ASSIGNMENT ON ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

TOPIC

TO DESCRIBE THE STEPS ASSOCIATED WITH STARING A PLANNED CHANGE PROCESS

TO REINFORCE THE DEFINITION OF AN OD PRACTITIONER AS ANYONE WHO IS HELPING A SYSTEM TO MAKE PLANNED CHANGES

UNDER GUIDANCE OF SUMBITTED BY

PROF. SUBHASH GUPTAROLL NO. 15

SEC- SP3

IIPM SATBARI

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TABLE OF CONTENT

S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO.

1 INTRODUCTION 32 ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE

2.1 GROUPS AS FOCUS OF CHANGE

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3 APPLICATION OF OD 8

4. Entering into an OD Relationship 185. OD PRACTITIONERS 216. OD PRACTITIONER SKILLS AND

ACTIVITIES 24

7. CONCLUSION 338. BIBLIOGRAPHY 35

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1. INTRODUCTION

The planned change process generally starts when one or more managers or administrators sense an opportunity for their organization, department or group, believe that new capabilities need to be developed, or decide that performance could be improved through organization development. The organization might be successful yet have room for improvement. The organization could be experiencing particular problems. Conversely the problems might appear more diffuse and consist simply of feelings that the organization should be “more innovative”, “more competitive” or “more effective”.

Entering and contracting are the initial steps in the OD process. They involve defining in a preliminary manner the organization’s problems or opportunities for development and collaborative relationship between the OD practitioner and members of the client system about how to work on those issues. Entering and contracting set the initial parameters for carrying out the subsequent phases of OD. Diagnosing the organization , planning and implementing changes, and evaluating and institionalizing them. They help to define what issues will be addressed by those activities, who will carry them out, and how they will be accomplished.

Entering and contracting can vary in complexity and formality depending on the situation. In those cases where the manager of a work group or development serves as his or her own OD practitioner, entering and contracting typically involve the manager and group members meeting to discuss what issues to work on and how they will jointly meet the goals they set. Here, entering and contracting are relatively simple and informal. They involve all relevant members directly in the process with a minimum of formal procedures. In situations where managers and administrators are considering the use of professional OD practitioners, either from inside or from outside the organization ,

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entering and contracting tend to be more complex and formal. OD practitioner may need to collect preliminary information to help define the problematic or development issues. They may need to meet with the representatives of the client organization rather than with total membership; they may need to formalize their respective roles and how the change process will unfold. In cases where the anticipated changes are strategic and large in scale, formal proposals from multiple consulting firms are requested and legal contracts are drawn up.

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2. ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE

All approaches to change must address a key issue inherent in organizations: why they are so stable and resistant to change. Knowing how to change organizations starts from understanding the conditions that promote the status quo or no change. OD has discovered a long list of causes for resistance to change, such as structural inertia, work habits, fear of the unknown, powerful interests, and members’ security needs. It has also identified a variety of forces that promote organization change, such as competitive pressures, performance problems, workforce changes, and new technologies.

According to Lewin approach, organization change is directed at processes, not things. The targets of change, such as performance levels and work methods, are the result of ongoing social processes occurring in organizations. For example, the level of a team’s performance is the product of a myriad of behaviors, decisions, and interactions occurring among team members over time. Forces in the situation that drive and restrain change influence those social processes. In the team example, new work technologies might push for change while team performance norms might resist it. When these opposing forces are roughly equal, targets of change and the social processes underlying them are relatively stable and resistant to change, a condition called ‘quasi-stationary equilibrium’. This stability is not static but dynamic, like a river flowing in a particular direction at a certain velocity. Driving and restraining forces, like the banks of a river, shape how social processes evolve over time. They affect the degree those processes are stable and hence resistant to change.

To change organizations, driving and restraining forces that affect the change target must first be identified and their strength assessed. Then, depending on the results of this analysis, the strength of these opposing forces can either be increased or

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decreased to achieve desired changes. Increasing driving forces or decreasing restraining forces may result in the same degree of change. The secondary effects of these two change strategies are likely to be quite different, however. Organization changes that result from increases in driving forces are likely to be accompanied by relatively high levels of tension as restraining forces rise to push back against the changes. Such tension can lead to higher aggressiveness and emotionality, and lower levels of commitment to change. The more effective change strategy is to reduce restraining forces, and thus let driving forces promote change while facing less resistance. This low-pressure method results in greater acceptance of the changes and more positive reactions to them. In the team performance example described above, improvements in performance are likely to be more successful if team performance norms (restraining force) are modified first and then new technologies (driving force) are introduced.

2.1 GROUPS AS FOCUS OF CHANGE

Organization change involves, either directly or indirectly, changes in individual behavior. New structures, work methods, and performance goals, for example, all require adjustments in the way organization members behave. To change individual behavior, however, may require changes in the groups to which people belong.

OD has long discovered that individual behavior is firmly grounded in groups.

Whether groups emerge formally to perform organization tasks or informally to meet members’ social needs, they can have powerful effects on members’ behaviors, beliefs, and values.

Example, groups can influence members’ performance levels, task methods, and work relationships. They can exert pressure on members to conform to norms governing group behavior. This can

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make changing individual behavior extremely difficult, as members are likely to resist organization changes that run counter to group norms and expectations. To overcome such resistance may require changing the group itself, thus making it the focus of change.

Initially referred to as ‘participative management’, this group approach to organization change is used extensively in OD. It includes getting members directly involved in understanding the need for change, developing appropriate changes, and implementing them. When members perceive the need for change, pressure for change is likely to arise from within the group . A key method for creating shared perceptions of the need for change is to engage members in analyzing their own situation. This can create ownership over the diagnosis and the conclusions drawn from it, therefore promoting a shared readiness for change among members. Similarly, member participation in developing organization changes can help to assure commitment to implementing them.

When group members are involved in making decisions about what changes are most appropriate to their situation, their interests are likely to be taken into account in those changes. Consequently, members will be committed to subsequently implementing the changes because it is in their vested interest to do so. Moreover, such involvement can bring more diverse and local knowledge to decisions about change, thus improving their quality and practical relevance.

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3. APPLICATION OF OD

How OD is applied in organizations closely follows its historical roots and psychological foundations.

The processes and activities used to initiate and carry out organization change are deeply embedded in values of openness, trust, and collaboration among organization members; they are grounded in beliefs that members should be treated maturely and actively involved in change. Based on these fundamentals, applications of OD have evolved to meet the emerging demands of organizations and their environments. As shown in the history section of this chapter, OD interventions have grown larger and more complex; they have become more strategic, involving a greater array of stakeholders and organization design components. These changes are reflected in how OD is carried out and practiced in organizations today. To understand this evolution of OD practice requires knowledge of three general approaches to change:

(1) Lewin’s three steps; (2) action research; and (3) action learning.

LEWIN’S THREE STEPS

This approach to organization change derives from the work of Lewin and his colleagues on how to overcome resistance to change and how to sustain change once it is made . It starts

from the premise that targets of change and the social processes underlying them are relatively stable when forces driving for change are roughly equal to forces resisting change. To change this status quo requires a three-step process:

(1) ‘unfreezing’ the balance of forces that keep the change target stable;

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(2) ‘moving’ the change target to a new level or kind of behavior; and (3) ‘refreezing’ the balance of forces to reinforce the new behaviors and to keep them stable. This simple yet profound framework has guided OD practice for over half a century. It has led to numerous techniques for leading and managing change.

Unfreezing

This step underscores the need to assess the present situation before change is contemplated. Referred to as a ‘force field analysis’, this diagnosis examines the driving and restraining forces in the change.

Situation can reveal which forces are strongest (or weakest) and which are easiest (or hardest) to modify. Such information is essential for unfreezing the current situation and creating a readiness for change among organization members. For example, a force field analysis might discover that the key forces restraining change are members’ lack of understanding about the need for change and strong group norms about task performance. Techniques to overcome these resistances, and thus to unfreeze the status quo, might include clearer and more direct communication about the rationale underlying the proposed changes and member participation in the change process itself.

Moving

This stage involves intervening in the situation to change it. OD includes a variety of interventions for improving organizations. These change programs address organization issues having to do with human processes, strategic choices, human resource management, and work designs and structures.

To implement these changes effectively, OD has devised methods for creating a compelling vision of the desired changes,

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developing political support for them, and managing the transition from the current to the desired situation.

Refreezing

This final step involves making changes a permanent part of the organization’s functioning. When this stage is ignored, organization changes rarely persist but regress to their previous stable state. Thus, refreezing calls for re-balancing the driving and restraining forces in the changed situation so it remains relatively stable. OD has discovered a variety of practices that can contribute to such permanence.

Generally referred to as ‘institutionalizing’ change, these methods include: reinforcing organization changes by making rewards contingent on them; socializing existing members and newcomers into the beliefs, norms, and values underlying the changes; diffusing changes throughout the organization to provide a wider base of support for them; and sensing and calibrating the changes to detect deviations from desired changes and to take corrective actions.

Action Research

This approach to organization change shows that research can be practical; it can serve as an instrument for action and change. Action research applies scientific methods to help organizations identify problems, discover their underlying causes, and implement appropriate changes. It can also produce new knowledge about organizations and change that can be applied elsewhere. In addition to its problem solving focus, action research is highly collaborative, involving both OD practitioners and organization members in the research and action process. Such participation gains members’ input and commitment to the changes, thus increasing the chances that they will be implemented. It can also result in higher quality, more situation-relevant changes. Although several variants of action research have been developed,

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applications to OD generally involve the following cyclical activities:

(1) preliminary data gathering and diagnosis;

(2) action planning;

(3) implementation;

(4) assessment.

In practice, these activities result in an iterative process where initial research informs action, and additional research informs further action, and so on.

Preliminary data gathering and diagnosis

Action research typically starts with a pressing problem that organization members are motivated to resolve. Based on this presenting issue, preliminary data are gathered to determine whether 36 foundations and applications problem has been correctly identified and to diagnose its underlying causes. This initial research is generally informed by diagnostic models that show what features of the organization to examine and what data to collect to discover the source of organizational problems. OD practitioners use a plethora of diagnostic models to assess various aspects of organizations, from members’ individual motivation to relationships between the organization and other organizations in its environment. They use a variety of methods to collect diagnostic data, from informal interviews with a few people to formal surveys of the total organization. When these data are collected and analyzed appropriately, they provide valid information about causes of organization problems.

Action planning

Based on this preliminary research, participants develop action plans specifying what organization changes will be made and how they will be implemented. The choice and design of change

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interventions depend on a variety of factors having to do with the target of change and the change situation itself.

In selecting a change target, participants can draw on a large diversity of OD interventions to improve various aspects and problems of organizations. Indeed, OD is known primarily for its interventions, such as team building, self-managed teams, and high-involvement organizations. The preliminary diagnosis guides which of those interventions are most relevant for the organization. Moreover, it helps participants choose interventions that are likely to succeed in their specific change situation.

Researchers have identified key situational contingencies that can affect intervention success, such as individual differences among members and the nature of the organization’s technology and competitive situation. Knowledge of these contingencies can help to assure that action plans fit well with the change situation.

Implementation

Implementing action plans involves making changes that move the organization towards its desired future. Such change does not occur instantly but requires a transition period during which members learn how to enact the changes and make them work. OD has identified activities and structures that can facilitate this transition phase. These include specifying the change tasks that need to occur, temporally ordering them, and monitoring their progress. It also involves identifying key stakeholders whose commitment is needed for change to occur and gaining their support. In cases where change is large scale and involves several features and levels of the organization, special structures for managing the change process may need to be created. These structures mobilize resources for change, coordinate the changes, and account for progress. Members who have both the power to make change happen and the respect of key stakeholders lead them.

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Assessment

This final phase of action research involves gathering and analyzing data to determine the effects of the changes. Such information is used to decide whether the changes are having their intended results, and, if not, how they can be modified to be more effective. Assessment tends to occur at different stages of the change process both during implementation and after it is completed. During implementation, evaluation provides timely feedback about whether the changes are being implemented as intended. Because organization change generally involves considerable learning and experimentation, such information is vital to members learning new behaviors and procedures needed to implement change. Assessment that occurs after implementation provides feedback.

the overall impact of the organization changes. It helps members determine whether the changes should continue to be supported or whether other possible interventions should be tried.

Action Learning

Action learning has been variously referred to as ‘participatory action research’ It is a relatively new and still evolving form of planned change. Action learning moves beyond the problem-solving focus inherent in traditional applications of OD, and treats change as a continuous learning and transformation process. It responds to the enormous pressures for change facing organizations today. They are experiencing competitive demands to perform more quickly and efficiently at lower cost and higher quality. They are being forced to adapt to turbulent environments where technological, economic, and cultural forces are changing rapidly and unpredictably. To respond to these forces, organizations are radically transforming themselves into leaner, more flexible structures capable of continuous adaptation and change. Such change involves Considerable learning and innovation as members try new

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Behaviors, structures, and processes, assess the results, make necessary adjustments, and so on. It also requires significant support and commitment from key stakeholders including managers, employees, and staff experts.

Action learning addresses these issues. It helps members acquire the skills and expertise to design their own innovations, to manage their own change processes, and, perhaps most important, to learn how to do these things more effectively and efficiently. It identifies key stakeholders and gets them actively involved in analyzing the organization and its environment, designing appropriate changes, and implementing them. It builds the capacity to change and to improve continually into the organization so it becomes part of normal functioning.

Action learning involves a number of interrelated actions that comprise an iterative learning process.

As members move through these activities, they learn how to change and improve the organization, including their own work behaviors and interactions. This learning feeds into the next cycle of action learning and so on, thus enhancing members’ capacity to change both the organization and themselves.

Action learning general includes the following steps:

(1) valuing; (2) diagnosing; (3) designing; and

(4) implementing and assessing.

Valuing

Action learning generally starts with clarifying the values that will guide the change process. Organization values influence members’ behaviors and decision-making; they affect which innovations and changes are seen as good or bad. Because organization values are tacit and rarely questioned, they tend to perpetuate the status quo. Thus, valuing seeks to make explicit the organization’s

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values and to judge their relevance to competitive conditions. This may result in modifying or replacing certain values, or considering entirely new ones. Moreover, because stakeholders often have diverse interests, valuing attempts to uncover underlying value conflicts and to resolve them so they do not adversely affect subsequent design and implementation activities. Unless organization changes take into account the interests of different stakeholders, there is likely to be differential support and commitment for them.

OD practitioners have developed various methods for resolving value conflicts, including collaborating, compromising, and negotiating. The key objective is to achieve sufficient value agreement among stakeholders so they can proceed with changing the organization in a shared and committed direction. A common outcome of valuing is a ‘vision statement’ that explains the values that will guide organization change, including valued human and performance outcomes and organizational conditions for achieving them .Although valuing occurs early in action learning, members may periodically reassess and modify the values as they continually move through the cycle of learning activities.

Diagnosing

This phase of action learning involves assessing the organization against the values. This can reveal value gaps where the organization is not functioning or performing consistent with the values. Such inconsistencies direct the subsequent design of organization changes to close the gaps. Thus, action learning is aimed at continually assessing and improving the organization in a valued direction.

Designing

This step involves developing specific organization changes to reduce value gaps and to move the organization in a valued direction. Depending on the diagnosis, members may determine that

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limited change is necessary and existing conditions only need to be fine tuned; or that more extensive change is needed requiring innovations that either imitate what other organizations are doing or that are entirely new and original. Thus, designing is not deterministic but involves considerable creativity and choice.

Members explore new ways for organizing that are consistent with the values. They iterate back and forth between the values which serve as design guides and the designs themselves.

Designing typically results in organization changes that are minimally specified and flexible. This enables members to adjust the changes to fit situational contingencies during implementation. It provides members with sufficient freedom to modify the changes as they learn how to enact them behaviorally and how to modify and improve them as the circumstances demand.

Implementing and assessing

In this phase, members implement and assess organization changes. This involves learning by doing. Members take action to implement or modify the changes. They periodically assess whether the changes and implementation process are progressing as intended, and, if not, make plans to modify them. This feedback–adjustment process enables members to learn how to change the organization and themselves.

It continues indefinitely as members learn how to improve the organization continuously. Implementing and assessing can involve three levels of learning. At the most basic level, which is referred to as ‘single-loop learning’, members concentrate on getting the changes implemented in accordance with the values. They seek to reduce deviations from the changes’ underlying values. This learning occurs continuously and involves considerable Problem solving and trial-and-error as members learn to move the organization closer to its values. Single-loop learning is involved in all approaches to organization change, including Lewin’s three

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steps and action research. It enables members to implement planned changes as intended. Organization learning processes tend to be tacit and taken for granted, members are not accustomed to examining or questioning them. This can lead to repetition of learning mistakes and disorders. Thus, deutero learning is aimed at the learning process itself. Members examine values, organizational conditions, and behaviors that inhibit singleand double-loop learning; they design more effective learning processes. Members then engage in implementing and assessing the new learning behaviors. Over time, deutero learning enables members to enhance their capacity to learn, and thus become better at implementing change and improving the organization.

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4. ENTERING INTO AN OD RELATIONSHIPAn OD process generally starts when a member of an organization or unit contacts an OD practitioner about potential help in addressing an organizational issue. The organization member may be a manager , staff specialist, or some other key participant; the practitioner may be an OD professional from inside or outside of the organization.Entering and contracting are the initial steps in the OD process. They involve defining in a preliminary manner the organization’s problems or opportunities for development and establishing a collaborative relationship between the OD practitioner and members of the client system about how to work on those issues. Entering and contracting set the initial parameters for carrying out the subsequent phases of OD: diagnosing the organization, planning and implementing changes, and evaluating and institutionalizing them. They help to define what issues will be addressed by those activities, which will carry them out, and how they will be accomplished. Entering and contracting can vary in complexity and formality depending on the situation.Clarifying the Organizational Issue:

When seeking help from OD practitioners, organizations typically start with a presenting problem—the issue that has caused them to consider an OD process. It may be specific (decreased market share, increased absenteeism) or general (“we’re growing too fast,” “we need to prepare for rapid changes”). The presenting problem often has an implied or stated solution. For example, managers may believe that because members of their teams are in conflict, team building is the obvious answer. They may even state the presenting problem in the form of a solution: “We need some team building.” In many cases, however, the presenting problem is only a symptom of an underlying problem. For example, conflict among members of a team may result from several deeper causes,

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including ineffective reward systems, personality differences, inappropriate structure, and poor leadership.

organization or department must be clarified early in the OD process so that subsequent diagnostic and intervention activities are focused correctly. Gaining a clearer perspective on the organizational issue may require collecting preliminary data. OD practitioners often examine company records and interview a few key members to gain an introductory understanding of the organization, its context, and the nature of the presenting problem. Those data are gathered in a relatively short period of time, typically over a few hours to one or two days. They are intended to provide enough rudimentary knowledge of the organizational issue to enable the two parties to make informed choices about proceeding with the contracting process. The diagnostic phase of OD involves a far more extensive assessment of the problematic or development issue that occurs during the entering and contracting stage. The diagnosis also might discover other issues that need to be addressed, or it might lead to redefining the initial issue that was identified during the entering and contracting stage. This is a prime example of the emergent nature of the OD process, where things may change as new information is gathered and new events occur.

Content Description

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Goals of Proposed Effort

Descriptive, clear, and concise goals to be achieved

Recommended Action Plan

Description of 1) diagnosis, 2) data analysis process, 3) feedback process, and 4) action-planning process

Specification of Responsibilities

What will various leaders, including the OD practitioner, be held accountable for?

Strategy for Achieving the Desired State

Provide change strategies, including education/training, political influence, structural interventions, and confrontation of resistance.

Fees, terms, and conditions

Outline fees and expenses associated with the project

5. OD PRACTITIONERSThe system of organizations is very similar, if not the same as, the system of human beings after all, organizations are made up of humans! Therefore, when trying to understand the field of

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organization development, it might be useful to compare aspects of the field of organization development to aspects of the field of medicine.

OD Practitioner Skills and Activities

Much of the literature about the competencies of an effective OD practitioner reveals a mixture of personality traits, experiences, knowledge, and skills presumed to lead to effective practice. For example, research on the characteristics of successful change practitioners yields the following list of attributes and abilities: diagnostic ability, basic knowledge of behavioral science techniques, empathy, knowledge of the theories and methods within the consultant's own discipline, goal setting and ability to perform self-assessment, ability to see things objectively, imagination, flexibility, honesty, consistency, and trust. Although these qualities and skills are laudable, there has been relatively little consensus about their importance to effective OD practice. Two ongoing projects are attempting to define and categorize the skills and knowledge required of OD practitioners. In the first effort, fifty well-known practitioners and researchers annually update a list of professional competencies. The most recent list has grown to 187 statements in nine areas of OD practice, including entry, start-up, assessment and feedback, action planning, intervention, evaluation, adoption, separation, and general competencies. The statements range from "staying centered in the present, focusing on the ongoing process" and "understanding and explaining how diversity will affect the diagnosis of the culture" to "basing change on business strategy and business needs" and "being comfortable with quantum leaps, radical shifts, and paradigm changes.Based on the studies available, all OD practitioners should have the following basic skills and knowledge to be effective:

1. Intrapersonal skills.

Despite the growing knowledge base and sophistication of the field, organization development is still a human craft. As the primary instrument

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of diagnosis and change, practitioners often must process complex, ambiguous information and make informed judgments about its relevance to organizational issues. Practitioners must have the personal centering to know their own values, feelings, and purposes as well as the integrity to behave responsibly in a helping relationship with others. Because OD is a highly uncertain process requiring constant adjustment and innovation, practitioners must have active learning skills and a reasonable balance between their rational and emotional sides. Finally, OD practice can be highly stressful and can lead to early burnout, so practitioners need to know how to manage their own stress.

2. Interpersonal skills.

Practitioners must create and maintain effective relationships with individuals and groups within the organization and help them gain the competence necessary to solve their own problems. Group dynamics, comparative cultural perspectives, and business functions are considered to be the foundation knowledge, and managing the consulting process and facilitation as core skills. All of these interpersonal competencies promote effective helping relationships. Such relationships start with a grasp of the organization's perspective and require listening to members' perceptions and feelings to understand how they see themselves and the organization. This understanding provides a starting point for joint diagnosis and problem solving. Practitioners must establish trust and rapport with organization members so that they can share pertinent information and work effectively together. This requires being able to converse in members' own language and to give and receive feedback about how the relationship is progressing.

To help members learn new skills and behaviors, practitioners must serve as concrete role models of what is expected. They must act in ways that are credible to organization members and provide them with the counseling and coaching necessary to develop and change. Because the helping relationship is jointly determined, practitioners need to be able to negotiate an acceptable role and to manage changing expectations and demands.

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3. General consultation skills.

OD starts with diagnosing an organization or department to understand its current functioning and to discover areas for further development. OD practitioners need to know how to carry out an effective diagnosis, at least at a rudimentary level. They should know how to engage organization members in diagnosis, how to help them ask the right questions, and how to collect and analyze information. A manager, for example, should be able to work with subordinates to determine jointly the organization's or department's strengths or problems. The manager should know basic diagnostic questions some methods for gathering information, such as interviews or surveys, and some techniques for analyzing it, such as force-field analysis or statistical means and distributions. In addition to diagnosis, OD practitioners should know how to design and execute an intervention. They need to be able to define an action plan and to gain commitment to the program. They also need to know how to tailor the intervention to the situation, using information about how the change is progressing to guide implementation. For example, managers should be able to develop action steps for an intervention with subordinates. They should be able to gain their commitment to the program (usually through participation), sit down with them and assess how it is progressing, and make modifications if necessary.

4. Organization development theory.

The last basic tool OD practitioners should have is a general knowledge of organization development. They should have some appreciation for planned change, the action research model, and contemporary approaches to managing change. They should be familiar with the range of available interventions and the need for evaluating and institutionalizing change programs. Perhaps most important is that OD practitioners should understand their own role in the emerging field of organization development, whether it is as an OD professional, a manager, or a specialist in a related area. The role of the OD practitioner is changing and becoming more complex. The results of this study reinforce what other theorists have also suggested. The

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OD practitioners of today are no longer just process facilitators, but are expected to know something about strategy, structure, reward systems, corporate culture, leadership, human resource development and the client organization's business. As a result, the role of the OD practitioner today is more challenging and more in the mainstream of the client organization than in the past.

6. OD PRACTITIONER SKILLS AND ACTIVITIES

Susan Gebelein lists six key skill areas that are critical to the success of the internal practitioner. The skills that focus on the people-oriented nature of the OD practitioner include: •

Leadership

Leaders keep members focused on key company values and on opportunities and need for improvement. A leader's job is to recognize when a company is headed in the wrong direction and to get it back on the right track.

Project Management

This means involving all the right people and department to keep the change program on track.

Communication

It is vital to communicate the key values to everyone in the organization.

Problem-Solving

The real challenge is to implement a solution to an organizational problem. Forget about today's problems: focus constantly on the next set of problems.

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Interpersonal

The number-one priority is to give everybody in the organization the tools and the confidence to be involved in the change process. This includes facilitating, building relationships, and process skills.

Personal

The confidence to help the organization make tough decisions, introduce new techniques, try something new, and see if it works.

Practitioner Skills Profile

The OD practitioner's role is to help employees create their own solutions, systems, and concepts. When the practitioner uses the above-listed skills to accomplish these goals, the employees will work hard to make them succeed, because they are the owners of the change programs.

Consultant’s Abilities

Ten primary abilities are key to an OD consultant’s effectiveness. Most of these abilities can be learned, but because of individual differences in personality or basic temperament, some of them would be easier for some to learn than for others.

1. The ability to tolerate ambiguity

Every organization is different, and what worked before may not work now; every OD effort starts from scratch, and it is best to enter with few preconceived notions other than with the general characteristics that we know about social systems.

2. The ability to influence.

Unless the OD consultant enjoys power and has some talent for persuasion,

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he or she is likely to succeed in only minor ways in OD.

3. The ability to confront difficult issues.

Much of OD work consists of exposing issues that organization members are reluctant to face.

4. The ability to support and nurture others. This ability is particularly important in times of conflict and stress; it is also critical just before and during a manager’s first experience with team building.

5.The ability to listen well and empathize.

This is especially important during interviews, in conflict situations, and when client stress is high.

6. The ability to recognize one’s feelings and intuition quickly.

It is important to be able to distinguish one’s own perceptions from those of the client and also be able to use these feelings and intuitions as interventions when appropriate and timely.

7. The ability to conceptualize.

It is necessary to think and express in understandable words certain relationships, such as the cause-and-effect and if-then linkages that exist within the systemic context of the client organization.

8. The ability to discover and mobilize human energy,

Both within oneself and within the client organization. There is energy in resistance, for example, and the consultant’s interventions are likely to be most effective when they tap existing energy within the organization and provide direction for the productive use of the energy.

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9.The ability to teach or to create learning opportunities.

This ability should not be reserved for classroom activities but should be utilized on the job, during meetings, and within the mainstream of the overall change effort.

10. The ability to maintain a sense of humor

both on the client’s behalf and to help sustain perspective: Humor can be useful for reducing tension. It is also useful for the consultant to be able to laugh at himself or herself; not taking oneself too seriously is critical for maintaining perspective about an OD effort, especially since nothing ever goes exactly according to plan, even though OD is supposed to be a planned change effort.

Role of Organization Development Professionals Position: Position:

Organization development professionals have positions that are either internal or external to the organization. Internal consultants are members of the organization and often are located in the human resources department. They may perform the OD role exclusively, or they may combine it with other tasks, such as compensation practices, training, or labor relations. Many large organizations, such as Intel, Merck, Abitibi Consolidated, BHP, Philip Morris, Levi Strauss, Procter & Gamble, Weyerhaeuser; GTE, and Citigroup, have created specialized OD consulting groups. These internal consultants typically have a variety of clients within the organization, serving both line and staff departments. External consultants are not members of the client organization; they typically work for a consulting firm, a university, or themselves. Organizations generally hire external consultants to provide a particular expertise that is unavailable internally and to bring a different and potentially more objective perspective into the organization development process. During the entry process, internal consultants have clear advantages. They have ready access to and relationships with clients, know the language

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of the organization, and have insights about the root cause of many of its problems. This allows internal consultants to save time in identifying the organization's culture, informal practices, and sources of power. They have access to a variety of information, including rumors, company reports, and direct observations. In addition, entry is more efficient and congenial, and their pay is not at risk. External consultants, however, have the advantage of being able to select the clients they want to work with according to their own criteria. The contracting phase is less formal for internal consultants and there is less worry about expenses, but there is less choice about whether to complete the assignment. Both types of consultants must address issues of confidentiality, risk project termination (and other negative consequences) by the client, and fill a third-party role. During the diagnosis process, internal consultants already know most organization members and enjoy a basic level of rapport and trust. But external consultants often have higher status than internal consultants, which allows them to probe difficult issues and assess the organization more objectively. In the intervention phase, both types of consultants must rely on valid information, free and informed choice, and internal commitment for their success, However, an internal consultant's strong ties to the organization may make him or her overly cautious particularly when powerful others can affect a career. Internal consultants also may lack certain skills and experience in facilitating organizational change. Inside he may have some small advantages in being able to move around the system and cross key organizational boundaries. Finally, the measures of success and reward differ from those of the external practitioner in the evaluation process. A promising approach to having the advantages of both internal and external OD consultants is to include them both as members of an internal-external consulting team. External consultants can combine their special expertise and objectivity with the inside knowledge and acceptance of internal consultants. The two parties can use complementary consulting skills while sharing the workload and possibly accomplishing more than either would by operating alone. Internal consultants, for example, can provide almost continuous contact with the client, and their external counterparts can provide specialized services periodically, such as two or three days each month. External consultants also can help train their organization partners, thus transferring OD skills

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and knowledge to the organization. Although little has been written on internal-external consulting teams, recent studies suggest that the effectiveness of such teams depends on members developing strong, supportive, collegial relationships. They need to take time to develop the consulting team; confronting individual differences and establishing appropriate roles and exchanges, member’s need to provide each other with continuous feedback and make a commitment to learning from each other. In the absence of these team-building and learning activities, internal-external consulting teams can be more troublesome and less effective than consultants working alone.

The difference between External and Internal Consulting Stage of change External consultant Internal consultant

Entering •Source clients •Build relationships •Learn company jargon •“presenting problem” challenge •Time consuming •Stressful phase •Select project/client according to own criteria •Unpredictable outcome •Ready access to clients •Ready relationships •Knows company jargon •Understands root causes •Time efficient• Congenial phase •Obligated to work with everyone •Steady pay Contracting •Formal documents •Can terminate project at will •Guard against out-of-pocket expenses •Information confidential •Loss of contract at stake •Maintain third-party role •Informal agreements •Must complete projects assigned •No out-of-pocket expenses •Information can be open or confidential •Risk of client retaliation and loss of job at state •Act as third party, driver (on behalf of client or pair of hands) Diagnosing •Meet most organization members for the first time• Prestige from being external •Build trust quickly •Confidential data can increase political sensitivities •Has relationships with many organization members •Prestige determined by job rank and client stature •Sustain reputation as trustworthy over time •Data openly shared can reduce political intrigue Intervening •Insist on valid information, free and informed choice, and internal commitment •Confine activities within boundaries of client organization •Insist on valid information, free and informed choice and internal commitment •Run interference for client across organizational lines to align support Evaluating •Rely on repeat business and customer referral as key

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measures of project success •Seldom see long-term results •Rely on repeat business, pay raise and promotion as key measures of success •Can see change become institutionalized •Little recognition for job well done

Marginality:

A promising line of research on the professional OD role centers on the issue of marginality. The marginal person is one who successfully straddles the boundary between two or more groups with differing goals, value systems, and behavior patterns. Whereas in the past, the marginal role always was seen as dysfunctional, marginality now is seen in a more positive light. There are many examples of marginal roles in organizations: the salesperson, the buyer, the first-line supervisor, the integrator and the project manager. Evidence is mounting that some people are better at taking marginal roles than are others. Those who are good at it seem to have personal qualities of low dogmatism, neutrality, open-mindedness, objectivity, flexibility, and adaptable information-processing ability. Rather than being upset by conflict, ambiguity, and stress, they thrive on it. Individuals with marginal orientations are more likely than others to develop integrative decisions that bring together and reconcile viewpoints among opposing organizational groups and are more likely to remain neutral in controversial situations. Thus, the research suggests that the marginal role can have positive effects when it is filled by a person with a marginal orientation. Such a person can be more objective and better able to perform successfully in linking, integrative, or conflictladen roles, There are two other boundaries:

the activities boundary and the membership boundary.

For both, the OD consultant should operate at the boundary, in a marginal capacity. With respect to change activities, particularly implementation, the consultant must help but not be directly involved. Suppose an off-site team-building session, for a manger and his subordinates, he would help the manager with the design and process of the meeting but would not lead. With respect to membership, the OD consultant is never quite in nor quite

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out.

Emotional Demands:

The OD practitioner role is emotionally demanding. Research and practice support the importance of understanding emotions and their impact on the practitioner's effectiveness. The research on emotional intelligence in organizations suggests a set of abilities that can aid OD practitioners in conducting successful change efforts. Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize and express emotions appropriately, to use emotions in thought and decisions, and to regulate emotion in oneself and in others. It is, therefore, a different kind of intelligence from problem-solving ability, engineering aptitude, or the knowledge of concepts. In tandem with traditional knowledge and skill, emotional intelligence affects and supplements rational thought; emotions help prioritize thinking by directing attention to important information not addressed in models and theories. In That sense, some researchers argue that emotional intelligence is as important as cognitive intelligence. Reports from OD practitioners support the importance of emotional intelligence in practice. At each stage of planned change, they must relate to and help organization members adapt to resistance, commitment, and ambiguity. Facing those important and difficult issues raises emotions such as the fear of failure or rejection. As the client and others encounter these kinds of emotions, OD practitioners must have a clear sense of emotional effects, including their own internal emotions. Ambiguity or denial of emotions can lead to inaccurate and untimely interventions. For example, a practitioner who is uncomfortable with conflict may intervene to diffuse conflict because of the discomfort he or she feels, not because the conflict is destructive. In such a case, the practitioner is acting to address a personal need rather than intervening to improve the system's effectiveness. Evidence suggests that emotional intelligence increases with age and experience. In addition, it can be developed through personal growth processes such as sensitivity training, counseling, and therapy. It seems reasonable to suggest that professional OD practitioners dedicate themselves to a long-term regimen of development that includes acquiring

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both cognitive learning and emotional intelligence.

Use of Knowledge and Experience

The professional OD role has been described in terms of a continuum ranging from client-centered (using the client's knowledge and experience) to consultant-centered , Traditionally, OD consultants have worked at the client-centered end of the continuum. Organization development professionals, relying mainly on sensitivity training, process consultation, and team building, have been expected to remain neutral, refusing to offer expert advice on organizational problems. Rather than contracting to solve specific problems, the consultant has tended to work with organization members to identify problems and potential solutions, to help them study what they are doing now and consider alternative behaviors and solutions, and to help them discover whether, in fact, the consultant and they can learn to do things better. In doing that the OD professional has generally listened and reflected upon members' perceptions and ideas and helped clarify and interpret their communications and behaviors.

7. CONCLUSION

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OD is an evolving field of applied social science with an increasing diversity of concepts and applications. From its traditional roots in small groups and social processes, OD has grown to include the total organization and work designs, human resources, and organization structures. This development closely parallels the changing needs of modern organizations. It moves beyond solving the unintended social problems inherent in large bureaucracies to helping organizations become leaner, more flexible, and more performance driven, so they can compete in today’s complex, rapidly changing environments.

To guide these applications, OD draws on a core set of psychological concepts. They include humanistic perspectives of human beings, resulting in organization changes that enhance members’ maturity and interpersonal competence; motivation frameworks that promote changes satisfying a wide array of members’ needs; process views of change that account for driving and restraining forces; groups as

the focus of change, and the need for members to participate in developing and implementing change.

These psychological foundations influence how OD is applied in organizations. They result in change processes that are cyclical and collaborative, and that closely tie research to action. Such change applications can help organizations address specific problems, or, more radically, help them learn how to continuously transform and renew themselves.

Because OD is an action science, it will continue to grow and evolve as it helps organizations change and improve. As organizations face new challenges, OD will create new methods and applications. It will draw on new concepts and approaches to guide future practice. OD’s success will depend largely on how well those ideas and innovations account for the fact that organization change is essentially a social process requiring human

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beings to change their behavior. Continued attention to the psychological foundations of OD can help this occur.

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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(Vroom & Jago, 1988).

(Beckhard & Harris, 1987)

(Cummings & Worley, 2001)

Alderfer, C. (1969) An empirical test of a new theory of human needs.

http://www.zainbooks.com

http://books.google.co.in

http://www.cliffsnotes.com

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