

lysi

s will

be

age

nera

l one

, in

orde

r to

prov

ide

a br

oad

cont

ext f

or m

ore

conc

rete

disc

ussio

nsla

ter o

n.M

edie

val I

slam

ic d

ocum

ents

are

ver

y un

even

ly d

istri

bute

d in

spac

e an

dtim

e. F

or E

gypt

alo

ne d

o w

e ha

ve a

nea

rly c

ontin

uous

(tho

ugh

extre

mel

y di

s-pa

rate

) seq

uenc

e of

them

, and

the

over

whe

lmin

g m

ajor

ity o

f our

tota

l cor

pus

in fa

ct c

omes

from

that

cou

ntry

. Oth

er c

ount

ries a

re re

pres

ente

d on

ly b

y ta

nta-

lizin

g fra

gmen

ts; a

nd p

reci

ous a

s the

se a

re, t

hey

are

no a

dequ

ate

foun

datio

n fo

rth

e st

udy

of b

road

pro

blem

s or p

erio

ds. O

nly

near

the

end

of th

e tim

e-sp

anco

vere

d in

this

book

—i.e

., th

e la

ter 8

th/1

4th

and

9th/

15th

cen

turie

s—do

es th

equ

antit

y of

doc

umen

ts ev

en fo

r the

mos

t fav

ored

regi

ons (

Ana

tolia

, nor

thw

est-

ern

Iran,

Syr

ia-P

ales

tine)

beg

in to

app

roac

h a

criti

cal m

ass.

Dow

n to

the

6th/

12th

cen

tury

, all

the

exta

nt d

ocum

ents

are

loos

e ite

ms—

i.e.,

they

are

not

par

t of a

n or

dere

d ar

chiv

al c

olle

ctio

n, th

ough

in a

ver

y fe

wca

ses i

t has

bee

n po

ssib

le th

roug

h ex

traor

dina

ry la

bors

to re

cons

truct

a p

artia

lar

chiv

e fr

om sc

atte

red

piec

es. E

ven

whe

n th

e do

cum

ents

com

e fr

om la

rge

trove

s, as

do

mos

t of t

he p

apyr

i or t

he G

eniz

a pa

pers

, the

se a

re ju

st m

iscel

lane

-ou

s agg

rega

tions

of m

ater

ial w

hich

com

mon

ly o

rigin

ated

lite

rally

as t

rash

heap

s. B

etw

een

the

6th/

12th

and

9th

/15t

h ce

ntur

ies,

the

few

arc

hiva

l col

lec-

tions

whi

ch e

xist

are

smal

l and

frag

men

tary

, tho

ugh

ther

e is

a su

bsta

ntia

l im

-pr

ovem

ent f

or th

e la

st de

cade

s of t

his p

erio

d. T

he 1

0th/

16th

cen

tury

, how

ever

,m

arks

a re

volu

tion,

for f

rom

this

poin

t on

the

vast

reso

urce

s of t

he O

ttom

anar

chiv

es li

e be

fore

us.

The

Otto

man

doc

umen

ts m

ostly

pos

tdat

e th

e lim

its o

fth

is bo

ok, b

ut e

ven

so w

e sh

all r

efer

to th

em a

t man

y po

ints,

sinc

e th

ey o

ften

thro

w a

dire

ct li

ght o

n th

e la

ter p

hase

s of s

ome

prob

lem

we

are

disc

ussi

ng,

prov

ide

a va

luab

le c

ompa

rativ

e pe

rspe

ctiv

e, o

r sug

gest

a u

sefu

l set

of q

ues-

tions

and

appr

oach

es.

Man

y do

cum

ents

hav

e co

me

dow

n to

us

not i

n th

eir o

rigin

al fo

rm, b

utth

roug

h ci

tatio

ns (o

f var

ying

acc

urac

y an

d co

mpl

eten

ess)

in th

e na

rrat

ive

sour

ces o

r thr

ough

incl

usio

n in

col

lect

ions

of m

odel

doc

umen

ts. S

uch

colle

c-tio

ns, u

sual

ly c

alle

d m

aim

:tea

t or m

unsh

deit,

wer

e co

mpi

led

to p

rovi

de c

han-

cery

offi

cial

s with

form

ular

ies t

o gu

ide

them

in th

e co

mpo

sitio

n of

ele

gant

and

form

ally

cor

rect

stat

e do

cum

ents.

Whe

re p

ossib

le th

e co

mpi

lers

wou

ld d

raw

on a

ctua

l doc

umen

ts re

giste

red

in th

e sta

te a

rchi

ves,

and

for t

his r

easo

n th

ese

insh

a'-co

llect

ions

are

pot

entia

lly v

ery

impo

rtant

. The

re a

re p

itfal

ls, h

owev

er;

com

pile

rs w

ere

not a

bove

inve

ntin

g do

cum

ents,

and

in a

ny e

vent

it w

as c

om-

mon

to o

mit

such

vita

l dat

a as

dat

es a

nd p

erso

nal n

ames

. Eve

n in

the

mos

tsc

rupu

lous

ly m

ade

colle

ctio

n, im

porta

nt e

lem

ents

like

seal

s, re

gist

ratio

nm

arks

, etc

., ar

e in

evita

bly

abse

nt. (

On

thes

e m

atte

rs se

e "I

nsha

'," E

/ 2, i

ii,12

41-4

4.)

Doc

umen

ts, b

oth

offic

ial a

nd p

rivat

e, w

ere

writ

ten

on a

var

iety

of m

ater

ials,

but o

nly

thre

e of

thes

e w

ere

wid

ely

used

: pap

yrus

, pap

er, a

nd st

one.

The

last

of th

ese

of c

ours

e pe

rtain

s to

insc

riptio

ns, w

hich

will

be

disc

usse

d un

der a

sepa

rate

hea

ding

. Pap

yrus

(Ar.,

qir

tiis)

, tho

ugh

prod

uced

onl

y in

Egy

pt, w

asus

ed a

ll ov

er th

e an

cien

t Med

iterra

nean

wor

ld d

own

to e

arly

med

ieva

l tim

es,

and

its im

port

and

sale

was

ofte

n a

state

mon

opol

y. In

Egy

pt, i

t con

tinue

d to

be u

sed

for b

oth

publ

ic a

nd p

rivat

e bu

sine

ss u

ntil

the

intro

duct

ion

of p

aper

man

ufac

ture

in th

at c

ount

ry in

the

early

5th

/1 lt

h ce

ntur

y. S

ince

it w

as re

la-

tivel

y ch

eap

and

com

mon

in E

gypt

, and

sinc

e lo

cal s

oil c

ondi

tions

favo

red

the

surv

ival

of o

rgan

ic m

ater

ials,

it sh

ould

be

no su

rpris

e th

at a

lmos

t all

surv

ivin

gpa

pyru

s doc

umen

ts h

ave

been

dis

cove

red

in th

at c

ount

ry, t

houg

h Sy

ria h

asal

so y

ield

ed a

few

pie

ces.

As f

or p

aper

(Ar.,

kei

ghad

), it

was

intro

duce

d in

toTr

anso

xani

a fro

m C

hina

in th

e m

id-2

nd/8

th c

entu

ry a

nd w

as b

eing

man

ufac

-tu

red

in B

aghd

ad so

me f

ifty

year

s lat

er. B

y th

e 5th

/1 1

th ce

ntur

y it

had

beco

me

the

prin

cipa

l writ

ing

mat

eria

l eve

n in

the

cons

erva

tive

and

rela

tivel

y re

mot

ere

gion

s of A

ndal

us a

nd th

e M

aghr

ib. T

he p

aper

mill

s of m

edie

val I

slam

pro

-du

ced

an e

xcel

lent

pro

duct

whi

ch re

mai

ns st

rong

and

flex

ible

for c

entu

ries,

and

so it

is n

atur

al th

at p

aper

doc

umen

ts fo

rm th

e bul

k of

wha

t has

com

e dow

nto

us.

(On

thes

e to

pics

see

Gro

hman

n, A

rabi

sche

Pal

tiogr

aphi

e, I,

66-

117;

"KA

ghad

," EP

, iv,

419

-420

; "K

irtas

," E/

2 , v,

173

-174

.)Th

e sc

ripts

use

d in

Isla

mic

doc

umen

ts c

an b

e m

ost i

ntim

idat

ing;

to a

far

grea

ter d

egre

e th

an li

tera

ry m

anus

crip

ts, th

eir s

tudy

dem

ands

car

eful

pal

aeo-

grap

hic

train

ing.

As t

o la

ngua

ge, o

ne m

ust b

e pr

epar

ed to

con

front

ext

rem

es o

fsty

le a

nd u

sage

: col

loqu

ial i

nfor

mal

ity in

priv

ate

and

busin

ess p

aper

s, al

mos

tim

pene

trabl

y flo

rid rh

etor

ic in

the

chan

cery

dec

rees

and

cor

resp

onde

nce

ofla

ter c

entu

ries.

For a

t lea

st so

me

of th

ese

prob

lem

s, fo

rtuna

tely

, a n

umbe

r of

usef

ul ti

tles a

re av

aila

ble.

Sinc

e th

e pa

pyri

repr

esen

t the

ear

liest

bod

y of

Isla

mic

doc

umen

ts (b

oth

42

SO

UR

CE

S A

ND

RE

SE

AR

CH

TO

OL

S

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

43

offic

ial a

nd p

rivat

e), w

e ca

n be

gin

with

a h

andb

ook

by A

dolf

Gro

hman

n, F

rom

the

Wor

ld o

f A

rabi

c Pa

pyri

(195

2). T

his w

ork

was

mea

nt a

s an

elem

enta

ryin

trodu

ctio

n to

the

subj

ect.

Even

so, i

t has

use

ful c

hapt

ers o

n sc

ript a

nd la

n-gu

age.

It c

onta

ins a

lso a

num

ber o

f prin

ted

and

trans

late

d sa

mpl

e do

cum

ents,

but t

he fe

w a

ccom

pany

ing

facs

imile

s are

unf

ortu

nate

ly to

o po

orly

prin

ted

to b

eof

muc

h va

lue.

The

aut

hor's

stat

emen

ts on

scrip

t and

lang

uage

are

mor

e fu

llyde

velo

ped

in h

is E

infi

ihru

ng u

nd C

hres

tom

athi

e zu

r ara

bisc

hen

Papy

rusk

unde

(195

5), b

ut th

is im

porta

nt st

udy

cont

ains

no

text

s at a

ll. O

n th

e gr

amm

ar o

f the

papy

ri, w

hich

dep

arts

in si

gnifi

cant

and

som

etim

es c

onfu

sing

way

s fro

m th

eno

rms o

f Cla

ssic

al A

rabi

c, se

e th

e ex

celle

nt a

naly

sis b

y Si

mon

Hop

kins

, Stu

d-ie

s in

the

Gra

mm

ar o

f E

arly

Ara

bic,

Bas

ed u

pon

Papy

ri D

atab

le to

bef

ore

A.H

. 300

/A.D

. 912

(198

4). G

iven

the

lack

of a

com

preh

ensiv

e ha

ndbo

ok, t

hebe

st re

cour

se is

pro

babl

y to

stud

y pa

pyri

whi

ch h

ave

been

pub

lishe

d w

ith g

ood

facs

imile

s, pr

inte

d tra

nscr

iptio

ns, t

rans

latio

ns, a

nd th

orou

gh a

nnot

atio

n. F

orsta

te d

ocum

ents,

a g

ood

exam

ple

wou

ld b

e N

abia

Abb

ott,

The

Kur

rah

Papy

rifr

om A

phro

dito

in th

e O

rien

tal I

nstit

ute

(193

8). A

n im

porta

nt a

rchi

ve o

f pri-

vate

doc

umen

ts ha

s rec

ently

bee

n re

cons

truct

ed b

y Y

iisuf

Rag

hib,

Mar

chan

dsd'

etof

fes

du F

ayyo

um a

u iii

e/ixe

siè

cle

d'ap

res

leur

s ar

chiv

es (a

ctes

et l

ettr

es);

I, L

es a

ctes

des

Ran

a" `A

bd a

l-M

u'm

in (1

982)

. (Si

x fa

scic

les a

ltoge

ther

are

proj

ecte

d in

this

ser

ies.

) The

larg

est p

ublis

hed

colle

ctio

n of

pap

yri i

s st

illA

dolf

Gro

hman

n, A

rabi

c Pa

pyri

in th

e E

gypt

ian

Mus

eum

(6

vols.

, 193

4-62

);th

roug

h it

one

can

get a

goo

d id

ea o

f the

sort

of li

ngui

stic

and

pal

aeog

raph

icpr

oble

ms l

ikel

y to

occ

ur in

any

of t

hese

doc

umen

ts. T

he sk

ills r

equi

red

toha

ndle

pap

yri a

re p

reci

sely

the

sam

e as

thos

e ne

eded

for p

aper

doc

umen

ts, a

tle

ast t

hose

of n

on-g

over

nmen

tal p

rove

nanc

e; p

apyr

olog

y is

a sc

ienc

e to

be

acqu

ired

by a

nyon

e w

ho h

as to

han

dle

loos

e do

cum

ents

dug

from

the

grou

nd,

ofte

n in

tatte

red

cond

ition

and

writ

ten

in il

legi

ble

and

ungr

amm

atic

al p

rose

.Pe

rhap

s bec

ause

so fe

w o

rigin

al st

ate

docu

men

ts in

Ara

bic

still

surv

ive,

we

have

no

full-

leng

th m

oder

n ac

coun

t of t

he c

hanc

ery

scrip

ts us

ed in

thes

e te

xts.

Mos

t of w

hat i

s kno

wn

is p

rese

nted

in th

e m

etic

ulou

s stu

dy o

f S. M

. Ste

rn,

Fatim

id D

ecre

es (1

964)

, whi

ch h

as sm

all b

ut c

lear

ly p

rinte

d fa

csim

iles o

fse

ven

item

s fro

m 6

th/1

2th

cent

ury

Egyp

t. A

s his

title

impl

ies,

Ster

n de

als o

nly

with

doc

umen

ts fr

om th

e ca

lipha

l cha

ncer

y, a

nd d

oes n

ot a

ddre

ss th

e ve

rydi

ffere

nt sc

ripts

and

form

ats u

sed

in su

ch q

uasi-

offic

ial t

exts

as d

eeds

of

waq

for

min

utes

of j

udic

ial h

earin

gs.

In re

gard

to P

ersia

n sta

te d

ocum

ents

we

are

som

ewha

t bet

ter o

ff. F

irst o

f all,

here

we

do h

ave

a ge

nera

l han

dboo

k: L

ajos

Fek

ete,

Ein

ffih

rung

in d

ie p

ersi

s-ch

e Pa

laog

raph

ie: 1

01 p

ersi

sche

Dok

umen

te, e

d. G

. Haz

ai (1

977)

. Thi

s is a

nan

thol

ogy

of d

ocum

ents

draw

n up

in c

hanc

erie

s thr

ough

out I

ran,

Ana

tolia

, and

Tran

soxi

ana

betw

een

1396

and

170

2. E

ach

piec

e is

give

n in

facs

imile

, prin

ted

trans

crip

tion,

and

Ger

man

tran

slatio

n, a

nd th

ere

is al

so a

leng

thy

intro

duct

ion

whi

ch d

iscus

ses s

crip

ts, th

e fo

rmat

and

stru

ctur

e of

the

docu

men

ts, d

ictio

n an

drh

etor

ic, e

tc. U

nfor

tuna

tely

this

book

mus

t be

used

with

cau

tion;

the

facs

imile

s

are

ofte

n ha

rd to

mak

e ou

t, an

d m

ore

impo

rtant

, it c

onta

ins m

any

signi

fican

ter

rors

of t

rans

crip

tion

and

trans

latio

n. A

mor

e re

liabl

e an

d co

nven

ient

intro

-du

ctio

n to

the

arca

na o

f Per

sian

pala

eogr

aphy

and

dip

lom

atic

s can

be

gotte

nfro

m th

e fin

e stu

dy o

f Her

iber

t Bus

se, U

nter

such

unge

n zu

m is

lam

isch

en K

anz-

leiw

esen

, an

hand

Tiir

kmen

isch

er u

nd S

afaw

idis

cher

Urk

unde

n (1

959)

.B

usse

's sc

ale

and

appr

oach

rath

er re

sem

ble

Ster

n's;

he

stud

ies t

wen

ty-th

ree

docu

men

ts da

ting

from

145

3 to

171

7.A

s alre

ady

note

d, th

e O

ttom

an a

rchi

ves c

onta

in m

ater

ials

of e

xtra

ordi

nary

impo

rtanc

e ev

en fo

r per

iods

bef

ore

the

10th

/16t

h ce

ntur

y, n

ot o

nly

for t

he th

eM

edite

rran

ean

Bas

in b

ut fo

r Ira

n as

wel

l. Th

is m

ater

ial i

s ofte

n ex

trem

ely

diffi

cult

to u

se, b

ut b

y no

w a

con

sider

able

tech

nica

l lite

ratu

re h

as b

een

gene

r-at

ed; t

his i

s abl

y re

view

ed in

Val

ery

Stoj

anow

, Die

Ent

steh

ung

und

Ent

wic

k-lu

ng d

er o

sman

isch

-tiir

kisc

hen

Palti

ogra

phie

und

Dip

lom

atik

(198

3). A

pra

c-tic

al o

rient

atio

n to

the

deci

pher

men

t of O

ttom

an st

ate

docu

men

ts ca

n be

foun

din

J. R

eych

man

and

A. Z

ajac

zkow

ski,

Han

dboo

k of

Otto

man

-Tur

kish

Dip

lo-

mat

ics,

tran

s. A

. S. E

hren

kreu

tz (1

968)

. The

cha

pter

on

pala

eogr

aphy

isbr

oadl

y ap

plic

able

to P

ersia

n ch

ance

ry u

sage

as w

ell,

thou

gh o

f cou

rse

ther

ear

e sig

nific

ant d

iffer

ence

s in

tech

nica

l ter

min

olog

y, n

ames

of s

crip

ts, e

tc. T

hefo

rbid

ding

scrip

t use

d by

the

Otto

man

fina

ncia

l bur

eauc

racy

is p

rese

nted

inLa

jos F

eket

e, D

ie S

iyaq

at-S

chnf

t in

der t

iirki

sche

n Fi

nanz

verw

altu

ng (1

955)

,an

impo

rtant

wor

k w

hich

is fa

r mor

e sa

tisfa

ctor

y th

an th

e sa

me

auth

or's

Einf

iihru

ng d

iscus

sed

abov

e.La

ngua

ge a

nd sc

ript a

re n

ot th

e on

ly p

robl

ems w

hich

con

fron

t us.

No

less

impo

rtant

is re

cons

truct

ing

the

cont

ext o

f ins

titut

ions

and

pro

cedu

res w

ithin

whi

ch th

ese

docu

men

ts w

ere

prod

uced

, for

with

out s

uch

a co

ntex

t the

y ar

em

eani

ngle

ss a

nd u

nint

ellig

ible

. The

rele

vant

con

text

will

of c

ours

e va

rygr

eatly

acc

ordi

ng to

the

kind

of d

ocum

ent i

n qu

estio

n. M

any

item

s—bu

sines

spa

pers

, min

utes

of c

ourt

proc

eedi

ngs,

deed

s of

waq

f—ca

ll fo

r a so

lid g

roun

d-in

g in

pra

ctic

al ju

rispr

uden

ce T

urd

al-f

iqh)

and

judi

cial

pro

cedu

re. (

For f

ur-

ther

disc

ussio

n of

thes

e iss

ues,

see

Part

II, C

h. 9

.) St

ate

docu

men

ts, in

con

trast,

requ

ire a

n ex

act k

now

ledg

e of

the

chan

cerie

s and

fina

nce

bure

aux

of m

edie

val

Isla

m. T

hese

are

in m

any

case

s stil

l onl

y po

orly

und

ersto

od, h

owev

er; n

ot o

nly

wer

e th

ey c

ompl

ex o

rgan

izat

ions

in th

emse

lves

, but

they

var

ied

grea

tly fr

omon

e re

gion

and

per

iod

to a

noth

er. I

n re

cent

dec

ades

, for

tuna

tely

, a c

onsid

erab

lenu

mbe

r bot

h m

oder

n st

udie

s and

sour

ces w

ritte

n by

mem

bers

of t

he Is

lam

icbu

reau

crac

ies h

ave

been

pub

lishe

d. T

hese

do

not s

olve

all

diff

icul

ties,

obvi

-ou

sly, b

ut th

ey g

ive

us a

wor

king

voc

abul

ary

and

sugg

est s

ome

poss

ible

line

sof

ana

lysis

. In

the

follo

win

g pa

ragr

aphs

, we

will

revi

ew b

riefly

the

basic

text

san

d stu

dies

for s

ever

al p

erio

ds o

f Isla

mic

hist

ory.

A fa

r mor

e det

aile

d ex

amin

a-tio

n fo

r one

pol

ity (t

he M

amlu

k Em

pire

in E

gypt

and

Syr

ia) w

ill b

e pr

esen

ted

in P

art I

I, Ch

. 7.

We

begi

n, n

atur

ally

eno

ugh,

with

a se

ries o

f arti

cles

in E

I2: "

Dip

lom

atic

," ii,

301-

316

(an

over

view

of d

ocum

ents

and

how

they

wer

e pr

oduc

ed);

"Daf

tar,"

44 S

OU

RC

ES

AN

D R

ES

EA

RC

H T

OO

LS

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

45

ii, 7

7-81

(the

file

or r

egis

ter p

repa

red

by th

e fin

ance

bur

eaux

); "D

iwan

,"32

3-33

7 (o

rigin

ally

the

mus

ter-

roll

of so

ldie

rs e

ntitl

ed to

stip

ends

, but

gen

er-

ally

the

term

for a

bur

eau

or d

epar

tmen

t); "

Farm

an,"

ii, 8

03-8

05 (t

he ro

yal

decr

ee);

"Kat

ib,"

iv, 7

54-7

60 (t

he o

ffic

ial o

r sec

reta

ry);

"ICh

atam

," iv

, 110

2-11

05. I

n E

P c

erta

in a

rticl

es a

re st

ill o

f val

ue: e

.g.,

"Tug

hra,

" iv,

822

-826

(the

roya

l sig

natu

re in

Tur

kish

dyn

astie

s).

The

root

s of I

slam

ic d

iplo

mat

ics a

nd a

dmin

istra

tion

obvi

ousl

y lie

in th

eus

age

of th

e Ea

rly a

nd M

arw

anid

Cal

ipha

tes,

but o

ur k

now

ledg

e of

the

insti

tu-

tions

and

pro

cedu

res o

f the

se re

gim

es re

mai

ns u

ncer

tain

. Und

er su

ch c

ircum

-sta

nces

, the

bes

t stra

tegy

is to

beg

in w

ith a

few

rece

nt m

onog

raph

s and

wor

kba

ck in

to th

e so

urce

s and

stud

ies c

ited

by th

em. E

arly

Isla

mic

Egy

pt is

by

far

the

best-

docu

men

ted

prov

ince

, tho

ugh

the

docu

men

ts ar

e ha

rdly

tran

spar

ent.

(A w

arni

ng is

in o

rder

her

e: E

gypt

is ty

pica

l onl

y of

Egy

pt, a

nd th

e ur

ge to

gene

raliz

e m

ust b

e sta

unch

ly re

siste

d.) T

he m

ost r

ecen

t ana

lysis

is K

isei M

o-rim

oto,

The

Fis

cal A

dmin

istr

atio

n of

Egy

pt in

the

Ear

ly Is

lam

ic P

erio

d (1

981)

,to

be

com

pare

d w

ith th

e as

tute

thou

gh p

olem

ical

acc

ount

of D

. C. D

enne

tt,C

onve

rsio

n an

d th

e Po

ll T

ax in

Ear

ly I

slam

(19

50),

pp. 3

-13,

65-

115.

The

form

s use

d in

the

offic

ial p

apyr

i are

trea

ted

in G

rohm

ann,

Ein

fiih

rung

, pp.

107-

130.

For

the

cruc

ial a

nd in

nova

tive

regi

on o

f Ira

q, a

mas

s of d

ata

on e

very

aspe

ct o

f adm

inist

ratio

n ha

s bee

n sif

ted

from

an

impr

essiv

e ar

ray

of so

urce

s by

M. G

. Mor

ony,

Iraq

aft

er th

e M

uslim

Con

ques

t (19

84),

pp. 2

7-16

4, a

lthou

ghhi

s gen

eral

con

clus

ions

may

nee

d fu

rther

stud

y. O

n th

e or

igin

s and

cha

ract

erof

the

fisca

l sys

tem

in th

is re

gion

, Den

nett

is a

gain

inci

sive

thou

gh fa

r fro

mde

finiti

ve.

The

Abb

asid

dyn

asty

has

a sp

ecia

l rol

e in

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f Isla

mic

gov

-er

nmen

t, no

t onl

y be

caus

e of

its e

arly

gra

ndeu

r, bu

t eve

n m

ore

beca

use

of it

sim

men

se p

rest

ige,

whi

ch m

ade

it a

mod

el o

f bur

eauc

ratic

org

aniz

atio

n an

dad

min

istra

tive

proc

edur

e fo

r so

man

y su

cces

sor s

tate

s in

the

Nile

-to-O

xus r

e-gi

on. I

n ad

ditio

n, th

e gr

owin

g el

abor

atio

n an

d se

lf-co

nsci

ousn

ess o

f the

bu-

reau

crac

y le

d to

the

com

posit

ion

of n

umer

ous t

reat

ises o

n ta

xatio

n, th

e ar

t of

the

secr

etar

y, e

tc. T

he c

hanc

ery

and

fisca

l pra

ctic

es o

f the

Abb

asid

s and

thei

rea

rly Ir

ania

n su

cces

sors

are

sum

mar

ized

in th

e ch

apte

r on

kita

ba in

al-

ithw

äriz

mis

Maf

atilj

al-

` ed

. G. v

an V

lote

n (4

vol

s., 1

895;

repr

. 196

8);

this

text

is m

ost c

onve

nien

tly st

udie

d th

roug

h an

ext

ensiv

ely

anno

tate

d tra

ns-

latio

n by

C. E

. Bos

wor

th, "

Abu

`Abd

alla

h al

-Ith

wär

izm

i on

the

Tech

nica

lTe

rms o

f the

Sec

reta

ry's

Art,

" JE

SHO

, xii

(196

9), 1

13-1

64. T

he g

ener

al st

ruc-

ture

of A

bbas

id a

dmin

istra

tion

is tra

ced

in th

e fo

rmid

able

stud

y of

Dom

iniq

ueSo

urde

l, L

e vi

zira

t abb

asid

e de

749

a 93

6 (2

vol

s., 1

959-

60).

Sour

del's

wor

kis

exha

ustiv

ely

docu

men

ted,

but

its r

eal m

erit

lies i

n its

focu

s on

the

prob

lem

of c

hang

e in

the

func

tions

and

pol

itica

l pow

er o

f the

waz

irs.

The

Egy

ptia

npa

pyri

are

still

num

erou

s in

this

perio

d; th

eir d

ata

is an

alyz

ed in

the

rele

vant

chap

ter o

f Mor

imot

o.Si

nce

post-

Abb

asid

Egy

pt a

nd S

yria

are

trea

ted

in c

onsid

erab

le d

etai

l lat

eron

, it w

ill b

e en

ough

her

e to

refe

r to

a fe

w w

orks

whi

ch b

etw

een

them

sum

up

or g

ive

acce

ss to

eve

ryth

ing

else

. By

far t

he m

ost i

mpo

rtant

lite

rary

sour

ce is

the

impo

sing

sum

ma

of a

l-Qal

qash

andi

, Sub

h al

-ae s

hii f

i sin

d at

al-

insh

ei' (

14vo

ls., 1

913-

20; r

epr.

1964

). Th

e bu

lk o

f thi

s vas

t com

pila

tion

mak

es it

diff

icul

tto

app

roac

h, b

ut it

is su

mm

ariz

ed in

Wal

ther

BjO

rkm

an, B

eitr

iige

zur G

es-

chic

hte

der S

taat

skan

zlei

im is

lam

isch

en A

gypt

en (1

928)

. On

chan

cery

pro

ce-

dure

s, th

e cr

ucia

l stu

dy is

Ste

rn's

Fatim

id D

ecre

es. F

inal

ly, H

assa

nein

Rab

ie,

The

Fina

ncia

l Adm

inis

trat

ion

of E

gypt

, A.H

. 564

-741

/A.D

. 116

9-13

41 (1

972)

prov

ides

a w

ealth

of d

ata

on h

is su

bjec

t, th

ough

his

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

his

mat

e-ria

l see

ms i

ncom

plet

ely

wor

ked

out a

nd in

any

cas

e is

diffi

cult

to fo

llow

.Th

e 5t

h/1

lth c

entu

ry o

pens

a n

ew e

ra in

the

evol

utio

n of

Iran

ian

adm

inist

ra-

tive

prac

tice,

for i

t is f

rom

this

tim

e th

at a

sepa

rate

and

dis

tinct

ive

Pers

ian-

lang

uage

cha

ncer

y tra

ditio

n be

gins

to e

mer

ge. A

lthou

gh th

e Ira

nian

cha

ncer

ies

have

beq

ueat

hed

us n

o co

mpr

ehen

sive

wor

ks li

ke th

at o

f al-Q

alqa

shan

di, w

edo

hav

e a

num

ber o

f ext

rem

ely

valu

able

spec

ializ

ed tr

eatis

es. O

n fin

anci

alpr

oced

ures

, see

` Abd

alla

h b.

Muh

amm

ad b

. Kiy

a M

azan

dara

ni,

Ris

iila-

ifa

laki

yya

dar

e ilm

-i s

iyiiq

at, e

d. W

alth

er H

inz

(195

2), t

he b

ulk

of w

hich

con

-sis

ts of

mod

els o

f the

var

ious

kin

ds o

f fin

anci

al re

giste

rs in

use

in th

e au

thor

'stim

e (8

th/1

4th

cen.

). Th

is tr

eatis

e ha

s bee

n an

alyz

ed b

y H

inz

in a

sepa

rate

study

: "D

as R

echn

ungs

wes

en o

rient

alisc

her R

eich

sfin

anza

mte

r in

Mitt

elal

ter,"

Isla

m, x

xix

(195

0), 1

-29,

113-

141.

Fro

m th

e en

d of

the

llth/

17th

cen

tury

we

have

an

anon

ymou

s wor

k en

title

d Ta

dhki

rat a

l-m

uliik

, ed.

and

tran

s. V

. Mi-

nors

ky (1

943)

, whi

ch g

ives

a c

ritic

al a

ccou

nt o

f the

adm

inist

rativ

e in

stitu

tions

of th

e de

cayi

ng S

afav

id re

gim

e. In

spite

of t

he la

te d

ate

of th

is w

ork,

the

edito

r's in

trodu

ctio

n an

d no

tes m

ake

it a

signi

fican

t res

ourc

e ev

en fo

r far

ear

-lie

r per

iods

. In

Pers

ian,

see

the

gene

ral w

ork

of Ja

hang

ir Q

a'im

-maq

ami,

Muq

addi

ma-

i bar

shi

nakh

t-i a

sniid

-i ti

irik

hi (1

350/

1971

).A

mon

g m

oder

n st

udie

s of I

rani

an d

iplo

mat

ics,

.a so

und

gene

ral s

urve

y is

give

n by

H. B

usse

, "Pe

rsis

che

Dip

lom

atik

in U

berb

lick:

Erg

ebni

sse

and

Prob

lem

e," Is

lam

, xxx

vii (

1961

), 20

2-24

5, w

hich

can

be

stud

ied

in c

onju

nc-

tion

with

the

sam

e sc

hola

r's U

nter

such

unge

n zu

m is

lam

isch

en K

anzl

eiw

esen

(see

abo

ve, p

. 43)

. For

the

form

ativ

e pe

riod

of th

e Ira

nian

trad

ition

(5th

/llth

-7t

h/13

th c

entu

ries)

we

have

no

exta

nt d

ocum

ents

in th

eir o

rigin

al fo

rm, b

utm

ust d

epen

d on

the

insh

d-co

llect

ions

. Sev

eral

of t

hese

are

stud

ied

in H

erib

ert

Horst

, Die

Sta

atsv

erw

altu

ng d

er G

ross

elO

qen

and

ljora

zmki

hs (1

038-

1231

)(1

964)

. Hor

st's c

once

ptio

n of

adm

inist

ratio

n is

rath

er st

atic

and

mec

hani

cal,

and

ther

e ar

e nu

mer

ous e

rror

s in

his s

umm

ary

trans

latio

ns fr

om th

e do

cu-

men

ts, b

ut h

e pr

ovid

es a

use

ful o

rient

atio

n to

the

subj

ect.

For t

he p

erio

ds c

over

ed in

this

boo

k, N

orth

Afr

ica

seem

s to

have

left

usne

ither

orig

inal

doc

umen

ts no

r sys

tem

atic

trea

tises

on

adm

inist

ratio

n. U

nder

the

circ

umsta

nces

, we

can

prob

ably

do

no b

ette

r tha

n to

exa

min

e th

e re

leva

ntch

apte

rs in

Ibn

Kha

ldim

's M

uqad

dim

a (tr

ans.

Fran

z R

osen

thal

, Vol

. II,

pp.

3-48

). A

s in

the

east

ern

Isla

mic

land

s, of

cou

rse,

num

erou

s doc

umen

ts a

retra

nscr

ibed

(but

how

relia

bly?

) in

the c

hron

icle

s, bi

ogra

phic

al d

ictio

narie

s, an

dm

ajm

it . Ca

.

46

SO

UR

CE

S A

ND

RE

SE

AR

CH

TO

OL

S

It w

ould

be

extre

mel

y us

eful

to h

ave

accu

rate

and

com

plet

e ca

lend

ars o

fIs

lam

ic d

ocum

ents,

org

aniz

ed b

y pe

riod,

regi

on, a

nd su

bjec

t—th

e so

rt of

thin

gth

at st

uden

ts in

Eng

lish

hist

ory,

for e

xam

ple,

sim

ply

take

for g

rant

ed. B

ut it

will

be

a ve

ry lo

ng ti

me

befo

re o

ur fi

eld

can

achi

eve

anyt

hing

like

this,

and

inth

e m

eant

ime

hist

oria

ns o

f Isla

m w

ill h

ave

to c

ount

on

expe

ndin

g m

uch

time

and

effo

rt ju

st to

det

erm

ine

wha

t doc

umen

ts m

ay b

e av

aila

ble.

How

ever

, we

doha

ve a

few

refe

renc

e to

ols,

surv

ey a

rticl

es, a

nd p

rinte

d co

llect

ions

, and

we

will

conc

lude

this

sect

ion

by id

entif

ying

the

mos

t im

porta

nt o

f the

se, i

nsof

ar a

sth

ey d

eal w

ith o

rigin

al d

ocum

ents

and

not

tran

scrip

tions

in li

tera

ry te

xts a

nd.

_e _

maj

mu

at.

Certa

in E

urop

ean

arch

ives

con

tain

a n

umbe

r of A

rabi

c do

cum

ents—

treat

ies,

dipl

omat

ic c

orre

spon

denc

e, e

tc. A

mon

g th

ese

the

mos

t im

porta

nt p

ublis

hed

colle

ctio

ns a

re th

e fo

llow

ing:

a.M

. A. A

larc

on y

San

t& a

nd R

. G. d

e L

inar

es,

Los

doc

umen

tos

arab

es d

iplo

-

mat

icos

del

arc

hivi

o de

la C

oron

a de

Ara

gon

(194

0)-1

62 d

ocum

ents

, dea

ling

with

Gra

nada

, Nor

th A

fric

a, a

nd E

gypt

.b.

Mic

hele

Am

ari,

I dip

lom

i ara

bi d

el R

. Arc

hivi

o Fi

oren

tino

(186

3).

C. S

alva

tore

Cus

a, 1

dip

lom

i gre

ci e

d ar

abi d

i Sic

ilia

(2

vols

., 18

68-1

882)

---

mos

tly it

ems

from

the

Nor

man

per

iod.

Doc

umen

ts o

f a v

ery

diff

eren

t kin

d—m

arria

ge c

ontra

cts,

pers

onal

lette

rs,

hous

ehol

d in

vent

orie

s—ar

e pr

esen

ted

in th

e m

etic

ulou

s col

lect

ion

of W

ilhel

mH

oene

rbac

h, S

pani

sch-

Isla

mis

che

Urk

unde

n au

s de

r Z

eit d

er N

asri

den

and

Mor

isco

s (1

965)

.Th

e vo

lum

e of

pub

lishe

d do

cum

ents

from

Egy

pt is

far t

oo la

rge

for a

nyad

equa

te su

rvey

her

e. U

nfor

tuna

tely

thes

e pu

blic

atio

ns a

re te

rrib

ly sc

atte

red,

and

to d

ate

ther

e is

no g

ener

al in

dex

for t

hem

. Und

er th

ese

circ

umsta

nces

, we

shal

l res

trict

our

selv

es to

iden

tifyi

ng th

e m

ost i

mpo

rtant

gro

ups o

f doc

umen

ts,to

geth

er w

ith th

ose

studi

es a

nd su

rvey

s whi

ch b

est g

ive

acce

ss to

them

.To

the

papy

ri w

e ha

ve a

lread

y de

vote

d co

nsid

erab

le a

ttent

ion.

An

exha

us-

five

inve

ntor

y of

find

-site

s, m

useu

m a

nd li

brar

y co

llect

ions

, and

pub

licat

ions

is gi

ven

in G

rohm

ann,

Ein

fiih

rung

, to

be u

pdat

ed b

y th

e sa

me

auth

or's

Ara

bis-

che

Papy

rusk

unde

, HO

, Erg

bd. I

I, 1

(196

6). A

bod

y of

mat

eria

ls ra

ther

sim

ilar

in c

hara

cter

and

pro

vena

nce

to th

e pa

pyri,

thou

gh la

ter i

n da

te, a

re th

e so

-ca

lled

"Vie

nna

pape

rs"—

man

y th

ousa

nds o

f loo

se sc

raps

of p

aper

stor

ed in

unca

talo

gued

box

es a

t the

Oste

rreic

hisc

he S

taat

sbib

lioth

ek. O

f the

se th

ere

is a

brie

f but

con

cret

e de

scrip

tion

in H

. Rab

ie, T

he F

inan

cial

Sys

tem

of E

gypt

, pp.

3-6.

(Muc

h of

the

Vie

nna

mat

eria

l is a

vaila

ble

on m

icro

film

at a

rath

er su

rpris

-in

g lo

catio

n, th

e H

ill M

onas

tic L

ibra

ry o

f St.

John

's U

nive

rsity

, Col

lege

ville

,M

inne

sota

.) N

ew tr

oves

of d

ocum

ents

are

alw

ays b

eing

unc

over

ed. F

or e

xam

-pl

e, e

xcav

atio

ns d

urin

g 19

78 a

t the

Red

Sea

por

t of Q

usay

r rev

eale

d so

me

400

lette

rs, b

ills

of la

ding

, etc

., de

posi

ted

by m

erch

ants

resi

ding

ther

e du

ring

Mam

luk

times

.

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

47

No

doub

t the

mos

t rem

arka

ble

corp

us o

f doc

umen

ts fr

om E

gypt

are

the

Gen

iza

pape

rs—

a va

st tu

mbl

e of

writ

ings

of a

ll ki

nds d

iscov

ered

in a

seal

edsto

rero

om o

f the

Fus

tät s

ynag

ogue

dur

ing

reno

vatio

ns to

that

bui

ldin

g in

189

0.Th

ese

will

be

disc

usse

d m

ore

fully

in P

art I

I, Ch

. 11;

her

e w

e ne

ed o

nly

note

that

the

Gen

iza

has y

ield

ed so

me

10,0

00 d

ocum

ents,

dat

ing

from

the

late

4th

/10

th to

the

9th/

15th

cen

turie

s. Th

is h

oard

was

bro

ken

up e

arly

on,

so th

atG

eniz

a m

ater

ials

are

now

scat

tere

d am

ong

colle

ctio

ns a

ll ov

er E

urop

e an

dA

sia. T

he b

est i

ntro

duct

ion

to th

is m

ater

ial a

nd it

s ext

raor

dina

ry im

porta

nce

for I

slam

ic a

nd M

edite

rrane

an h

istor

y is

S. D

. Goi

tein

, A M

edite

rran

ean

Soci

-et

y: th

e Je

wis

h C

omm

uniti

es o

f the

Ara

b W

orld

as

Port

raye

d in

the

Doc

umen

tsof

the

Cai

ro G

eniz

a (5

vol

s., 1

967-

88);

for a

des

crip

tion

of th

e G

eniz

a fin

dsse

e V

ol. I

, 1-2

8. G

eniz

a pu

blic

atio

ns a

nd st

udie

s are

vol

umin

ous;

dow

n to

1964

they

hav

e be

en re

cord

ed b

y Sh

aul S

hake

d, A

Ten

tativ

e B

iblio

grap

hy o

fG

eniz

a D

ocum

ents

(196

4), w

hich

rem

ains

use

ful i

n sp

ite o

f the

floo

d of

new

wor

k ov

er th

e pa

st tw

o de

cade

s. Th

e fir

st p

art g

ives

a c

ompr

ehen

sive

list o

fG

eniz

a tex

ts, ar

rang

ed ac

cord

ing

to th

e col

lect

ions

whe

re th

ey ar

e now

hou

sed;

the

seco

nd p

art p

rese

nts a

bib

liogr

aphy

of p

ublic

atio

ns a

nd st

udie

s.V

ery

few

Egy

ptia

n sta

te d

ocum

ents

(dec

rees

, off

icia

l cor

resp

onde

nce,

ca-

dastr

al su

rvey

s, et

c.) fr

om b

efor

e the

Otto

man

conq

uest

have

com

e dow

n to

us.

How

ever

, the

arc

hive

s do

pres

erve

nea

rly 9

00 d

eeds

of

waq

f, co

ntra

cts o

f sal

e,et

c., d

raw

n up

on

beha

lf of

the

sulta

n an

d ot

her h

igh

offic

ials.

The

se h

ave

now

been

cat

alog

ued

(with

facs

imile

s and

prin

ted

trans

crip

tions

of n

ine

sam

ple

docu

men

ts) b

y M

uham

mad

Am

in, C

atal

ogue

des

doc

umen

ts d

'arc

hive

s du

Cai

re, d

e 23

9/85

3 a

922/

1516

(198

1, in

Ara

bic)

—a

wor

k w

hich

will

sure

lyha

ve a

stro

ng im

pact

on

the

stud

y of

soc

ial a

nd e

cono

mic

life

dur

ing

the

Mam

luk

perio

d.Th

e on

ly su

bsta

ntia

l ser

ies o

f cha

ncer

y do

cum

ents

still

exta

nt is

loca

ted

atSt

. Cat

herin

e's M

onas

tery

on

Mt.

Sina

i. Th

ese

are

avai

labl

e on

mic

rofil

m a

tth

e Li

brar

y of

Con

gres

s, W

ashi

ngto

n, D

.C.,

and

have

bee

n ca

talo

gued

(alb

eit

in a

ver

y te

rse

man

ner)

by

A. S

. Atiy

a, T

he A

rabi

c M

anus

crip

ts o

f M

t. Si

nai

(195

5). M

ost o

f tho

se re

leva

nt to

our

per

iod

have

bee

n pu

blish

ed—

the

Fatim

idan

d A

yyub

id d

ocum

ents

by S

. M. S

tem

, the

Mam

luk

item

s by

Han

s Ern

st, D

iem

amlu

kisc

hen

Sulta

nsur

kund

en d

es S

inai

-Klo

ster

s (1

960)

. An

over

view

of

this

fiel

d is

giv

en b

y H

. R. R

oem

er, "

Ara

bisc

he H

errs

cher

urku

nden

aus

Agy

pten

," 0

12,1

xi (1

966)

, 325

-347

.In

con

trast

to E

gypt

, the

land

s of t

he F

ertil

e Cr

esce

nt h

ave

path

etic

ally

few

docu

men

ts to

off

er; t

he b

ulk

of th

ese

com

e fr

om Je

rusa

lem

and

Dam

ascu

s.Th

ere

are

a fe

w 3

rd/9

th c

entu

ry p

apyr

i pub

lishe

d by

Nab

ia A

bbot

t, "A

rabi

cPa

pyri

of th

e Re

ign

of d

a efa

r al-

Mu

taw

ak

kil

ZD

MG

, xci

i (19

38),

88-1

35. I

n Is

tanb

ul, t

he M

useu

m o

f Tur

kish

and

Isla

mic

Art

hous

es so

me

rem

arka

ble

fragm

ents

brou

ght t

here

from

the

Um

ayya

d M

osqu

e of

Dam

ascu

saf

ter t

hat b

uild

ing

was

gut

ted

by a

disa

strou

s fire

in 1

893.

The

se a

re d

escr

ibed

by J.

Sou

rdel

-Tho

min

e an

d D

. Sou

rdel

in tw

o ar

ticle

s: "N

ouve

aux

docu

men

ts

48 S

OU

RC

ES

AN

D R

ES

EA

RC

H T

OO

LS

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

49

sur l

'his

toire

relig

ieus

e et

soc

iale

de

Dam

as a

u M

oyen

Ag

e,"

RE

I, x

xxii

(196

4), 1

-25;

A pr

opos

des d

ocum

ents

de

la g

rand

e m

osqu

e de

Dam

as c

on-

serv

es a

Ista

nbul

. Rës

ulta

ts de

la se

cond

e en

quet

e,"

REI

, xxx

iii (1

965)

, 73-

85.

Thre

e of

the

olde

st it

ems w

ere

publ

ishe

d by

the

Sour

dels

in "T

rois

act

es d

eve

nte

dam

asca

ins d

u de

but d

u iv

e /xe s

iècl

e,"

JESH

O, v

iii (1

965)

, 164

-185

.Fi

nally

, we

shou

ld m

entio

n an

arc

hiva

l col

lect

ion

whi

ch is

in so

me

resp

ects

com

para

ble

to th

at o

f St.

Cath

erin

e's, t

houg

h on

a m

arke

dly

smal

ler s

cale

. Thi

sis

the

body

of d

ocum

ents

hel

d at

the

Fran

cisc

an C

usto

dia

Terr

ae S

anct

ae in

Jeru

sale

m. A

serie

s of r

oyal

dec

rees

runn

ing

from

al-A

shra

f Sha

ebän

(764

-77

8/13

63-1

376)

to K

hush

qada

m (8

65-8

72/1

461-

1467

) wer

e pu

blis

hed

inN

. Risc

iani

, Doc

umen

ti e

firm

ani (

1931

), an

d a s

umm

ary

cata

log

was

pro

vide

dby

E. C

aste

llani

, Cat

alog

o de

i fir

man

i e a

ltri d

ocum

enti

lega

li co

nser

vati

nel'a

rchi

vio

della

Cus

todi

a in

Ger

usal

emm

e (1

922)

. Nei

ther

pub

licat

ion

was

ever

put

into

gen

eral

dist

ribut

ion,

how

ever

, and

bot

h ar

e al

mos

t im

poss

ible

tofin

d. Far m

ore

impo

rtant

than

any

of t

he a

bove

col

lect

ions

is a

trov

e of

som

e10

00 d

ocum

ents

of e

very

kin

d—de

cree

s and

pet

ition

s, ho

useh

old

inve

ntor

ies,

acts

of s

ale,

etc

.—fr

om th

e H

aram

al-S

harif

in Je

rusa

lem

, dat

ing

from

the

7th/

13th

to th

e la

te 9

th/1

5th

cent

urie

s, w

ith th

e gr

eat m

ajor

ity b

elon

ging

to th

e79

0s/1

390s

. The

se w

ere

first

desc

ribed

by

Lind

a S.

Nor

thru

p an

d A

mal

Abu

l-H

ajj,

"A C

olle

ctio

n of

Med

ieva

l Ara

bic

Doc

umen

ts in

the

Isla

mic

Mus

eum

at

the H

ara

m A

rabi

ca, x

xv (1

978)

, 282

-291

; see

also

Don

ald

P. L

ittle

,"T

he S

igni

fican

ce o

f the

Har

am D

ocum

ents

for t

he S

tudy

of M

edie

val I

slam

icH

istor

y," I

slam

, lvi

i (19

80),

189-

219.

Litt

le h

as p

ublis

hed

a de

taile

d ca

talo

gue

of th

is m

ater

ial,

A C

atal

ogue

of

the

Isla

mic

Doc

umen

ts f

rom

al-

Ilar

am a

s-Sa

rifin

Jer

usal

em (1

984)

. The

doc

umen

ts ar

e gr

oupe

d ac

cord

ing

to th

eir l

egal

func

tion

(e.g

., de

cree

s, es

tate

inve

ntor

ies,

cont

ract

s), a

nd an

Eng

lish

abstr

act o

fea

ch it

em is

pre

sent

ed. T

here

are

regr

etta

bly

no fa

csim

iles o

r Ara

bic

text

s.So

me

of L

ittle

's re

adin

gs h

ave

been

crit

iciz

ed. (

See

for e

xam

ple

the

revi

ew b

yD

. S. R

icha

rds

in B

SOA

S, 1

[198

7], 3

62-3

64.)

How

ever

, the

scrip

t of t

hese

docu

men

ts is

alm

ost i

mpe

netra

ble

in p

lace

s, an

d w

hate

ver i

ts fl

aws,

Littl

e'sca

talo

g is

an

inva

luab

le re

sour

ce fo

r the

stud

ent o

f Mam

luk

Syria

. The

few

studi

es o

f the

Har

am d

ocum

ents

alre

ady

publ

ished

are

eno

ugh

to d

emon

strat

eth

eir p

rofo

und

impo

rtanc

e, e

spec

ially

if th

ey c

an b

e us

ed in

con

junc

tion

with

the

Egyp

tian

mat

eria

ls ca

talo

gued

by

Am

in.

If on

ly b

ecau

se o

f the

bur

eauc

ratic

nee

ds an

d tra

ditio

ns o

f the

Otto

man

stat

e,w

e m

ight

exp

ect t

o fin

d qu

ite a

num

ber o

f Ana

tolia

n do

cum

ents

datin

g fr

omth

e 7t

h/13

th to

the

9th/

15th

cen

turie

s. In

fact

such

item

s see

m to

be

rath

ersp

arse

, tho

ugh

a ca

refu

l sur

vey

of th

e pr

ovin

cial

shar

ra-c

ourt

reco

rds m

ight

still

turn

up

a gr

eat d

eal.

In th

e m

eant

ime,

see

the

bibl

iogr

aphi

cal e

ssay

in

Cla

ude

Coh

en, P

re-O

ttom

an T

urke

y (1

968)

, esp

ecia

lly p

p. 4

34-3

5. D

ocu-

men

ts be

long

ing

to th

e ve

ry e

nd o

f our

per

iod

are

pres

ente

d in

Meh

met

Kec

ik, B

rief

e un

d U

rkun

den

aus

der

Kan

zlei

Uzu

n-H

asan

s: e

in B

eitr

ag z

urG

esch

icht

e O

st-A

nato

liens

im 1

5. J

ahrh

unde

rt (

1975

).

Iran

is w

ell s

erve

d by

a re

cent

pub

licat

ion:

Ber

t G. F

ragn

er,

Rep

erto

rium

pers

isch

er H

errs

cher

urku

nden

: pub

lizie

rte

Ori

gina

lurk

unde

n (h

is 1

848)

(198

0), w

hich

giv

es b

iblio

grap

hic

data

on

868

docu

men

ts, th

e ea

rlies

t dat

ing

from

ca.

120

0. F

ragn

er in

clud

es o

nly

roya

l cha

ncer

y do

cum

ents

, to

be su

re,

and

does

not

dire

ctly

add

ress

unp

ublis

hed

mat

eria

ls. W

hat m

ay y

et b

e fo

und

is su

gges

ted

by a

bod

y of

doc

umen

ts di

scov

ered

in 1

970

at th

e Sa

favi

d sh

rine

in A

rdeb

il. T

his c

olle

ctio

n nu

mbe

rs m

ore

than

500

item

s, da

ting

from

the

6th/

12th

to th

e 9t

h/15

th c

entu

ry. I

t was

firs

t des

crib

ed b

y G

ottfr

ied

Her

man

n,"U

rkun

den-

fund

e in

Aza

rbay

gan,

AM

I, N

F iv

(197

1), 2

50-2

62; s

ee a

lso

the

com

men

ts by

Fra

gner

, "D

as A

rdab

iler H

eilig

tum

in d

en U

rkun

den,

" W

ZKM

,hv

ii (1

975)

, 171

ff. T

wen

ty-fi

ve o

f the

ear

liest

judi

cial

and

not

aria

l doc

umen

tsof

this

grou

p ha

ve b

een

publ

ished

and

tran

slate

d (w

ith a

det

aile

d le

gal c

om-

men

tary

) by

Mon

ika G

ronk

e, A

rabi

sche

und

per

sisc

he P

riva

turk

unde

n de

s 12

.un

d 13

. Jah

rhun

dert

s au

s A

rdab

il (A

serb

aids

chan

) (1

982)

.Th

e di

scov

ery

and

clas

sific

atio

n of

doc

umen

ts w

ill b

e ur

gent

task

s for

ave

ry lo

ng ti

me

to c

ome.

Eve

n as

thin

gs st

and,

how

ever

, hist

oria

ns o

f Isla

mic

soci

ety

can

begi

n to

pro

gres

s fro

m c

olle

ctio

n an

d te

chni

cal a

naly

sis to

war

dsth

e in

tegr

atio

n of

doc

umen

tary

evi

denc

e in

to th

e m

ains

tream

of h

isto

rical

inquir

y.

C. N

UM

ISM

ATI

CS

AN

D M

ETR

OLO

GY

The

Ara

b C

onqu

ests

irru

pted

into

two

high

ly m

onet

ized

eco

nom

ies—

the

Rom

an-B

yzan

tine

and

the

Sass

ania

n—an

d fro

m th

e ou

tset t

he n

ew ru

lers

at-

tem

pted

to in

tegr

ate t

he es

tabl

ished

mon

etar

y sy

stem

s int

o th

eir o

wn

emer

ging

fisca

l and

eco

nom

ic fr

amew

ork.

In th

is ef

fort

they

succ

eede

d, a

nd o

ne o

f the

salie

nt fe

atur

es o

f Isla

mic

hist

ory,

in a

lmos

t eve

ry p

erio

d an

d re

gion

, is t

hepr

imar

y ro

le o

f coi

ned

met

al (g

old,

silv

er, a

nd c

oppe

r) w

ithin

its s

ever

al m

on-

etar

y sy

stem

s. Th

us co

ins w

ill in

evita

bly

have

a la

rge p

art t

o pl

ay in

our

effo

rtsto

reco

nstru

ct th

e po

litic

al, s

ocia

l, an

d ec

onom

ic li

fe o

f med

ieva

l Isla

m. E

very

coin

is a

dire

ct a

nd a

uthe

ntic

refle

ctio

n of

the

polit

ical

and

eco

nom

ic sy

stem

whi

ch p

rodu

ced

it; it

is th

eref

ore

perf

ect e

vide

nce

for t

hat s

yste

m if

onl

y w

eca

n le

arn

how

to d

ecod

e it.

To ac

hiev

e thi

s is o

f cou

rse n

o ea

sy m

atte

r; ev

en th

e fin

est n

umism

atist

s will

ofte

n fin

d th

at th

e fu

ll sig

nific

ance

of a

coi

n es

cape

s the

m. E

ven

so, a

ny c

om-

pete

nt Is

lam

ic h

istor

ian

mus

t bec

ome

fam

iliar

with

the

man

y w

ays i

n w

hich

coin

s can

be

both

eva

luat

ed a

s obj

ects

in th

emse

lves

and

use

d to

illu

min

ate

broa

der h

istor

ical

con

cern

s. A

goo

d in

trodu

ctio

n to

the

spec

ial c

once

rns a

ndsk

ills o

f num

ismat

ists w

ill b

e fo

und

in th

e ha

ndbo

ok o

f Phi

lip G

riers

on, N

u-' m

ism

atic

s, (1

975)

. Grie

rson

is c

erta

inly

not

obl

ivio

us to

"Orie

ntal

" coi

nage

;sin

ce h

e foc

uses

on

Clas

sical

and

med

ieva

l Eur

opea

n iss

ues,

how

ever

, som

e of

\ wha

t he

says

can

be

appl

ied

to th

e Is

lam

ic w

orld

onl

y w

ith re

serv

atio

ns. A

book

mor

e sp

ecifi

cally

con

cern

ed w

ith m

etho

d an

d te

chni

que

is th

at o

f J. M

.

50

SO

UR

CE

S A

ND

RE

SE

AR

CH

TO

OL

S

Den

tzer

, P. G

auth

ier,

and

T. H

acke

ns, e

ds.,

Num

ism

atiq

ue a

ntiq

ue: p

robl

emes

et m

etho

des

(Ann

ales

de

l'Est

, mdm

oire

44;

197

5).

Unf

ortu

nate

ly n

o gu

ide

to n

umism

atic

met

hod

spec

ifica

lly a

ddre

sses

med

ie-

val I

slam

. Thi

s gap

can

be

partl

y re

med

ied,

how

ever

, thr

ough

an

impo

rtant

serie

s of a

rticl

es b

y M

icha

el L

. Bat

es, "

Isla

mic

Num

ism

atic

s," M

ESA

Bul

l.,xi

i, no

. 2 (M

ay 1

978)

, 1-1

6; x

ii, n

o. 3

(Dec

. 197

8), 2

-18;

no.

1 (J

uly

1979

), 3-

21; x

iii, n

o. 2

(Dec

. 197

9), 1

-9. I

n a

rem

arka

bly

thor

ough

and

luci

d m

anne

r, B

ates

surv

eys r

efer

ence

tool

s, co

llect

ions

and

rese

arch

faci

li-tie

s, th

e m

ain

prob

lem

s of m

etho

d an

d re

sear

ch in

the

Isla

mic

fiel

d, a

nd th

em

ajor

stud

ies r

elat

ing

to sp

ecifi

c pe

riods

, reg

ions

, and

dyn

astie

s. H

is ac

coun

tpe

rmits

us

to re

stric

t our

atte

ntio

n he

re to

a fe

w b

asic

or r

epre

sent

ativ

ew

orks

.A

soun

d ov

ervi

ew o

f Isla

mic

coi

nage

can

be

foun

d in

Ste

phen

Alb

um, e

d.,

Mar

sden

'S N

umis

mat

a O

rien

talia

Illu

stra

ta (

1977

). Th

is w

ork

revi

ews,

dy-

nasty

by

dyna

sty, a

ll th

e m

ajor

coi

n ty

pes i

ssue

d by

Isla

mic

min

ts do

wn

to la

teO

ttom

an ti

mes

. It i

s illu

strat

ed n

ot b

y ph

otog

raph

s but

by

line

draw

ings

, mos

tof

whi

ch ar

e of e

xcel

lent

qua

lity.

It al

so h

as a

conc

isely

anno

tate

d bi

blio

grap

hygi

ving

the

mor

e im

porta

nt re

fere

nces

to th

e nu

mis

mat

ic li

tera

ture

for e

ach

dyna

sty. A

lbum

inte

nded

his

book

prim

arily

for d

eale

rs a

nd c

olle

ctor

s, bu

t it

is a

good

pla

ce to

star

t whe

n on

e ne

eds t

o id

entif

y a

book

or t

o co

mpa

re it

toot

her i

ssue

s.Fa

r mor

e sy

stem

atic

surv

eys w

ill b

e fo

und

in tw

o of

the

maj

or m

useu

mca

talo

gs:

Stan

ley

Lane

-Poo

le, C

atal

ogue

of t

he O

rient

al C

oins

in th

e B

ritis

h M

useu

m (1

0vo

ls.,

1875

-189

0).

Hen

ri La

voix

, Cat

alog

ue d

es m

onna

ies m

usul

man

es d

e la

Bib

lioth

eque

Nat

iona

le(3

vol

s., 1

887-

1891

).

The

post-

Conq

uest

and

Um

ayya

d iss

ues i

n th

e Br

itish

Mus

eum

wer

e re

-cat

a-lo

gued

in tw

o m

aste

rful v

olum

es b

y Jo

hn W

alke

r, A

Cat

alog

ue o

f th

e M

uham

-m

adan

Coi

ns in

the

Bri

tish

Mus

eum

(Vol

. I: A

rab-

Sass

ania

n C

oins

, 194

1; Vo

l.II

: Ara

b-B

yzan

tine

and

Post

-ref

orm

Um

aiya

d C

oins

, 19

56).

In P

aris,

Gill

esH

enne

quin

has

take

n up

the

unfin

ishe

d w

ork

of L

avoi

x. T

hree

vol

umes

are

proj

ecte

d, o

f whi

ch o

ne h

as re

cent

ly a

ppea

red:

Vol

. V.

Asi

e pr

e-m

ongo

le, l

esSa

l§aq

s et

leur

s su

cces

seur

s (1

985)

—a

mas

sive

com

pila

tion

cove

ring

2000

coin

s fro

m th

irty-

five

dyna

stie

s. B

etw

een

thes

e tw

o gr

eat s

urve

ys, a

lmos

tev

ery

type

of c

oin

issue

d by

any

Mus

lim d

ynas

ty is

repr

esen

ted

som

ewhe

re.

Of c

ours

e bo

th L

ane-

Pool

e an

d La

voix

are

serio

usly

ant

iqua

ted,

and

nei

ther

give

s mod

ern

num

ismat

ists a

ll th

e in

form

atio

n th

ey m

ay se

ek, b

ut th

ere

will

be -

noth

ing

to re

plac

e th

em in

the

fore

seea

ble

futu

re.

A p

roje

ct w

hich

is b

oth

mor

e lim

ited

and

in so

me

way

s mor

e us

eful

than

redo

ing

com

preh

ensiv

e m

useu

m c

atal

ogs i

s the

pre

para

tion

of d

etai

led

dyna

s-tic

surv

eys w

hich

brin

g to

geth

er c

oins

from

man

y di

ffer

ent c

olle

ctio

ns.

This

appr

oach

per

mits

a fa

r mor

e sy

stem

atic

vie

w o

f all

the

coin

-type

s pro

duce

d

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

51

with

in a

giv

en p

erio

d an

d re

gion

than

we

can

obta

in fr

om th

e ho

ldin

gs o

f asi

ngle

mus

eum

. On

the

othe

r han

d, it

can

be

cum

bers

ome

to c

ompa

re th

eiss

ues o

f diff

eren

t sta

tes,

or to

disc

ern

how

a g

iven

coi

nage

type

evo

lved

ove

ra

long

per

iod

of ti

me.

Mor

eove

r, su

ch d

ynas

tic su

rvey

s are

ext

rem

ely

time-

cons

umin

g an

d ex

pens

ive

to p

repa

re, a

nd b

ecau

se th

ey re

quire

the

coop

erat

ion

of m

any

inst

itutio

ns a

nd c

olle

ctor

s the

y ar

e so

met

imes

not

feas

ible

at a

ll. In

spite

of s

uch

diff

icul

ties a

nd sh

ortc

omin

gs a

few

real

ly o

utsta

ndin

g dy

nasti

csu

rvey

s hav

e be

en d

one.

See

for e

xam

ple

two

wor

ks b

y Pa

ul B

alog

: (1)

The

Coi

nage

of t

he M

amlu

k Su

ltans

of E

gypt

and

Syr

ia (1

964)

; (2)

The

Coi

nage

of

the

Ayy

ubid

s (1

980)

.Is

lam

ic c

oins

are

usu

ally

(but

not

alw

ays)

ani

cono

grap

hic—

i.e.,

they

bea

rno

imag

es. I

nste

ad, t

hey

are

insc

ribed

with

a v

arie

ty o

f nam

es a

nd p

hras

es.

Typi

cally

, a g

old

or si

lver

coi

n w

ill c

arry

(1) t

he n

ame

and

title

s of t

he is

suin

gru

ler,

(2) t

he n

ame

of th

e m

int-c

ity w

here

it w

as is

sued

, (3)

the

date

of i

ssue

,(4

) som

e rel

igio

us le

gend

, mos

t com

mon

ly th

e sh

ahäd

a. S

ince

thes

e w

ords

are

ofte

n on

ly h

alf-l

egib

le at

bes

t, th

e ass

istan

ce o

f sev

eral

refe

renc

e wor

ks m

ay b

ene

eded

to d

ecip

her t

hem

.Th

e m

ost v

alua

ble

of th

ese

(thou

gh it

con

tain

s num

erou

s err

ors a

nd o

mis-

sion

s) is

dou

btle

ss E

duar

d vo

n Za

mba

ur, D

ie M

iinzp

rtig

unge

n de

s Is

lam

s,ze

itlic

h un

d O

rtlic

h ge

ordn

et, e

d. P

eter

Jaec

kel (

1968

). Th

is is

an

alph

abet

i-ca

lly a

rrang

ed re

perto

ry o

f all

the

min

t-citi

es o

f med

ieva

l Isla

m w

est o

f Ind

ia.

Each

min

t-city

is b

riefly

iden

tifie

d, th

en k

eyed

to a

n ex

tens

ive

bibl

iogr

aphy

of

sour

ces a

nd to

all

the

publ

ished

coi

ns (a

rrang

ed b

y dy

nasty

and

dat

e of

issu

e)w

hich

com

e fro

m th

at p

lace

. We

can

thus

iden

tify

any

min

t-city

whi

ch w

e ar

elik

ely

to e

ncou

nter

, and

in a

dditi

on a

lmos

t any

coi

n ca

n be

pla

ced

with

in th

eco

ntex

t of o

ther

issu

es fr

om th

e sa

me

plac

e or

tim

e. T

o Za

mba

ur's

basic

wor

kth

e ed

itor (

Jaec

kel)

has a

dded

a v

alua

ble

cros

s-re

fere

nce

by c

reat

ing

twen

ty-

six ta

bles

whi

ch c

lass

ify a

ll kn

own

coin

s by

date

. The

re is

no

sepa

rate

listi

ngby

dyn

asty

(whi

ch is

in fa

ct th

e m

ost c

omm

on c

lass

ifica

tion

syste

m in

Isla

mic

num

ismat

ics)

, but

this

is ea

sy e

noug

h to

esta

blish

for a

ny g

iven

cas

e fro

m th

eda

ta g

iven

her

e.To

con

firm

the

nam

es a

nd ti

tles o

f the

issu

ing

rule

rs, w

e ca

n go

to Z

am-

baur

's M

anue

l de

gene

alog

ie e

t de

chro

nolo

gie

and

othe

r ref

eren

ce w

orks

of

the

sam

e ki

nd (s

ee a

bove

, pp.

20-

21).

For t

itles

and

hon

orifi

cs o

nly,

ther

e is

ave

ry h

elpf

ul c

ompi

lati

on b

y H

asan

al-

Bäs

hä,

al-is

leim

iyya

ft

al-

ta'ri

kh w

a'l-

wat

her i

q w

a'l-

eith

iir (

1957

), a

wor

k w

hich

is w

ell d

ocum

ente

dfro

m A

rabi

c (b

ut n

ot P

ersia

n or

Tur

kish

) sou

rces

, suc

h as

insc

riptio

ns, c

hron

i-cl

es a

nd b

iogr

aphi

cal d

ictio

narie

s, an

d al

-Qal

qash

andi

s Sub

la a

l-a e

shd

. For

each

term

the

auth

or p

rese

nts b

oth

its li

tera

l mea

ning

and

its u

sage

in fo

rmal

prot

ocol.

Relig

ious

lege

nds a

nd p

ious

exc

lam

atio

ns m

ay h

ave

real

pol

itica

l and

ideo

-lo

gica

l sig

nific

ance

. For

such

expr

essio

ns, t

he o

ther

wise

antiq

uate

d w

ork

of 0

.C

odrin

gton

, A M

anua

l of M

usal

man

Num

ism

atic

s (1

904)

, con

tain

s a c

hapt

erw

hich

is st

ill h

elpf

ul.

52 S

OU

RC

ES

AN

D R

ES

EA

RC

H T

OO

LS

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

53

As f

or d

ates

, if t

hey

cann

ot b

e re

ad th

en w

e ar

e ou

t of l

uck.

To

som

e de

gree

a co

in c

an b

e da

ted

by it

s sty

listic

cha

ract

erist

ics (

scrip

t, or

nam

ent,

etc.

) but

that

is o

bvio

usly

a d

ange

rous

exp

edie

nt.

Met

rolo

gy is

a c

ruci

al a

spec

t of n

umis

mat

ic a

naly

sis a

nd in

terp

reta

tion.

Mos

t of w

hat w

e kn

ow in

this

field

is su

mm

ed u

p in

two

maj

or re

fere

nces

. The

olde

r is a

cla

ssic

com

pila

tion

by H

enri

Sauv

aire

, "M

ater

iaux

pou

r ser

vir

l'his

toir

e de

la n

umis

mat

ique

et d

e la

mët

rolo

gie

mus

ulm

anes

," s

trew

nth

roug

hout

var

ious

issu

es o

f the

Jou

rnal

Asi

atiq

ue p

ublis

hed

betw

een

1879

and

1887

. (Fo

r a d

etai

led

outli

ne se

e th

e Bi

blio

grap

hic

Inde

x.) I

t is d

ivid

ed in

tofo

ur p

arts

, dea

ling

resp

ectiv

ely

with

coi

nage

, wei

ghts

, vol

umes

, and

leng

ths.

With

in e

ach

part,

Sau

vaire

list

s al

l the

term

s us

ed in

the

Isla

mic

wor

ld to

repr

esen

t uni

ts of

val

ue, w

eigh

t, et

c.; u

nder

eac

h te

rm, h

e th

en c

ites i

n tra

nsla

-tio

n al

l the

text

s ava

ilabl

e to

him

whi

ch e

xpla

in o

r illu

stra

te it

. In

the

final

inst

allm

ent o

f the

serie

s (en

title

d "C

ompl

emen

t"),

he c

onst

ruct

s pric

e ta

bles

for t

he b

asic

nec

essit

ies o

f life

, arra

nged

by

regi

on a

nd d

ate,

and

a c

hron

olog

i-ca

lly o

rder

ed p

rice

tabl

e fo

r misc

ella

neou

s ite

ms w

hich

com

es d

own

to 1

051

A.H

. In

the

sect

ion

on w

eigh

ts, h

e at

tem

pts t

o co

nver

t the

m to

met

ric v

alue

s,bu

t thi

s is b

est i

gnor

ed. I

n sp

ite o

f its

age

and

con

fusi

ng o

rgan

izat

ion,

it re

-m

ains

an

inva

luab

le c

ontri

butio

n.A

seco

nd re

fere

nce

is m

uch

mor

e co

mpa

ct, m

ore

relia

ble

in it

s met

ric c

on-

vers

ions

, and

eas

ier t

o us

e: W

alth

er H

inz,

Isla

mis

che

Mas

se a

nd G

ewic

hte,

umge

rech

net i

ns m

etri

sche

Sys

tem

, (H

O, E

rgbd

. 1, 1

955;

2nd

rev.

ed.

, 197

0).

At t

he sa

me

time,

it is

not

so ri

ch a

reso

urce

as S

auva

ire, a

nd w

here

pos

sible

it is

usef

ul to

con

sult

the

two

wor

ks to

geth

er.

In th

e cr

ucia

l are

a of

bib

liogr

aphy

Isla

mic

num

ismat

ics i

s qui

te w

ell o

ff. F

orco

ntrib

utio

ns d

own

to 1

950

we

have

the

exha

ustiv

e su

rvey

of L

. A. M

ayer

,B

iblio

grap

hy o

f Mos

lem

Num

ism

atic

s, In

dia

Exce

pted

(19

54).

Sinc

e 19

47, t

heA

mer

ican

Num

ism

atic

Soc

iety

has

pub

lishe

d a

sem

i-ann

ual s

urve

y, N

umis

-m

atic

Lite

ratu

re—

wel

l-org

aniz

ed a

nd e

asy

to u

se b

ut u

nfor

tuna

tely

nev

er c

u-m

ulat

ed. S

chol

ars m

ust s

impl

y ke

ep c

urre

nt a

nd a

ssem

ble

thei

r ow

n fil

es o

fpo

tent

ially

rele

vant

item

s.M

any

of th

e pr

oble

ms i

nvol

ved

in d

ealin

g w

ith c

oins

are

stric

tly te

chni

cal

in c

hara

cter

—de

ciph

erin

g in

scrip

tions

, est

ablis

hing

freq

uenc

y ta

bles

of

wei

ghts,

det

erm

inin

g sta

ndar

ds o

f fin

enes

s, et

c.—

and

any

prop

erly

trai

ned

nu-

mis

mat

ist s

houl

d be

abl

e to

do

thes

e th

ings

ade

quat

ely.

On

the

othe

r han

d,ap

plyi

ng th

e re

sults

thus

obt

aine

d, a

nd in

fact

dec

idin

g w

hat d

ata

to c

olle

ct in

the

first

plac

e, is

a m

atte

r not

of t

echn

ical

skill

but

of h

istor

ians

hip.

The

re is

no

gene

ral e

ssay

on

the

role

s whi

ch n

umism

atic

s mig

ht p

lay

in Is

lam

ic h

istor

ical

stud

ies;

her

e as

in m

any

plac

es m

odel

s m

ust b

e fo

und

in a

few

unu

sual

lyim

agin

ativ

e st

udie

s. Th

e pr

oble

m is

that

num

ism

atic

s has

bee

n ap

plie

d w

ithgr

eat s

ophi

stica

tion

to so

me

aspe

cts o

f Isla

mic

stud

ies,

and

only

inep

tly if

at a

llto

oth

ers—

incl

udin

g pr

ecise

ly th

ose

topi

cs w

here

coi

ns sh

ould

be

our p

rime

reso

urce

.

Num

ismat

ics h

as u

ndou

bted

ly m

ade

its g

reat

est c

ontri

butio

n in

the

field

s of

polit

ical

and

adm

inist

rativ

e hi

story

. Coi

ns h

ave

prov

ided

inva

luab

le e

vide

nce

in d

eter

min

ing

the

regn

al d

ates

of o

bscu

re p

rince

s and

the

terr

itoria

l sco

pe o

fth

eir a

utho

rity.

The

y ha

ve d

one

muc

h to

cla

rify

the

adm

inis

trativ

e st

atus

of

num

erou

s urb

an c

ente

rs. F

inal

ly, t

hey

have

bee

n pu

t to

good

use

in d

efin

ing

the

links

whi

ch b

ound

regi

onal

dyn

asts

to th

e Ca

lipha

te. M

any

exce

:lent

stud

-ie

s whi

ch a

ddre

ss su

ch p

robl

ems c

ould

be

cite

d; a

mon

g th

em th

ose

of G

eorg

eC.

Mile

s are

pre

emin

ent.

As e

xam

ples

, see

an

early

wor

k, T

he N

umis

mat

icH

isto

ry o

f Ray

y (1

938)

, and

his

chap

ter "

Num

ismat

ics"

in th

e C

ambr

idge

His

-to

ry o

f Ir

an (1

975)

, Vol

. IV

, 364

-377

. An

early

wor

k of

Ole

g G

raba

r, Th

eC

oina

ge o

f the

Tul

unid

s (1

957)

, can

also

be

war

mly

reco

mm

ende

d.In

the

answ

erin

g of

pol

itica

l and

adm

inist

rativ

e qu

estio

ns, h

owev

er, n

umis-

mat

ics c

an o

nly

have

an

anci

llary

role

—i.e

., w

e us

e it

to a

ddre

ss p

robl

ems

whi

ch h

ave

been

def

ined

by

evid

ence

of a

diff

eren

t kin

d, u

sual

ly te

xtua

l. Th

efie

ld fo

r whi

ch co

ins o

ught

to b

e the

prin

cipa

l sou

rce i

s the

hist

ory

of m

onet

ary

syste

ms i

n Is

lam

. The

re h

ave

in fa

ct b

een

prep

arat

ory

essa

ys in

this

field

(see

in p

artic

ular

the

num

erou

s tho

ugh

scat

tere

d ar

ticle

s of A

. S. E

hren

kreu

tz),

but

mos

t hav

e be

en n

arro

wly

"nu

mis

mat

ic"

in c

hara

cter

—i.e

., de

term

inin

g th

est

anda

rd o

f fin

enes

s, es

tabl

ishin

g di

e co

unts

, etc

. The

re h

ave

been

eff

orts

tode

fine

the

circ

ulat

ion

of p

reci

ous m

etal

s, bu

t mos

t of t

his w

ork

has b

een

rath

ersp

ecul

ativ

e an

d ha

rd to

reco

ncile

eith

er w

ith e

cono

mic

theo

ry o

r with

the

little

hard

dat

a w

hich

exi

sts. I

n ge

nera

l, th

e pr

ogre

ss o

f mon

etar

y hi

story

has

bee

ncr

ippl

ed b

y th

e fa

ilure

of I

slam

ists t

o ev

olve

an

adeq

uate

theo

ry o

f the

cha

rac-

ter a

nd fu

nctio

n of

mon

ey in

med

ieva

l Isla

mic

soci

ety.

Thi

s the

oret

ical

failu

reha

s bee

n ra

ther

poi

nted

ly e

xplo

red

in a

serie

s of s

tudi

es b

y G

illes

Hen

nequ

in;

amon

g th

ese,

see

(a) "

Prob

lem

es th

eoriq

ues e

t pra

tique

s de

la m

onna

ie a

ntiq

ueet

med

ieva

le,"

AI,

x (1

972)

, 1-5

1; (b

) "N

ouve

aux

aper

cus

sur l

'his

toire

mon

etai

re d

e l't

gypt

e a

la fi

n du

Moy

en-A

ge,"

AI,

xiii

(197

7), 1

79-2

15. U

ntil

this

"the

ory

gap"

is b

ridge

d, w

e ca

nnot

exp

ect n

umis

mat

ics t

o m

ake

its fu

llco

ntrib

utio

n to

Isla

mic

hist

ory.

D.

EPIG

RA

PHY

Mon

umen

tal i

nscr

iptio

ns o

f rem

arka

ble

docu

men

tary

val

ue w

ere

prod

uced

ingr

eat p

rofu

sion

in m

edie

val I

slam

, but

they

hav

e be

en b

adly

neg

lect

ed b

yhi

storia

ns, e

spec

ially

in G

reat

Brit

ain

and

Am

eric

a. It

is tr

ue th

at in

scrip

tions

pres

ent a

var

iety

of t

echn

ical

pro

blem

s, an

d th

ese

may

acc

ount

in p

art f

or th

efa

ilure

of s

chol

ars t

o m

ake

bette

r use

of t

hem

. Firs

t of a

ll, th

ey a

re w

ritte

n in

an a

stoni

shin

g ra

nge

of sc

ripts,

som

e ve

ry c

rude

and

oth

ers s

uper

bly

calli

gra-

phic

. In

eith

er c

ase

they

can

be

extra

ordi

naril

y di

fficu

lt to

dec

iphe

r, an

d in

the

end

the

cont

ent m

ay b

e so

ban

al th

at it

har

dly

seem

s to

have

bee

n w

orth

the

effo

rt. A

seco

nd p

robl

em is

that

man

y, p

erha

ps m

ost,

insc

riptio

ns h

ave

been

54

SO

UR

CE

S A

ND

RE

SE

AR

CH

TO

OL

S

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

55

badl

y da

mag

ed b

y m

an a

nd c

limat

e ov

er th

e ce

ntur

ies,

and

of c

ours

e it

isal

way

s the

cru

cial

phr

ase

whi

ch h

as b

een

effa

ced.

Aga

in, s

ince

insc

riptio

ns a

reof

ten

writ

ten

on la

rge

bloc

ks o

f fin

e sto

ne, m

any

have

bee

n ca

rted

away

from

thei

r orig

inal

loca

tions

to b

e re

used

in e

ntire

ly u

nrel

ated

bui

ldin

gs. R

eal a

sth

ese

prob

lem

s are

, how

ever

, the

y ar

e ha

rdly

wor

se th

an th

ose

whi

ch a

ffect

the

othe

r cat

egor

ies o

f sou

rces

we

have

revi

ewed

, and

the

rew

ards

whi

ch in

scrip

-tio

ns o

ffer

shou

ld b

e ad

equa

te c

ompe

nsat

ion

for t

he tr

oubl

e.W

e be

gin

with

a fe

w g

ener

al c

omm

ents

abou

t the

ext

erna

l cha

ract

erist

ics o

fth

ese

text

s. H

istor

ians

nor

mal

ly d

eal w

ith m

onum

enta

l ins

crip

tions

—i.e

., te

xts

atta

ched

to b

uild

ings

as p

art o

f the

ir str

uctu

re o

r dec

or. H

owev

er, s

ome

text

sof

hist

oric

al in

tere

st oc

cur i

n ot

her c

onte

xts,

such

as ce

ram

ic an

d m

etal

ves

sels,

fine

text

iles,

or w

oode

n pu

lpits

and

sarc

opha

gi. T

he m

ajor

ity o

f mon

umen

tal

insc

riptio

ns a

re e

ngra

ved

in st

one,

but

we

also

find

them

car

ved

in st

ucco

or

mad

e of

col

ored

cer

amic

tile

s (fa

ienc

e) o

r mos

aic.

How

ever

, ins

crip

tions

don

ein

stuc

co, f

aien

ce, o

r mos

aic

are

alm

ost i

nvar

iabl

y lit

erar

y or

relig

ious

in c

on-

tent

(mos

t com

mon

ly c

itatio

ns fr

om th

e Q

ur'an

) rat

her t

han

date

d re

cord

s con

-ce

rnin

g sp

ecifi

c ac

ts or

per

sons

.A

rabi

c is

the

lang

uage

use

d in

the

over

whe

lmin

g m

ajor

ity o

f ins

crip

tions

whi

ch fa

ll w

ithin

the

purv

iew

of t

his b

ook.

Tur

kish

firs

t app

ears

in th

e ea

rly9t

h/15

th c

entu

ry, a

nd o

nly

beco

mes

wid

ely

used

in th

e 10

th/1

6th.

As t

o Pe

r-sia

n ep

igra

phy,

we

find

the

first

exam

ples

at t

he e

nd o

f the

5th

/11t

h ce

ntur

y.Th

ough

Per

sian

cam

e to

be

used

in a

n in

crea

singl

y br

oad

arra

y of

con

text

s, it

neve

r ent

irely

supp

lant

ed A

rabi

c, w

hich

was

alw

ays t

he p

refe

rred

lang

uage

for

relig

ious

text

s and

foun

ders

' ins

crip

tions

.W

e do

not

hav

e ro

om to

dea

l with

the

scrip

ts in

any

det

ail.

Dow

n th

roug

hth

e 5t

h/11

th c

entu

ry m

ost a

re c

arve

d in

som

e fo

rm o

f Kuf

ic, a

nd th

is sc

ript

rem

aine

d ve

ry p

opul

ar in

late

r per

iods

for l

itera

ry a

nd re

ligio

us te

xts b

ecau

seof

its s

triki

ng o

rnam

enta

l pot

entia

litie

s. Th

e de

velo

pmen

t of K

ufic

can

bes

t be

follo

wed

in th

e ric

hly

docu

men

ted

and

beau

tiful

ly p

rodu

ced

stud

y of

Ado

lfG

rohm

ann,

Ara

bisc

he P

altio

grap

hie,

II,

Die

Lap

idar

schr

ift

(197

1), w

hich

cont

ains

a fu

ll bi

blio

grap

hy u

p to

the

date

of p

ublic

atio

n. O

n th

e sp

ecifi

c pr

ob-

lem

s con

nect

ed w

ith th

e lo

vely

but

app

allin

gly

diffi

cult

style

cal

led

"flo

riate

dK

ufic

," s

ee G

rohm

ann,

"Th

e O

rigin

and

Ear

ly D

evel

opm

ent o

f Flo

riate

dK

ufic

," A

rs O

rien

talis

, ii (

1957

), 18

3-21

5. F

rom

the

6th/

12th

cen

tury

on,

var

i-ou

s for

ms o

f nas

khi c

ame

to b

e us

ed a

lmos

t uni

vers

ally

for s

uch

info

rmat

ion-

conv

eyin

g te

xts a

s epi

taph

s, de

cree

s, no

tices

of c

onst

ruct

ion

or re

stor

atio

n,et

c., b

ut th

is sc

ript i

s onl

y be

ginn

ing

to a

ttrac

t ser

ious

stud

y. In

late

r cen

turie

s,Pe

rsia

n an

d Tu

rkish

insc

riptio

ns w

ould

mak

e m

uch

use

of su

ch e

lega

nt sc

ripts

as ta

e lig

and

nas

td li

g, b

ut th

ese

need

not

con

cern

us h

ere.

Ther

e is

no h

andb

ook

of Is

lam

ic e

pigr

aphy

, but

a so

und

intro

duct

ion

to th

efie

ld c

an b

e fo

und

in th

e ar

ticle

"Kita

bat,"

E12 ,

V, 2

10-2

33, b

y va

rious

auth

ors.

The

intro

duct

ory

sect

ion,

by

J. S

ourd

el-T

hom

ine,

is a

wid

e-ra

ngin

g sta

tem

ent

on th

e de

velo

pmen

t and

gen

eral

pro

blem

s of I

slam

ic e

pigr

aphy

; the

succ

eed-

ing

sect

ions

(by

vario

us a

utho

rs) a

re e

ach

devo

ted

to th

e in

scrip

tions

of a

parti

cula

r reg

ion,

with

an

emph

asis

on th

e de

velo

pmen

t of s

crip

ts. A

n ov

er-

view

of t

his k

ind

is be

st fo

llow

ed u

p by

the

study

of s

peci

fic st

udie

s whi

ch c

anse

rve

as m

odel

s of e

pigr

aphi

c m

etho

d. A

n ex

celle

nt e

xam

ple

wou

ld b

e IC

hälid

Mue

adh

and

Sola

nge O

ry, I

nscr

iptio

ns a

rabe

s de

Dam

as: l

es s

tele

s fi

mer

aire

s;I,

Cim

etie

re d

'al-

Bab

al-

Sagh

ir (1

977)

. Thi

s sur

vey

cont

ains

eig

hty

insc

rip-

tions

, dat

ing

from

439

to 9

35 A

.H. E

ach

insc

riptio

n is

pre

sent

ed in

a p

late

of

good

qua

lity

(with

add

ition

al li

ne d

raw

ings

in e

xcep

tiona

lly d

iffic

ult c

ases

),pr

inte

d tra

nscr

iptio

n, a

nd tr

ansla

tion.

In a

dditi

on, e

ach

insc

riptio

n is

furn

ished

with

an

anal

ysis

of it

s scr

ipt a

nd te

xtua

l con

tent

s, a

care

ful d

escr

iptio

n, a

nd a

prec

ise

loca

lizat

ion.

Fin

ally

, the

aut

hors

giv

e us

a g

ener

al d

iscu

ssio

n of

the

scrip

ts an

d fo

rmul

arie

s use

d in

this

body

of i

nscr

iptio

ns. T

his s

tudy

of c

ours

edo

es n

ot m

eet e

very

nee

d of

the n

ovic

e epi

grap

her:

epita

phs a

re a

limite

d ge

nre

at b

est,

and

seld

om c

arry

the

mor

e flo

rid sc

ripts

or m

ore

com

plex

ver

bal

form

ulae

.A

lthou

gh in

scrip

tions

wer

e co

mm

only

use

d by

the

anci

ent M

iddl

e Ea

stern

mon

arch

ies,

incl

udin

g th

ose

of th

e H

elle

nisti

c an

d Ro

man

per

iod,

to re

coun

tm

ajor

pol

itica

l eve

nts (

vict

orie

s, co

rona

tions

, etc

.), th

ey a

lmos

t nev

er se

rve

this

func

tion

in Is

lam

ic ti

mes

. Per

haps

the

wid

espr

ead

avai

labi

lity

of p

aper

mad

e th

e ch

roni

cle

and

the

offic

ial l

ette

r a m

ore

effe

ctiv

e m

eans

of a

chie

ving

such

self-

glor

ifica

tion.

How

ever

that

may

be,

the

cont

ents

of Is

lam

ic in

scrip

-tio

ns m

ay c

onve

nien

tly b

e gr

oupe

d in

four

cla

sses

: (1)

lite

rary

; (2)

relig

ious

;(3

) com

mem

orat

ive;

(4) l

egal

and

adm

inist

rativ

e.Li

tera

ry te

xts a

re fo

und

only

in tw

o co

ntex

ts: o

n pa

lace

s and

on

luxu

ryob

ject

s suc

h as

met

alw

ork

and

deco

rate

d ce

ram

ics.

In th

e ca

se o

f art

obje

cts,

the

insc

riptio

n (in

cise

d or

pai

nted

) is m

ost o

ften

just

a c

liche

or a

pie

ce o

fdo

gger

el—

e.g.

, "G

lory

and

pro

sper

ity to

the

owne

r of t

his v

esse

l." O

n th

eot

her h

and,

Iran

ian

atel

iers

in p

artic

ular

did

pro

duce

man

y pi

eces

dec

orat

edw

ith id

entif

iabl

e lin

es o

f ver

se. A

s for

pal

aces

, ver

y fe

w o

f the

se h

ave s

urvi

ved,

but t

wo

of th

em p

rese

nt in

scrip

tiona

l pro

gram

s of r

emar

kabl

e sig

nific

ance

, tha

tof

Mas

efid

Ell (

492-

508/

1099

-111

5) in

Gha

zna,

and

the

Alh

ambr

a in

Gra

nada

.On

Mas

ead'

s pal

ace

see

Ale

ssio

Bom

baci

, The

Kuf

ic In

scri

ptio

n in

Per

sian

Ver

ses

in th

e C

ourt

of t

he R

oyal

Pal

ace

of M

asud

III a

t Gha

zni

(196

6). T

hepu

blic

atio

ns re

leva

nt to

the

Alh

ambr

a in

scrip

tions

can

be

trace

d th

roug

h O

leg

Grab

ar, T

he A

lham

bra

(197

8); s

ee e

spec

ially

the

note

s to

Ch. 2

.Th

e re

ligio

us te

xts u

sed

in m

onum

enta

l ins

crip

tions

are

ove

rwhe

lmin

gly

take

n fro

m th

e Q

ur'an

. In

the

past

it ha

s bee

n no

rmal

to c

onsid

er su

ch p

assa

ges

as b

anal

and

his

toric

ally

insi

gnifi

cant

. In

man

y ca

ses t

his p

oint

of v

iew

ispr

obab

ly v

alid

, for

mos

t mos

ques

and

mad

rasa

s dra

w th

eir Q

ur'an

ic in

scrip

-tio

ns fr

om a

ver

y lim

ited

repe

rtory

of v

erse

s. B

ut w

e ca

nnot

take

this

for

gran

ted.

For

exa

mpl

e, in

his

disc

ussio

n of

the

mos

aic

insc

riptio

n in

the

Dom

eof

the

Rock

, Ole

g G

raba

r (T

he F

orm

atio

n of

Isla

mic

Art

[19

73],

pp. 4

8-67

)ar

gues

for a

ver

y sp

ecifi

c an

ti-Ch

ristia

n, a

nti-B

yzan

tine

mes

sage

in th

at te

xt.

56 S

OU

RC

ES

AN

D R

ES

EA

RC

H T

OO

LS

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

57

Like

wise

, the

Qur

'anic

pas

sage

s car

ved

on th

e Fa

timid

mos

ques

and

shrin

es o

fCa

iro sp

ell o

ut (f

or th

ose w

ho k

now

how

to in

terp

ret t

hem

) cru

cial

elem

ents

ofIs

m"e

ili id

eolo

gy; s

ee tw

o stu

dies

by

Caro

line

Will

iam

s: (1

) "Th

e Cu

lt of

Alid

Sain

ts in

the

Fatim

id M

onum

ents

of

Cai

ro, I

: The

Mos

que

of a

l-Aqm

ar,"

Muq

amas

, I (1

983)

, 37-

52; "

II: T

he M

auso

lea,

" M

uqam

as, i

ii (1

985)

, 39-

60;

(2) "

The

Qur

'ani

c In

scrip

tions

on

the

Teib

fit o

f al-I

-Jus

ayn,

" Is

lam

ic A

rt, i

i(1

987)

, 3-1

3. In

gen

eral

, we

shou

ld w

ork

from

the

assu

mpt

ion

that

the

Qur

'anic

insc

riptio

ns o

n a

mos

que

or a

ny o

ther

relig

ious

stru

ctur

e co

nstit

ute

aco

nsci

ous p

rogr

am, a

nd h

ence

are

a v

ital k

ey to

the

inte

nded

mea

ning

of t

hat

build

ing.

Qur

'anic

pas

sage

s are

ofte

n do

ne in

ext

rem

ely

orna

te if

not

impe

ne-

trabl

e sc

ripts;

in th

e m

any

situa

tions

whe

re o

nly

a fe

w w

ords

can

be

mad

e ou

tw

ith s

ome

conf

iden

ce, a

con

cord

ance

like

eAbd

al-

Baq

i's a

l-M

ueja

m a

l.m

ufah

ras

(see

abo

ve, p

. 21)

is a

n in

disp

ensa

ble

aid.

Com

mem

orat

ive

insc

riptio

ns fa

ll in

to tw

o su

b-cl

asse

s. M

ost c

omm

on ar

eep

itaph

s, w

hich

typi

cally

giv

e a p

erso

n's n

ame,

gene

alog

y, o

ffici

al ti

tles,

a few

piou

s slo

gans

, and

dat

e of

dea

th. I

t see

ms a

ver

y th

in b

ody

of d

ata,

but

thes

efe

w fa

cts c

an b

e ex

ploi

ted

to g

ood

effe

ct. T

hey

can

for e

xam

ple

help

us u

n-co

ver t

he n

otab

le fa

mili

es o

f a d

istric

t and

som

e of

the

kins

hip

links

am

ong

thes

e fam

ilies

, all

the m

ore s

ince

wom

en as

wel

l as m

en ar

e inc

lude

d. E

pita

phs

can

esta

blish

or c

onfir

m th

e dea

th an

d re

gnal

dat

es o

f rul

ers,

and

supp

ly o

ffici

altit

ulat

ure.

The

seco

nd c

lass

of c

omm

emor

ativ

e in

scrip

tions

—fo

unda

tion

and

resto

ra-

tion

text

s on

publ

ic b

uild

ings

—ca

n be

put

to e

ven

broa

der u

se. T

ypic

ally

,in

scrip

tions

of t

his k

ind

will

cont

ain

the f

ollo

win

g da

ta: t

he fu

nctio

n em

bodi

edin

the

build

ing

(e.g

., m

asjid

, fam

e , m

ashh

ad, t

urba

, etc

.); th

e ki

nd o

f wor

kdo

ne (o

rigin

al c

onstr

uctio

n, re

stora

tion

and

repa

ir, c

onve

rsio

n); t

he n

ame,

ge-

neal

ogy,

and

titul

atur

e of t

he p

erso

n at

who

se b

ehes

t the

wor

k w

as d

one;

som

e-tim

es, b

ut n

ot a

lway

s, th

e na

mes

and

title

s of t

he o

ffic

ials

who

act

ually

ove

rsa

w th

e wor

k; th

e dat

e on

whi

ch th

e wor

k w

as o

rder

ed o

r com

plet

ed. T

he v

alue

of su

ch in

form

atio

n is

man

ifold

. By

com

parin

g th

e in

form

atio

n gi

ven

in th

ein

scrip

tion

with

the m

onum

ent o

n w

hich

it is

loca

ted,

hist

oria

ns o

f arc

hite

ctur

eca

n es

tabl

ish p

reci

se a

nd v

alid

cor

resp

onde

nces

bet

wee

n fo

rm a

nd te

rmin

ol-

ogy.

By

usin

g in

scrip

tions

to tr

ack

dow

n th

e m

ost v

isibl

e pa

trons

of a

rchi

tec-

ture

with

in a

give

n pe

riod

and

loca

lity,

key

mem

bers

of t

he so

cio-

polit

ical

elite

can

be id

entif

ied,

sinc

e th

e fu

ndin

g of

maj

or c

onst

ruct

ion

proj

ects

requ

ires

wea

lth, p

rest

ige,

and

pow

er. O

r fin

ally

, the

title

s of t

he m

en n

amed

in th

ein

scrip

tions

can

cla

rify

man

y de

tails

of l

ocal

or p

rovi

ncia

l adm

inis

tratio

n. -

Such

exa

mpl

es o

f cou

rse

only

sugg

est a

few

of t

he p

ossi

bilit

ies o

ffer

ed b

yin

scrip

tions

.Fo

r com

mem

orat

ive

insc

riptio

ns to

be

used

in th

ese

way

s, ho

wev

er, t

hey

mus

t be

inte

grat

ed in

to a

bro

ad a

rcha

eolo

gica

l and

hist

oric

al c

onte

xt, a

nd o

nly

a few

scho

lars

hav

e end

eavo

red

to d

o th

is in

any

syste

mat

ic w

ay. A

mon

g th

ese

the

pree

min

ent f

igur

e is

Max

van

Ber

chem

, who

se M

ater

iaux

pou

r un

Cor

pus

Insc

riptio

num

Ara

bica

rum

(abb

r., C

IA),

thou

gh sa

dly

inco

mpl

ete,

rem

ains

one

of th

e gr

eat m

onum

ents

of Is

lam

ic st

udie

s and

a m

odel

of w

hat e

pigr

aphy

inou

r fie

ld m

ight

achi

eve.

Van

Ber

chem

not

onl

y gi

ves c

ritic

al tr

ansc

riptio

ns an

dtra

nsla

tions

of t

he te

xts,

but e

xten

ded

disc

ussio

ns o

f the

mon

umen

ts on

whi

chth

ey a

re fo

und

and

the

hist

oric

al si

tuat

ions

in w

hich

they

wer

e co

mpo

sed,

toge

ther

with

leng

thy

and

fasc

inat

ing

disc

ours

es o

n su

ch m

atte

rs a

s titu

latu

re,

the

evol

utio

n of

adm

inist

rativ

e of

fices

, etc

. Obv

ious

ly m

uch

of w

hat h

e ha

s to

say

is o

bsol

ete,

but

the

sens

e of

dis

cove

ry in

thes

e vo

lum

es, a

s wel

l as h

isca

paci

ty to

sugg

est f

ruitf

ul li

nes o

f inq

uiry

, are

still

ver

y vi

vid

inde

ed. I

n ad

di-

tion

to C

IA, v

an B

erch

em d

id a

gre

at m

any

othe

r epi

grap

hic

stud

ies,

whi

chw

ere

inte

nded

as p

repa

rato

ry st

udie

s for

his

mag

num

opu

s; th

ese

have

bee

nco

llect

ed in

his

Ope

ra M

inor

a (2

vol

s., 1

978)

. Fin

ally

, he

mad

e an

ext

rem

ely

valu

able

col

lect

ion

of p

hoto

grap

hs, w

hich

hav

e no

w b

een

cata

logu

ed b

ySo

lang

e Ory

, ed.

, Arc

hive

s M

ax v

an B

erch

em, I

: Cat

alog

ue d

e la

pho

tote

que

(197

5).

CIA

was

pla

nned

as a

coo

pera

tive

vent

ure,

and

in fa

ct se

vera

l of h

is as

soci

-at

es d

id c

ontri

bute

one

or m

ore

volu

mes

. Stil

l, va

n Be

rche

m w

as th

e he

art a

ndso

ul o

f the

pro

ject

, and

his

deat

h in

192

1 br

ough

t it e

ffect

ivel

y to

an

end.

The

volu

mes

pub

lishe

d af

ter t

hat t

ime

for t

he m

ost p

art r

epre

sent

a p

icki

ng u

p of

loos

e en

ds, n

ot fr

esh

rese

arch

. The

follo

win

g vo

lum

es h

ave

been

pub

lishe

d:

a.Eg

ypte

, le

Cai

re: M

ax v

an B

erch

em, M

MA

F, x

ix (1

896-

1903

); G

asto

n W

iet,

MIF

AO, l

ii (1

930)

.b.

Syrie

du

Sud,

Jeru

sale

m: M

ax v

an B

erch

em, M

IFA

O, x

liii (

1922

-23)

; xliv

(192

5-27

); xl

v (1

920)

.c.

Syrie

du

Nor

d, T

ripol

i: M

oritz

Sob

ernh

eim

, MIF

AO

, xxv

(190

9).

d.Sy

rie d

u N

ord,

Ale

p: M

oritz

Sob

ernh

eim

and

Ern

st H

erzf

eld,

ed.

E. C

ombe

,M

IFAO

, lxx

vi—

lxxv

ii (1

954-

56).

e.A

sie M

ineu

re, S

ivas

et D

ivrig

i: M

ax v

an B

erch

em a

nd H

all E

dhem

, MIF

AO,

nix

(191

0-17

).f.

Ara

ble:

La

Mek

ke: H

. M. a

l-Haw

ary

and

N. E

lisse

eff,

MIF

AO

, cix

(198

5).

For

a lo

ng ti

me

Van

Ber

chem

had

no

real

succ

esso

rs; m

any

high

ly a

ccom

-pl

ished

scho

lars

shar

ed h

is ap

proa

ch a

nd c

once

rns,

to b

e su

re, b

ut o

nly

Gas

ton

Wie

t eve

r atte

mpt

ed a

new

vol

ume,

or ev

en a

thor

ough

goin

g re

visio

n of

an o

ldon

e, in

CIA

. How

ever

, the

rece

nt c

ontri

butio

n by

Haw

ary

and

Eliss

eeff

and

apr

ojec

ted

volu

me

by S

heila

Bla

ir (f

or w

hich

see

belo

w) s

ugge

st a

revi

ved

impe

tus t

o ac

hiev

e at

leas

t par

t of v

an B

erch

em's

visio

n.In

the

inte

rven

ing

seve

nty

year

s, im

porta

nt n

ew m

ater

ial h

as c

ome

out f

rom

time

to ti

me;

thou

gh w

e ca

nnot

giv

e an

y ad

equa

te su

rvey

of t

itles

her

e, c

erta

insc

hola

rs h

ave

mad

e pa

rticu

larly

subs

tant

ial c

ontri

butio

ns in

this

field

: Gas

ton

Wie

t, Je

an S

auva

get,

Nik

ita E

lisse

eff,

Dom

iniq

ue S

ourd

el, J

anin

e So

urde

l-Th

omin

e, H

einz

Gau

be. I

n Sp

ain,

a g

ood

initi

al c

orpu

s was

pub

lishe

d by

E.

Levi

-Pro

venç

al, In

scri

ptio

ns a

rabe

s de

l'E

spag

ne (1

931)

, and

in re

cent

yea

rs

58 S

OU

RC

ES

AN

D R

ES

EA

RC

H T

OO

LS

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

59

seve

ral s

chol

ars (

mos

t not

ably

M. °

calla

Jim

enez

) hav

e co

ntin

ued

to b

uild

on

this

foun

datio

n. T

wo

very

impo

rtant

pro

ject

s do

dese

rve

spec

ial n

otic

e. F

irst,

Mos

he S

haro

n ha

s ann

ounc

ed a

cor

pus o

f the

Ara

bic

insc

riptio

ns o

f Pal

estin

e:"U

n no

uvea

u co

rpus

des

insc

riptio

ns a

rabe

s de

Pale

stin

e,"

RE

I, x

lii, n

o. 1

(197

4), 1

85-1

91. S

econ

d, th

e So

urde

ls ha

ve u

nder

take

n a

criti

cal r

e-ed

ition

,w

ith a

con

cise

but

val

uabl

e an

nota

tion,

of t

he in

scrip

tions

of D

amas

cus,

whi

chha

ve h

eret

ofor

e be

en sc

atte

red

amon

g a

myr

iad

of e

xtre

mel

y un

even

pub

lica-

tions

. The

firs

t ins

tallm

ent o

f thi

s sur

vey,

cov

erin

g tw

enty

-one

insc

riptio

nsda

ting

from

444

/105

2 to

544

/114

9, h

as a

ppea

red

as "D

ossie

rs p

our u

n Co

rpus

des i

nscr

iptio

ns a

rabe

s de

Dam

as,"

RE

I, xl

vii,

no. 2

(197

9), 1

19-1

71.

It is

evi

dent

from

our

dis

cuss

ion

so fa

r tha

t Syr

ia a

nd E

gypt

hav

e be

enpr

ivile

ged

terri

torie

s. Th

e cr

ucia

l reg

ion

of Ir

an in

par

ticul

ar re

mai

ns fr

om a

nep

igra

phic

al p

oint

of v

iew

alm

ost t

erra

inco

gnita

, tho

ugh

an im

porta

nt in

itial

step

had

bee

n ta

ken

befo

re th

e 19

79 re

volu

tion,

with

the

esta

blis

hmen

t of a

Cor

pus

Insc

ript

ionu

m Ir

anic

arum

, de

vote

d to

the

publ

icat

ion

of P

ersia

n-la

n-gu

age

insc

riptio

ns fr

om e

arlie

st an

tiqui

ty d

own

to S

afav

id ti

mes

. So

far,

how

-ev

er, o

nly

two

slend

er v

olum

es h

ave

been

dev

oted

to th

e Is

lam

ic p

erio

d: o

nK

hora

san,

ed.

Will

iam

Han

away

, (V

ol. I

I, 19

77);

and

Maz

anda

ran,

ed.

A.D

.H.

Biva

r and

E. Y

arsh

ater

(Vol

. VI,

1978

). Th

ese

publ

icat

ions

are

unf

ortu

nate

lyex

trem

ely

conc

ise, c

onsis

ting

only

of p

late

s and

ters

e id

entif

icat

ions

, with

out

the

syste

mat

ic tr

ansc

riptio

ns, t

rans

latio

ns, a

nd a

nnot

atio

n ne

eded

to e

luci

date

thes

e te

xts.

Far m

ore

valu

able

will

be

a vo

lum

e no

w in

pre

ss b

y Sh

eila

Bla

ir,A

Cor

pus

of E

arly

Ara

bic

Insc

ript

ions

fro

m Ir

an a

nd T

rans

oxan

ia (

to A

.H.

500)

, whi

ch a

dher

es to

CIA

's ge

nera

l app

roac

h in

its p

rese

ntat

ion

and

anal

ysis

of se

vent

y-six

insc

riptio

ns.

Fina

lly, w

e co

me

to in

scrip

tions

of l

egal

and

adm

inist

rativ

e co

nten

t. U

nder

the

Rom

an E

mpi

re it

was

ver

y co

mm

on fo

r dec

rees

to b

e "p

ublis

hed"

in th

efo

rm o

f ins

crip

tions

on

tem

ple

wal

ls, tr

ium

phal

arc

hes,

etc.

Thi

s pra

ctic

e w

asfa

r les

s wid

espr

ead

in th

e Is

lam

ic w

orld

, but

it w

as o

ccas

iona

lly fo

llow

ed. J

ean

Sauv

aget

pub

lishe

d in

exe

mpl

ary

fash

ion

two

colle

ctio

ns o

f suc

h m

ater

ial:

(a)

"Dëc

rets

mam

elou

ks d

e Sy

rie,"

BE

D, i

i (19

32),

1-52

; iii

(193

3), 1

-29;

xii

(194

7-48

), 5-

60; (

b) Q

uatr

e de

cret

s se

ldjo

ukid

es (1

947)

. Far

mor

e co

mm

onth

an th

e of

ficia

l dec

ree

was

ano

ther

kin

d of

doc

umen

t, th

e de

ed o

f waq

f. W

hen

a sc

hool

or m

osqu

e w

as b

uilt

or g

iven

som

e ad

ditio

nal e

ndow

men

t, th

e be

ne-

fact

or w

ould

ofte

n ca

rve

an in

scrip

tion

in a

pro

min

ent s

pot o

n th

e bu

ildin

g,id

entif

ying

him

self,

the

obje

cts o

f his

cha

rity,

the

mai

n pr

oper

ties w

hich

he

had

dona

ted,

and

the

date

of t

he g

rant

. Suc

h in

scrip

tions

had

no

lega

l for

ce in

them

selv

es, b

ut w

ere

sim

ply

resu

mes

of t

he o

ffic

ial d

eed

of w

aqf r

egist

ered

with

the

cour

ts; e

ven

so, t

heir

valu

e fo

r the

stud

y of

soci

al a

nd e

cono

mic

histo

ry sh

ould

be

obvi

ous.

Obv

ious

ly w

e do

not

hav

e th

e ki

nds o

f ref

eren

ce a

nd re

sear

ch to

ols t

hat w

ene

ed fo

r a re

ally

effe

ctiv

e us

e of

insc

riptio

ns in

hist

oric

al re

sear

ch. H

owev

er,

we

do h

ave

a m

ost u

sefu

l int

erim

sur

vey

in th

e R

eper

toir

e ch

rono

logi

que

d'ep

igra

phie

ara

be (a

bbr.,

RC

EA

; 17

vols

., in

pro

gres

s; 1

931-

1982

). R

CEA

atte

mpt

s to

brin

g to

geth

er a

ll kn

own

Ara

bic

insc

riptio

ns, b

oth

thos

e pr

evio

usly

publ

ished

(whe

ther

wel

l or b

adly

) and

also

item

s col

lect

ed b

ut le

ft un

publ

ished

by v

an B

erch

em, S

auva

get,

Wie

t, et

al.

It m

akes

no

effo

rt to

be

criti

cal;

badl

yde

ciph

ered

, dup

licat

e, a

nd sp

urio

us te

xts a

boun

d. It

use

s bot

h a

chro

nolo

gica

lan

d ge

ogra

phic

al fr

amew

ork—

all t

he in

scrip

tions

for e

ach

year

are

bro

ught

toge

ther

, and

with

in e

ach

year

cita

tions

beg

in w

ith th

e w

este

rnm

ost s

ites a

ndm

ove

tow

ard

the

east.

Eac

h te

xt is

giv

en in

prin

ted

trans

crip

tion

and

Fren

chtra

nsla

tion

only

, with

out p

hoto

grap

hs. H

owev

er, s

ourc

es a

nd p

lace

s of p

ubli-

catio

n ar

e ci

ted,

so th

at th

ere

is a

t lea

st th

is d

egre

e of

con

trol.

Ther

e ar

e no

hist

oric

al o

r arc

haeo

logi

cal n

otes

; it i

s up

to th

e re

ader

to re

cons

truct

the

cont

ext i

n w

hich

thes

e tex

ts oc

cur.

RC

EA st

ill g

oes d

own

only

to 7

83/1

381,

soth

at a

vas

t bod

y of

mat

eria

l rem

ains

unt

ouch

ed. F

inal

ly, t

he tr

ansli

tera

tions

of

the

loca

les w

here

the

insc

riptio

ns w

ere

foun

d ar

e hi

ghly

arb

itrar

y—Fr

ench

impe

rial o

rthog

raph

y at

its w

orst

—an

d ca

use

muc

h w

aste

d tim

e si

mpl

y in

track

ing

dow

n pl

ace n

ames

, tho

ugh

the

Inde

x ge

ogra

phiq

ue (1

975)

for t

he fi

rst

16 v

olum

es d

oes a

mel

iora

te th

is pr

oble

m. I

t sho

uld

also

be

said

that

T. X

VII,

edite

d by

Lud

vik

Kal

us, s

how

s a

mar

ked

impr

ovem

ent i

n pr

oced

ure

and

form

at.In

shor

t, in

spite

of a

serie

s of m

ajor

effo

rts th

roug

hout

the

20th

cen

tury

, we

still

have

not

hing

com

para

ble

to w

hat T

heod

or M

omm

sen

and

his c

olle

ague

sbe

quea

thed

to R

oman

hist

ory

a hu

ndre

d ye

ars a

go, a

nd th

ere

is lit

tle p

rosp

ect

that

we e

ver w

ill.

E. A

RT,

AR

CH

AEO

LOG

Y, A

ND

TEC

HN

OLO

GY

Beca

use

histo

ry is

a v

erba

l rep

rese

ntat

ion

of h

uman

beh

avio

r, it

is na

tura

l tha

tit

shou

ld re

ly m

ost h

eavi

ly o

n th

e ev

iden

ce o

f wor

ds. H

owev

er, s

uch

evid

ence

can

be h

ighl

y m

islea

ding

in re

gard

to so

ciet

ies l

ike

thos

e of

med

ieva

l Isla

m,

whe

re th

e ar

t of w

ritin

g w

as th

e m

onop

oly

of a

smal

l cul

tura

l elit

e. A

nd e

ven

in b

road

ly li

tera

te so

ciet

ies,

mat

eria

l arti

fact

s are

far m

ore

prod

uctiv

e fo

rms o

fev

iden

ce fo

r man

y as

pect

s of l

ife th

an a

re "m

ere

wor

ds."

This

state

men

t ap-

plie

s not

onl

y to

such

obv

ious

are

as a

s tec

hnol

ogy

or th

e ap

para

tus o

f dai

lylif

e, b

ut in

man

y ca

ses e

ven

to so

cial

rela

tions

and

to c

ultu

ral s

ymbo

ls a

ndva

lues

. Obv

ious

ly n

o on

e ob

ject

is u

sabl

e ev

iden

ce fo

r eve

ry a

spec

t of t

heso

ciet

y w

hich

pro

duce

d it,

but

eve

ry a

rtifa

ct is

mul

tival

ent a

nd th

row

s lig

ht o

nm

any

area

s of l

ife. F

or e

xam

ple,

gla

zed

cera

mic

s can

be

evid

ence

for a

esth

etic

valu

es, f

or th

e te

chno

logy

whi

ch p

rodu

ced

them

, for

the

econ

omic

and

com

-m

erci

al m

ilieu

in w

hich

they

wer

e mad

e, an

d (if

they

hav

e fig

urat

ive d

ecor

) for

wid

ely

used

visu

al sy

mbo

ls of

the

perio

d. A

n ar

tifac

t of a

ver

y di

ffere

nt k

ind,

the

layo

ut o

f a c

ity m

arke

tpla

ce, c

an b

e a

min

e of

info

rmat

ion

on b

usin

ess

orga

niza

tion,

cla

ss st

ruct

ure,

etc

. As a

n in

quiry

dev

elop

s, th

en, e

ven

the

mos

t

60 S

OU

RC

ES

AN

D R

ES

EA

RC

H T

OO

LS

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

61

text

-min

ded

scho

lars

nee

d to

mak

e an

effo

rt to

can

vass

and

util

ize

the

poss

ible

artis

tic a

nd a

rcha

eolo

gica

l evi

denc

e fo

r the

ir su

bjec

t.It

mus

t be s

aid

that

ver

y fe

w Is

lam

ic h

istor

ians

are t

rain

ed to

do

this,

in la

rge

part

beca

use

until

the

late

196

0s th

ere

wer

e (a

t lea

st in

the

Uni

ted

Stat

es a

ndC

anad

a) a

lmos

t no

art h

isto

rians

and

arc

haeo

logi

sts w

hose

prim

ary

inte

rest

was

the

Isla

mic

wor

ld. T

his g

ap is

now

wel

l on

the

way

to b

eing

rect

ified

, but

it w

ill st

ill b

e so

me

time

befo

re th

e m

ajor

ity o

f soc

ial a

nd p

oliti

cal h

istor

ians

are

in a

ny p

ositi

on to

use

the

wor

k of

art

histo

rians

and

arc

haeo

logi

sts p

rodu

c-tiv

ely.

Eve

n w

hen

peop

le a

re re

ady

to lo

ok in

that

dire

ctio

n, c

autio

n an

d a

degr

ee o

f hum

ility

will

be

need

ed, f

or a

rt hi

story

and

arc

haeo

logy

are

hig

hly

deve

lope

d an

d se

lf-co

nsci

ous d

iscip

lines

and

nei

ther

can

be

mas

tere

d w

ithou

ta

subs

tant

ial a

ppre

ntic

eshi

p. F

or th

is re

ason

we

shal

l not

try

to d

eal s

erio

usly

with

pro

blem

s of m

etho

d he

re. A

n ov

eral

l ass

essm

ent o

f the

stat

e of

thes

efie

lds—

still

larg

ely

valid

—ca

n be

foun

d in

Ole

g G

raba

r, "I

slam

ic A

rt an

dA

rcha

eolo

gy,"

in L

. Bin

der,

ed.,

The

Stu

dy o

f th

e M

iddl

e E

ast (

1976

), pp

.22

9-26

4. F

or a

rcha

eolo

gy, a

crit

ique

of m

etho

d th

roug

h an

ana

lytic

pre

sent

a-tio

n of

a ca

se st

udy

is gi

ven

in C

. L. R

edm

an, "

Arc

haeo

logy

in a

Med

ieva

l City

of Is

lam

," M

ESA

Bul

l., x

iv, n

o. 2

(198

0), 1

-22.

Man

y ar

cheo

logi

sts w

ould

disa

gree

with

Red

man

's str

ess o

n th

e sc

ient

ific

rath

er th

an c

ultu

ral c

hara

cter

of

arch

aeol

ogy,

but

vie

ws l

ike

his a

re c

urre

ntly

ver

y in

fluen

tial.

Ther

e ar

e sti

ll ve

ry fe

w sy

nthe

tic w

orks

whi

ch a

ttem

pt to

inte

grat

e th

e ap

-pr

oach

es a

nd re

sults

of a

rt hi

story

and

arc

haeo

logy

with

in a

bro

ad in

terp

reta

-tio

n of

Isla

mic

hist

ory.

Tw

o fa

irly

rece

nt w

orks

are s

ucce

ssfu

l in

this

ende

avor

,ho

wev

er, a

nd in

add

ition

sugg

est m

any

inte

resti

ng li

nes o

f inq

uiry

:

Dom

iniq

ue a

nd Ja

nine

Sou

rdel

, La

civi

lisat

ion

de l'

Isla

m c

lass

ique

(196

8).

Ole

g G

raba

r, Th

e Fo

rmat

ion

of Is

lam

ic A

rt (1

973;

2nd

ed.,

1987

). (H

as an

exce

llent

bibl

iogr

aphi

c es

say

cove

ring

topi

cs d

own

to c

a. 9

00 A

.D.)

For a

rchi

tect

ure—

perh

aps t

he si

ngle

mos

t im

porta

nt d

imen

sion

of a

rt fo

r so-

cial

and

pol

itica

l hist

ory—

ther

e ar

e no

w se

vera

l goo

d su

rvey

s, bu

t hist

oria

nsm

ight

ben

efit

mos

t fro

m a

rece

nt c

olle

ctiv

e w

ork

edite

d by

Geo

rge

Mic

hell,

Arc

hite

ctur

e of

the

Isla

mic

Wor

ld,.

Its

His

tory

and

Soc

ial M

eani

ng (1

978)

,w

hich

goe

s bey

ond

the

stand

ard

emph

asis

on g

reat

mon

umen

ts to

look

at t

heso

cial

func

tions

of a

rchi

tect

ure.

Par

ticul

arly

sign

ifica

nt a

re th

e ch

apte

rs o

nm

arke

tpla

ces a

nd o

rdin

ary

priv

ate

hom

es. T

he te

xt is

ver

y ge

nera

l, as

one

wou

ld ex

pect

in th

is cl

ass o

f boo

k, b

ut an

atte

ntiv

e rea

der w

ill fi

nd m

any

usef

ulid

eas t

o pu

rsue

.Fo

r mos

t of t

he p

erio

ds a

nd re

gion

s of m

edie

val I

slam

, we

still

lack

ade

-qu

ate

repe

rtorie

s of m

onum

ents

and

obj

ects

, let

alo

ne th

e ki

nd o

f det

aile

dsu

rvey

whi

ch p

rovi

des a

rigo

rous

des

crip

tion

of a

ll th

e ex

tant

bui

ldin

gs o

rar

tifac

ts w

hich

fall

with

in a

def

ined

are

a of

inte

rest

. An

early

atte

mpt

at

age

nera

l sur

vey

was

mad

e in

Hen

ri Sa

ladi

n, G

eorg

es M

arga

is, a

nd G

asto

nM

igeo

n, M

anue

l d'a

rt m

usul

man

(4 v

ols.,

190

7-19

27),

whi

ch c

over

s bot

h

arch

itect

ure

and

the

plas

tic a

nd in

dustr

ial a

rts. O

bvio

usly

it is

now

thor

ough

lyob

sole

te; t

he b

est c

ompr

ehen

sive o

verv

iew

curre

ntly

avai

labl

e is p

roba

bly

Jan-

ine

Sour

del-T

hom

ine

and

Berto

ld S

pule

r, D

ie K

unst

des

Isl

am (1

973)

, Vol

.IV

of t

he P

ropy

laea

Kun

stge

schi

chte

. It i

s bot

h sc

hola

rly a

nd b

eaut

ifully

pro

-du

ced,

thou

gh it

s foc

us o

n in

divi

dual

mas

terp

iece

s pre

vent

s it f

rom

dea

ling

effe

ctiv

ely

with

regi

onal

dev

elop

men

ts, b

road

cul

tura

l pro

blem

s, et

c.In

an

idea

l wor

ld, e

very

regi

on a

nd e

very

cat

egor

y of

art

wou

ld b

e co

vere

dby

som

ethi

ng li

ke th

e m

onum

enta

l pro

duct

ions

of K

.A.C

. Cre

swel

l:

Early

Mus

lim A

rchi

tect

ure

(2 v

ols.,

193

8-40

; 2nd

revi

sed

ed. o

f Vol

. I, i

n 2

parts

,19

69).

The M

uslim

Arc

hite

ctur

e of E

gypt

(2

vols.

, 195

2-59

).

It is

hard

to th

ink

that

we

will

eve

r aga

in se

e an

ythi

ng li

ke th

ese

mag

nific

ent

volu

mes

—in

folio

size

, with

met

icul

ous d

escr

iptio

ns, a

ccur

ate

mea

sure

men

ts(o

ther

wise

alm

ost u

nkno

wn

in th

e Is

lam

ic fi

eld!

), an

d su

perb

dra

win

gs a

ndpl

ates

for e

very

mon

umen

t. E

arly

Mus

lim A

rchi

tect

ure

cove

rs a

ll th

e ce

ntra

lIs

lam

ic la

nds d

own

to c

a. 9

00 A

.D.,

whi

le th

e vo

lum

es o

n Eg

ypt f

ocus

on

the

perio

d fro

m th

e Ik

hshi

dids

thro

ugh

the

early

Mam

luks

(939

-132

6). C

resw

ell

has h

is fa

ults,

to b

e su

re, a

mon

g w

hich

his

tight

focu

s on

tech

nica

l pro

blem

sw

ill b

e m

ost a

ppar

ent t

o ne

w re

ader

s, bu

t his

wor

k re

mai

ns th

e fo

unda

tion

for

all f

urth

er p

rogr

ess.

The

wel

l-doc

umen

ted

late

r Mam

luk

perio

d in

Egy

pt h

asye

t to

be su

rvey

ed, b

ut a

num

ber o

f pal

atia

l priv

ate

hom

es fr

om th

is an

d th

eea

rly O

ttom

an p

erio

d su

rviv

e, an

d th

ese c

an b

e stu

died

in th

e adm

irabl

e sur

vey

of J.

Rev

ault,

B. M

aury

, and

M. Z

akar

iya,

Pal

ais

et m

aiso

ns d

u C

aire

du

xive

au x

viiie

sie

cle

(4 v

ols.,

197

5-83

). Th

e re

sults

of t

heir

wor

k on

the

Mam

luk

perio

d ha

ve b

een

plac

ed in

a br

oade

r arc

hite

ctur

al an

d so

cial

-hist

oric

al co

ntex

tin

a se

para

te v

olum

e: J.

-C. G

arci

n, B

. Mau

ry, J

. Rev

ault,

M. Z

akar

iya,

Pal

ais

et m

aiso

ns d

u C

aire

, I: é

poqu

e m

amel

ouke

(198

2). (

Wor

king

with

oth

er c

ol-

labo

rato

rs, R

evau

lt ha

s also

pro

duce

d sim

ilar s

urve

ys o

f lat

e-m

edie

val d

omes

-tic

arc

hite

ctur

e in

the

Nor

th A

frica

n ci

ties o

f Tun

is an

d Fe

z.)

For o

ther

regi

ons a

nd g

enre

s, th

ere

is m

uch

less

to w

ork

with

, in

spite

of

seve

ral m

erito

rious

surv

eys a

nd a

gro

win

g nu

mbe

r of s

olid

mon

ogra

phs.

For

Spai

n an

d N

orth

Afri

ca, G

eorg

es M

arga

is, L

'arc

hite

ctur

e m

usul

man

e de

l'O

c-ci

dent

(195

4) is

an

exce

llent

synt

hesi

s. A

t the

oth

er e

nd o

f the

med

ieva

l Is-

lam

ic w

orld

, a sp

lend

id c

olle

ctiv

e w

ork

deal

ing

with

all

perio

ds a

nd g

enre

sw

as e

dite

d by

A. U

. Pop

e an

d Ph

yllis

Ack

erm

an, A

Sur

vey

of P

ersi

an A

rt (6

vols.

, 193

8-39

; ind

ex v

ol. b

y T.

Bes

term

an, 1

958;

repr

. in

14 v

ols.,

196

4-67

).Th

is w

ork

is ve

ry u

neve

n an

d is

now

obs

oles

cent

, but

its c

ompr

ehen

siven

ess

and

its su

perb

pla

tes c

ontin

ue to

mak

e it

indi

spen

sabl

e.W

hen

we

mov

e fr

om re

gion

al to

gen

re-o

rient

ed su

rvey

s, a

few

wor

ks a

repa

rticu

larly

pre

cise

and

wid

e-ra

ngin

g. T

he d

evel

opm

ent o

f ear

ly Is

lam

ic p

aint

-in

g (d

own

to th

e 8t

h/14

th c

entu

ry, w

ith a

nat

ural

em

phas

is o

n m

anus

crip

till

ustra

tion)

is tr

eate

d in

the c

lass

ic st

udy

of R

icha

rd E

tting

haus

en, A

rab

Pain

t-

62

SO

UR

CE

S A

ND

RE

SE

AR

CH

TO

OL

S

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

63

ing

(196

2). T

he tw

o vo

lum

es b

y A

rthur

Lan

e on

cer

amic

s are

now

old

but

rem

ain

a us

eful

and

relia

ble

intro

duct

ion

to th

e su

bjec

t: Ea

rly Is

lam

ic P

otte

ry(1

947)

; Lat

er I

slam

ic P

otte

ry (1

957)

. A n

ew a

nd la

vish

ly p

rodu

ced

book

by

Jean

Sou

stie

l, L

a ce

ram

ique

isla

miq

ue (1

985)

, sup

plan

ts L

ane

in m

any

Ivsp

ects

. Lik

e its

pre

dece

ssor

it fo

cuse

s on

mas

terp

iece

s, an

d in

gen

eral

ad-

dres

ses t

he in

tere

sts o

f the

col

lect

or a

nd m

useu

m c

urat

or ra

ther

than

the

histo

-ria

n. (S

ee th

e re

view

ess

ay b

y O

leg

Gra

bar i

n M

uqam

as, v

[198

8], 1

-8.)

The

field

of m

etal

wor

k—on

e of

the

fines

t ach

ieve

men

ts of

Isla

mic

art—

has a

t las

tre

ceiv

ed a

relia

ble

and

wel

l-doc

umen

ted

over

view

from

Eva

Bae

r, M

etal

wor

kin

Med

ieva

l Isl

amic

Art

(198

3). S

he d

oes o

mit

certa

in c

lass

es o

f wor

k fro

mco

nsid

erat

ion

(e.g

., ar

ms a

nd ar

mor

), an

d th

e pla

tes,

whi

le p

erfe

ctly

usa

ble,

are

muc

h le

ss im

pres

sive

than

the

text

. The

vas

t gap

s in

our c

over

age

are

all t

ooap

pare

nt—

text

iles,

glas

s, Pe

rsia

n pa

intin

g in

the

post-

Mon

gol e

ra, t

he a

rchi

-te

ctur

e of

the

Ferti

le C

resc

ent a

nd Ir

an in

the

Mid

dle

Perio

ds (9

00-1

500)

,Cl

early

it w

ill b

e th

e w

ork

of d

ecad

es to

fill

thes

e in

any

ade

quat

e w

ay.

Und

er th

ese

circ

umsta

nces

esp

ecia

lly, m

useu

m a

nd e

xhib

ition

cat

alog

s are

ofte

n of

eno

rmou

s val

ue. U

nfor

tuna

tely

, ver

y fe

w m

useu

ms h

ave

atte

mpt

ed to

publ

ish c

ompr

ehen

sive

cata

logs

of t

heir

Isla

mic

col

lect

ions

. Wha

t can

be

done

is ill

ustra

ted

by tw

o of

the

volu

mes

pro

duce

d fo

r the

Mus

eum

of I

slam

ic A

rtin

Cai

ro b

y G

asto

n W

et:

1.C

atal

ogue

gen

eral

du

Mus

ee A

rabe

du

Cai

re: l

ampe

s et

bou

teill

es e

n ve

mem

aille

(19

29

).

2.C

atal

ogue

gen

eral

du

Mus

ee A

rabe

du

Cai

re: o

bjet

s en

cui

vre

(19

32

).

Sinc

e W

iet's

wor

k, th

e on

ly m

useu

m to

und

erta

ke a

cat

alog

ue o

n th

e sa

me

scal

e is

the

very

impo

rtant

Ben

aki M

useu

m o

f Ath

ens,

orig

inal

ly e

stabl

ished

as a

priv

ate

colle

ctio

n at

the

turn

of t

he c

entu

ry b

y a

Gre

ek re

sidin

g in

Egy

pt,

Ant

hony

Ben

aki.

As t

he fi

rst p

art o

f a p

ropo

sed

Cat

alog

ue o

f Isl

amic

Art

in th

eB

enak

i Mus

eum

und

er h

er g

ener

al e

dito

rshi

p, H

elen

e Ph

ilon

has r

ecen

tly p

ro-

duce

d a

sple

ndid

vol

ume,

Ear

ly Is

lam

ic C

eram

ics

(198

0). F

urth

er v

olum

es o

nla

ter c

eram

ics,

woo

dwor

k, te

xtile

s, m

etal

wor

k, je

wel

ry, a

nd to

mbs

tone

s hav

ebe

en a

nnou

nced

, eac

h to

be

done

by

a w

ell-k

now

n sp

ecia

list.

A d

iffer

ent t

ype

of p

ublic

atio

n al

toge

ther

is th

e ex

hibi

tion

cata

log,

whi

chpr

esen

ts th

e ob

ject

s gat

here

d to

geth

er fo

r a p

artic

ular

occ

asio

n. T

he v

alue

of

thes

e of

cou

rse

depe

nds h

eavi

ly o

n th

e co

ncep

tion

gove

rnin

g th

e ex

hibi

tion

in

ques

tion

and

on th

e cu

rato

r's sk

ill in

obt

aini

ng lo

ans o

f the

mos

t app

ropr

iate

piec

es. A

par

ticul

arly

fine

rece

nt e

xam

ple,

on

both

the

scho

larly

and

aes

thet

icle

vel,

wou

ld b

e Es

in A

tli,

Ren

aiss

ance

of I

slam

: Art

of t

he M

amlu

ks (1

981),

whi

ch is

unq

uest

iona

bly

the

best

acc

ount

we

have

of S

yro-

Egyp

tian

art b

e-tw

een

the

7th/

13th

and

9th

/15t

h ce

ntur

ies.

We

usua

lly th

ink

of a

rt as

a c

ultu

ral a

nd a

esth

etic

phe

nom

enon

, but

it is

nole

ss a

n em

bodi

men

t of t

echn

olog

y. A

rt un

doub

tedl

y ex

pres

ses w

hat w

as fe

lt to

be im

porta

nt o

r bea

utifu

l, bu

t it a

lso c

onve

ys th

e m

anuf

actu

ring

skill

s ava

ila-

ble

to a

giv

en so

ciet

y. F

or th

is re

ason

, the

full

expl

oita

tion

of a

rt as

evi

denc

efo

r pol

itica

l and

soci

al h

istor

y re

quire

s a k

now

ledg

e of

the

mat

eria

ls an

d te

ch-

niqu

es th

at p

rodu

ced

it. T

he st

udy

of m

edie

val a

nd "t

radi

tiona

l" Is

lam

ic te

ch-

nolo

gy is

unf

ortu

nate

ly st

ill in

its i

nfan

cy. H

owev

er, t

wo

very

diff

eren

t wor

ksbr

ing

toge

ther

mos

t of w

hat i

s kno

wn.

In I

slam

ic T

echn

olog

y: a

n Il

lust

rate

dH

istor

y (1

986)

, A. Y

. al-H

assa

n an

d D

. R. H

ill c

omb

text

s, m

anus

crip

t illu

stra-

tions

, and

arti

fact

s to

reco

nstru

ct a

ver

y im

pres

sive

arra

y of

arts

and

man

ufac

-tu

res:

ship

build

ing,

text

iles,

irrig

atio

n, m

etal

lurg

y, et

al. B

oth

auth

ors a

re en

gi-

neer

s as w

ell a

s sch

olar

s, an

d th

at fa

ct o

bvio

usly

enh

ance

s the

val

ue o

f the

irw

ork.

Has

san

and

Hill

's hi

storic

al st

udy

shou

ld b

e re

ad in

tand

em w

ith H

ans

E. W

ulff'

s inv

alua

ble

The

Tra

ditio

nal C

raft

s of

Per

sia

(196

6). W

ulff'

s met

ic-

ulou

s acc

ount

is b

ased

on

dire

ct o

bser

vatio

n of

arti

sans

at w

ork

durin

g hi

sle

ngth

y re

siden

ce in

Iran

in th

e 19

30s,

and

cove

rs a

gric

ultu

re a

nd b

uild

ing

asw

ell a

s ind

ustri

al c

rafts

. Fin

ally

, we

now

hav

e an

impo

rtant

wor

k on

arc

hite

c-tu

re: C

aefe

r Efe

ndi,

Ris

ale-

i Mie

miir

iyye

: an

Earl

y Se

vent

eent

h-C

entu

ry O

tto-

man

Tre

atis

e on

Arc

hite

ctur

e, a

nnot

ated

tran

s. by

How

ard

Cra

ne (1

987)

.W

orks

of t

his k

ind

are

extre

mel

y ra

re, s

ince

pre

-mod

ern

Mus

lim a

rchi

tect

sha

rdly

eve

r wro

te a

bout

thei

r cra

ft. M

edie

valis

ts m

ust o

bvio

usly

use

this

text

with

caut

ion,

sinc

e Otto

man

arch

itect

ure i

s ver

y di

stinc

tive a

nd in

deed

uni

que.

Even

so, i

t giv

es u

s dire

ct if

par

tial a

cces

s to

the w

ay in

whi

ch M

uslim

bui

lder

sun

ders

tood

thei

r wor

k.Th

e ar

chae

olog

ical

and

art-

histo

rical

lite

ratu

re is

ver

y sc

atte

red,

and

impo

r-ta

nt c

ontri

butio

ns o

ften

crop

up

in v

ery

unlik

ely

plac

es. I

n th

is ar

ea, h

owev

er,

we

are

wel

l pro

vide

d fo

r, at

leas

t for

old

er p

ublic

atio

ns: K

.A.C

. Cre

swel

l, A

Bib

liogr

aphy

of

the

Arc

hite

ctur

e, A

rts,

and

Cra

fts

of Is

lam

(196

1), t

o w

hich

the

sam

e au

thor

issu

ed a

Sup

plem

ent g

oing

dow

n to

197

2. It

is m

etic

ulou

slyan

d lo

gica

lly o

rgan

ized

. The

orig

inal

vol

ume

incl

udes

title

s in

Ara

bic

and

Pers

ian,

whi

le th

e su

pple

men

t add

s Tur

kish

and

Rus

sian

. For

som

e en

tries

Cres

wel

l add

s ter

se a

nd ty

pica

lly a

cerb

ic c

omm

ents.

Fro

m 1

972

on, w

e m

ust

fall

back

on

the I

ndex

Isla

mic

us.

Isla

mic

arc

haeo

logy

is m

ore

obvi

ously

con

nect

ed w

ith th

e co

ncer

ns o

f so-

cial

and

pol

itica

l his

toria

ns th

an is

art

hist

ory,

but

it h

as n

ot y

et m

ade

the

cont

ribut

ions

to h

istor

ical

stud

ies w

hich

we

mig

ht h

ope

for.

Ther

e ar

e m

any

reas

ons f

or th

is. U

ntil

very

rece

ntly

, ver

y fe

w a

rcha

eolo

gists

had

any

inte

rest

in th

e Is

lam

ic p

erio

d, a

nd te

nded

to re

gard

the

"Sar

acen

laye

rs" a

t the

ir sit

esm

ostly

as

a nu

isan

ce. O

n th

e ot

her h

and,

ver

y fe

w Is

lam

ists

had

any

ar-

chae

olog

ical

trai

ning

, per

haps

bec

ause

so m

uch

mat

eria

l fro

m m

edie

val I

slam

is st

ill a

bove

gro

und

and

even

occ

upie

d. Y

et e

ven

at th

e be

ginn

ing

of th

isce

ntur

y th

e w

ork

of F

riedr

ich

Sarr

e an

d Er

nst H

erzf

eld

at S

amar

ra sh

owed

wha

t cou

ld b

e ga

ined

from

arc

haeo

logy

. For

tuna

tely

, dur

ing

the

last

two

dec-

ades

the

pace

of e

xcav

atio

n at

the

hand

s of s

erio

us a

rcha

eolo

gists

has

pic

ked

up sh

arpl

y, a

nd a

t lea

st u

ntil

the

troub

les o

f the

last

dec

ade

wor

k w

as b

eing

activ

ely

purs

ued

thro

ugho

ut th

e ce

ntra

l Isla

mic

land

s.

64 S

OU

RC

ES

AN

D R

ES

EA

RC

H T

OO

LS

AN

AL

YS

IS O

F S

OU

RC

ES

65

It w

ould

obv

ious

ly b

e ex

trem

ely

usef

ul to

hav

e a

com

preh

ensiv

e su

rvey

of

all t

he si

tes w

here

sign

ifica

nt a

rcha

eolo

gica

l wor

k ha

s bee

n do

ne, w

ith su

mm

a-rie

s of t

he m

ain

data

, gen

eral

con

clus

ions

, crit

ical

bib

liogr

aphi

es, e

tc. A

n ex

-ce

llent

mod

el fo

r suc

h a

surv

ey c

an b

e fo

und

in L

. Van

den

Ber

ghe,

Arc

heol

ogie

de

l'Ira

n an

cien

(195

9), a

nd it

s (so

mew

hat b

elat

ed) c

ompa

nion

volu

me,

Bib

liogr

aphi

e an

alyt

ique

de

l'arc

heol

ogie

de

l'Ira

n an

cien

(197

9}—

wor

ks w

hich

are

obv

ious

ly im

porta

nt fo

r sch

olar

s of e

arly

Isla

mic

Iran

. A v

ery

impo

rtant

wor

k on

Afg

hani

stan

shou

ld a

lso b

e no

ted:

War

wic

k Ba

ll an

d Je

an-

Clau

de G

ardi

n, A

rcha

eolo

gica

l Gaz

ette

er o

f Afg

hani

stan

(2

vols.

, 198

2). T

heau

thor

s sur

vey

som

e 12

00 si

tes,

begi

nnin

g w

ith th

e ol

dest

rem

ains

kno

wn

and

com

ing

dow

n to

the

end

of T

imur

id ti

mes

. It i

s bas

ed w

holly

on

publ

ishe

dde

scrip

tions

and

repo

rts, b

ut o

bvio

usly

thes

e ar

e al

l we

shal

l hav

e fo

r a lo

ngtim

e to

com

e.A

rcha

eolo

gy is

no

long

er a

n af

fair

of fr

ee-la

nce

amat

eurs

; leg

al e

xcav

atio

nsat

leas

t are

alw

ays c

arrie

d ou

t eith

er b

y na

tiona

l ant

iqui

ties s

ervi

ces o

r by

offic

ially

reco

gniz

ed fo

reig

n re

sear

ch in

stitu

tes.

It w

ill th

us b

e us

eful

to li

stth

ose

orga

niza

tions

whi

ch re

gula

rly sp

onso

r wor

k on

the

Isla

mic

per

iod,

and

whi

ch h

ave

wel

l-est

ablis

hed

publ

icat

ions

serie

s in

whi

ch th

e re

sults

of t

his

wor

k ar

e lik

ely

to a

ppea

r. W

e ca

nnot

cite

eve

ry p

oten

tially

rele

vant

org

aniz

a-tio

n an

d jo

urna

l, bu

t tho

se li

sted

bel

ow a

re re

spon

sibl

e fo

r the

bul

k of

pub

-lis

hed

wor

k in

Isla

mic

arc

haeo

logy

.

Am

eric

an R

esea

rch

Cent

er in

Egy

ptJo

urna

l of t

he A

mer

ican

Res

earc

h C

ente

r in

Egyp

t (ab

br.,

JARC

E)Br

itish

Insti

tute

of A

rcha

eolo

gy a

t Ank

ara

Ana

tolia

n St

udie

sBr

itish

Insti

tute

of P

ersia

n St

udie

sIr

anBr

itish

Sch

ool o

f Arc

haeo

logy

in Ir

aqIr

aq(N

ote

that

all

thre

e of

the

Briti

sh jo

urna

ls pu

blish

ann

ual r

evie

ws o

f cur

rent

exc

a-va

tions

with

in th

eir r

espe

ctiv

e co

untri

es o

f int

eres

t.)Ce

ntre

Nat

iona

l de

la R

eche

rche

Sci

entif

ique

(Par

is) (a

bbr.,

CN

RS)

Arc

heol

ogie

med

iterr

anie

nne

(abb

r., A

rch.

med

.)D

eutsc

hes A

rcha

olog

ische

s Ins

titut

, Abt

eilu

ng K

airo

(abb

r., D

AI)

Mitt

eilu

ngen

(ann

ual;

abbr

., D

AI (

Kai

ro),

Mitt

.); A

bhan

dlun

gen,

Isla

misc

he R

eihe

(occ

asio

nal;

, ,

abbr

. DA

I (K

airo

) Abh

.)D

AI,

Abt

. Ista

nbul

Ista

nbul

er M

ittei

lung

en (a

nnua

l; ab

br.,

1st.

Mitt

.); Is

tanb

uler

For

schu

ngen

(occa

-sio

nal;

abbr

., 1s

t. Fo

rsch

.)D

AI,

Abt

. Teh

eran

Arc

haol

ogis

che

Miu

eilu

ngen

aus

Iran

(ann

ual;

abbr

., A

MI)

; Teh

eran

er F

or-

schu

ngen

(occ

asio

nal;

abbr

., Te

h. F

orsc

h.)

Del

egat

ion

Arc

heol

ogiq

ue F

rang

aise

en

Iran

Cah

iers

(abb

r., C

DA

FI);

Mem

oire

s (oc

casio

nal;

abbr

., M

DA

FI)

Inst

itut F

ranc

ais

d'A

rche

olog

ie O

rient

ale

au C

aire

(suc

cess

or to

the

Mis

sion

Arc

heol

ogiq

ue F

ranc

aise

au

Caire

)M

emoi

res d

e la

Mis

sion

Arc

heol

ogiq

ue F

ranc

aise

au

Cai

re (a

bbr.,

MM

AF)

; me-

moi

res p

ublie

s par

les m

embr

es d

e l'I

nstit

ut F

ranc

ais d

'Arc

heol

ogie

Orie

ntal

e au

Caire

(abb

r., M

IFA

O);

Bul

letin

de

l'Ins

titut

Fra

ncai

s d'A

rche

olog

ie O

rient

ale

auCa

ire (a

bbr.,

BIF

AO

); A

nnal

es Is

lam

olog

ique

s (a

bbr.,

Al).

Insti

tut F

ranc

ais d

'Etu

des A

rabe

s a D

aman

Bulle

tin d

'etud

es o

rient

ales

(BEO

)Ira

q, D

irect

orat

e G

ener

al o

f Ant

iqui

ties

Sum

erN

eder

land

s Hist

orisc

h-A

rcha

eolo

gisc

h In

stitu

ut to

Ista

nbul

Ana

tolic

a (a

nnua

l); U

itgav

en (o

ccas

iona

l; ab

br.,

Ist.

Uitg

aven

)Sa

udi A

rabi

a, D

epar

tmen

t of A

ntiq

uitie

s

Syria

, Dire

ctio

n ge

nera

le d

es A

ntiq

uite

s et d

es M

usee

sA

nnal

es a

mhe

olog

ique

s de

Syrie

(sin

ce 1

969,

Ann

ales

arc

heol

ogiq

ues s

yrie

nnes

;ab

br., A

AS)

Ther

e ar

e m

any

impo

rtant

arc

haeo

logi

cal j

ourn

als n

ot li

sted

here

—e.

g., S

yrie

,B

eryt

us, I

srae

l Exp

lora

tion

Jour

nal—

but t

hese

alm

ost n

ever

dea

l with

Isla

mic

topi

cs a

nd it

seem

s bes

t to

excl

ude

them

. In

any

case

, the

re is

obv

ious

ly a

rich

and

rapi

dly

grow

ing

fund

of a

rcha

eolo

gica

l dat

a an

d in

terp

reta

tion

for t

hose

histo

rians

who

are

pre

pare

d to

lear

n ho

w to

use

it.