Oceans and Human Health

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Oceansa nd

Human

HealtH

Highlights of National Academies Reports

O

CEAN

SCIEN

CE

SERIES


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or many o their needs, not the least o which is providing rich harvests to eed bil-

lions o people on Earth each day. The ocean is also a key source o organisms that

are beginning to yield new and potent drugs or the treatment o human disease, as

well as new products or use in biotechnology. Unortunately, the ocean can also harbor

disease-causing agents. Ocean research oers promising new ways to predict diseaseoutbreaks and to help reduce the risks associated with waterborne diseases. By pursuing

the medical promises hidden within the ocean, while also managing the dangers to human

health ound in this new rontier, ocean scientists can make a major contribution to improv-

ing human health in the twenty-rst century and beyond.

SOCIETIES

RELY HEAVILY ON THE OCEAN


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The ocean benets human health and well-being in im-

measurable ways. The nutritional benets o eating sh,

rich in protein and omega-3 atty acids, make the ocean

an indispensablebut not unlimitedsource o healthy

ood. Ocean science is revealing many other ways the

ocean can benet human health, rom providing new

sources o drugs to helping unravel many o the myster-

ies o human disease.

The Ocean Is The MOsT PrOMIsIng

FrOnTIer FOr sOurces OF new Drugs

In 1945, a young organic chemist named Werner Berg-

mann set out to explore the waters o the coast o south-

ern Florida. Among the marine organisms he scooped

rom the sand that day was a Caribbean sponge that

would later be called Cryptotethya crypta. Back in his

lab, Bergmann extracted a novel compound rom thissponge that aroused his curiosity.

The chemical Bergmann identied in this sponge,

spongothymidine, eventually led to the development

o a whole class o drugs that treat cancer and viral

diseases and are still in use today. For example, Zid-

ovudine (AZT) ghts the AIDS virus, HIV, and cytosine

arabinoside (Ara-C) is used in the treatment o leuke-

mias and lymphomas. Acyclovir speeds the healing o

eczema and some herpes viruses. These are just a ew

examples o how the study o marine organisms con-

tributes to the health o thousands o men, women, and

children around the world.

New antibiotics, in addition to new drugs or ghting

cancer, infammatory diseases, and neurodegenerative

diseases (which oten cannot be treated successully

today), are greatly needed. With drug resistance nibbling

away at the once-ull toolbox o antibiotics, the limited

eectiveness o currently available drugs has dire conse-

quences or public health.

Compounds with medical potential havebeen ound in several species o marine

sponges, such as this bright orange sponge.(Image rom Harbor Branch Oceanographic

Institution, Fort Pierce, Florida) OCEAN SCIENCE SERIES

exploring the

promises ofocean science


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OCEANS AND HUMAN HEALTH 3

Historically, many medicines have come rom nature

mostly rom land-based natural organisms.

Because scientists have nearly exhausted the supply oterrestrial plants, animals, and microorganisms that

have interesting medical properties, new sources o

drugs are needed.

Occupying more than 70 percent o the Earths surace,

the ocean is a virtually unexplored treasure chest o

new and unidentied speciesone o the last rontiers

or sources o new natural products. These natural

products are o special interest because o the dazzling

diversity and uniqueness o the creatures that make the

sea their home.

One reason marine organisms are so interesting to sci-

entists is because in adapting to the various ocean en-

vironments, they have evolved ascinating repertoires

o unique chemicals to help them survive. For example,

anchored to the seafoor, a sponge that protects itselrom an animal trying to take over its space by killing

the invader has been compared with the human im-

mune system trying to kill oreign cancer cells. That

same sponge, bathed in seawater containing millions

o bacteria, viruses, and ungi, some o which could be

pathogens, has developed antibiotics to keep those

pathogens under control. Those same antibiotics could

be used to treat inections in humans.

Sponges, in act, are among the most prolic sources o

diverse chemical compounds. An estimated 30 percent

o all potential marine-de-rived medications currently in

the pipelineand about 75 per-

cent o recently patented marine-de-

rived anticancer compoundscome rom

marine sponges.

Marine-based microorganisms are another particu-

larly rich source o new medicines. More than 10 drugs

available today derive rom land-based microbes. Scien-

tists see marine-based microbes as the most promising

source o novel medicines rom the sea. In all, more than


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0,000 biochemical compounds have been isolated

rom sea creatures since the 1980s.

Because drug discovery in the marine rontier is a rela-

tively young eld, only a ew marine-derived drugs are

in use today. Many others are in the pipeline. One ex-

ample is Prialt, a drug developed rom the venom o a

sh-killing cone snail. The cone snails produce neuro-

toxins to paralyze and kill prey; those neurotoxins are

being developed as neuromuscular blocks or individu-

als with chronic pain, stroke, or epilepsy. Other marine-

derived drugs are being tested against herpes, asthma,

and breast cancer.

The National Research Council report Marine Biotech-nology in the Twenty-First Century (00) concluded

A cone snail uses itspowerul venom to killa sh. Prialt, an eectivemedication or manag-ing chronic pain in AIDSand cancer patients, wasderived rom the venomproduced by this type o

snail. (Image rom KerryMatz, University o Utah,Salt Lake City)

4 OCEAN SCIENCE SERIES

that the exploration o unique habitats,

such as deep-sea environments, and

the isolation and culture o marine microor-

ganisms oer two underexplored opportuni-ties or discovery o novel chemicals with thera-

peutic potential. The successes to date, which are

based upon a very limited investigation o both

deep-sea organisms and marine microorganisms,

suggest a high potential or continued discovery o

new drugs.


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MarIne OrganIsMs PrOvIDe MODels FOr

unDersTanDIng huMan BIOlOgy

Among the most ascinating aspects o ocean science is the

use o marine creatures as models or unraveling the mys-

teries o basic biochemical and physiological processes.

Scientists have made many remarkable discoveries by

studying marine lie. For example, the big purple slug

oers researchers clues about learning and memory. The

toadsh teaches lessons about balance and equilibrium.

The spiny dogsh shark and the horseshoe crab provide

a glimpse o the mechanics o vision.

Study o such animals as sea stars, sharks, and sea squirts

has enormously enhanced our understanding o how the

human body ghts diseases. Likewise, studying sea ur-

BIOLUMINESCENT BACTERIA FROM THE SEA SHED LIGHT ON SOME

HUMAN DISEASES

The mysteries o nature are typically unraveled through detailed investigations designed to answer

a specic question. Sometimes, however, amazing revelations come about unexpectedly. Such is

the story behind an intriguing bioluminescent bacterium named Vibrio fscheri.

Vibrio fscherienjoys an exquisite, mutually benecial (symbiotic) relationship with the Hawaiianbobtail squid as well as other marine animals. By producing light, the bacterium helps its host

lure prey, scare enemies, or attract mates. In return, the host provides the symbiotic bacteria with

nutrients.

Vibrio fscherihelped scientists unravel the phenomenon o quorum sensing, which has ultimately

led to a remarkable new strategy or combating bacterial inections. Quorum sensing describes the

phenomenon o how bacteria count, or sense, the abundance o ellow bacteria. In the case o

Vibrio fscheri, the bacterium will only emit light when they are dense enough to make a dierence

in providing light or the host squid. When a quorum o Vibrio fscheriis reached, they signal each

other to manuacture the enzyme that makes them glow in the dark.

Unortunately, quorum sensing in other types o bacteria are also responsible or many o the

diseases that plague humankind. They cause cholera and ood poisoning, and inltrate the lungs

o children with cystic brosis. When disease-causing bacteria reach a quorum they orm slimy,

adhesive biolms and produce toxins, repelling immune responses and making people sick.

Along with an understanding o how quorum sensing bacteria make people sick, however, comes

new insight on how to treat bacterial inections. Researchers have developed an entirely new class

o antibiotics that can disrupt the signaling system o microbial communities or disperse biolms

ater they orm. Best o all, because these drugs do not directly kill the bacteria, the bacteria may

be less likely to develop resistance.

These and other studies at the oreront o drug discovery or the twenty-rst century had their gen-

esis in a microbial phenomenon discovered serendipitously through the study o marine organisms.

Just think: What other surprises might come rom the sea?

The Hawaiian bobtail squidhas a unique mutuallybenecial (symbiotic)

relationship with the biolu-minescent bacterium

Vibrio fscheri. (Image romM. J. McFall-Ngai and

E. G. Ruby, University oHawaii; National

Science Foundation)


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OCEAN SCIENCE SERIES

chins has revolutionized understanding o how cells di-

vide, which is paving the way or exciting new research

into the diagnosis and treatment o cancer.

These are just a ew o the marine organisms that have

had a powerul infuence on medical research. Using

marine animals as models o human physiological pro-

cesses is helping researchers better understand and treat

a wide array o diseases and oer the potential to deci-

pher many more.

MarIne PrODucTs are BeIng useD as

research TOOls anD In InDusTry

Another crucial application o marine products is their

use as research tools. Some marine products, or exam-

ple, allow scientists to see inside a cell by means o

proteins that glow in the dark. In the laboratory, these

fuorescent proteins help researchers track biochemical

processes and understand disease. Aequorin, a biolumi-

nescent compound ound in some jellysh, was used to

illuminate the calcium activation wave that occurs whena sea urchin egg is ertilized. Fluorescent marine com-

pounds, such as the green fuorescent protein ound in

Aequorin is abioluminescent compoundound in some jellysh.Scientists can use thiscompound toilluminate biological

processes. (Image romDr. Osamu Shimomura,Marine BiologicalLaboratory, Woods Hole,Massachusetts)

squid, are widely used in biomedical research to diag-

nose diseases, to study cellular processes essential to

cancer research and to monitor genetic modication o

organisms. Such fuorescent proteins can illuminate pro-

cesses that would otherwise require complex biochemi-

cal measurements in order to be observed.

In addition to their value as research tools, a number o

marine-derived products are already in use in agricul-

ture, in industry, in cosmetics, and even in nutritionalsupplements. For example, organic ertilizers made

THE SURPRISING SQUID

One o the biggest surprises in using animal models has come rom the nerve

cells o the squid. This animals nerves are so enormousan estimated

1,000 times larger than those o vert ebratesthey were not immediately

recognized as nerves. Because o their incredible size, scientists can easily

insert electrodes directly into the nerve cells, allowing them to study the cells

electrical properties. These studies have opened the door to many medicalbreakthroughs in diagnosing and treating nerve d isorders.

P

hotographfromN

OAA


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rom seaweed extract and sh emulsion serve a role in

sustainable agriculture, while an exceptional adhesive

made by the common blue mussel Mytilus edulis im-

proves the adherence o paint. An anti-infammatory

chemical rom the sea an is used in Este Lauders skin

care product Resilience. A compound called docosa-

hexaenoic acid (DHA)a atty acid essential or proper

mental and visual unctionwas discovered in a marine

microalga, Cryptocodinium cohnii. This compound cur-

rently is marketed as a nutritional supplement in babyormula in more than 0 countries around the world.

Because marine organisms have evolved a variety o

unique chemicals that are not ound among land crea-

tures, the sea presents a rich source o tools or improv-

ing our understanding, not only o ocean environments,

but also o human health and well-being.

scIenTIsTs Face challenges In

exPlOrIng unIque Ocean haBITaTs

The ocean is the most promising source o new drugs,

yet there are multiple challenges in marine exploration.

At the heart o the challenges to ocean science lies the

problem o the rights o a country to its genetic resourc-

es, in general, and the intellectual property rights o

commercially promising discoveries, in particular. Com-

plex legal and political issues involved with collecting

marine resources in the territorial waters o other coun-

tries can present a major obstacle or researchers.

Another challenge that researchers ace is obtaining asucient quantity o new marine-derived chemicals. On

one hand, scientists need a sucient quantity to deter-

This marine organism, Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae, is the source opotent anti-infammatory compounds. (Image rom William Fenical,Scripps Institution o Oceanography, San Diego, Caliornia)

The Johnson-Sea-Link submersible has beenused since 1984 to explore deep-sea

habitats or marine chemicals withpharmaceuticalapplications.(Image Harbor Branch

Oceanographic )


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mine whether a new chemical has medical potential.

On the other hand, protecting marine natural resources

is essential. Exploitation o marine plants, animals, and

microorganisms must be avoided to ensure that marine

ecosystems and populations are not adversely impacted.

The National Research Council report From Monsoons

to Microbes: Understanding the Oceans Role in Human

Health (1999) recommends that scientists pursue new

ways to produce marine chemicals in a sustainable man-

ner, such as aquaculture, cell culture, and recombinant

(molecular) techniques, to avoid deplet-

ing natural populations o ma-

rine organisms.

Unortunately, the ocean harbors dangerous toxins and

disease-causing agents that can present serious threats

to human health. For example, some types o algae liv-

ing in the sea make toxic chemicals. These toxins, as

well as contaminants such as mercury, can move upthrough the ood web, transerring dangerous substances

to sh, birds, aquatic mammals, and, ultimately, hu-

mans. The ocean is also home to several types o dis-

ease-causing viruses and bacteria that make people sick

when they eat tainted seaood.

Through the development o more eective threat detec-

tion and monitoring systems and a deeper understand-

ing o the causes o ocean-related health threats, ocean

science can help prevent disease outbreaks and improve

public health.

(Right) In this satellite image,bloom o the toxic algaKarenia brevisis visiblealong the west coast o

Florida. (Image romJacques Descloitres, NASA)

FIGHTING

OCEAN-RELATED

THREATSTOHUMAN HEALTH


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THE THREAT OF HARMFULALGAL BLOOMSMicroscopic marine algae called phytoplankton serve a

similar role in the sea as do plants on land. Through pho-tosynthesis, these tiny organisms create the oodstus

that orm the base o marine ood webs. Some species,

however, produce substances that are toxic to humans.

Algal toxins can interere with neural processes, causing

paralysis, amnesia, nausea, diarrhea, and respiratory

distress, depending on the specic toxin produced. Most

o these eects are not permanent, but the eects o

some toxins may persist or years, and severe cases maybe deadly.

In addition to producing toxins, phytoplankton can mul-

tiply, or bloom, in such enormous numbers that when

they die, the decay processes deplete the water o

oxygen, causing sh and other sea creatures to fee orperish. Harmul algal bloomsalso known as red

tidesmay present a serious threat to the health o hu-

mans and marine ecosystems alike.

Algal toxins persist even when seaood is thoroughly

cooked. According to the Centers or Disease Control

and Prevention (CDC), marine toxins are tasteless and

odorless, and, unlike pathogenic bacteria and viruses,

they are usually not destroyed by cooking. To date, no

antidotes to algal toxics are available.

Harmul algal bloom(HAB) events havespread to all regionso Americas coastline.(Image rom NOAACOP/National HAB

Oce-WHO1)


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Surprisingly, some toxic algae, such as Karenia brevis,

can sicken vacationers on the beach who never even en-

ter the water. Toxins rom K. breviscan become airborne

within tiny droplets o seawater, which can cause asth-

ma-like symptoms when inhaled. This presents a serious

public health risk. Aected beaches oten must be closed,

and, as a result, local economies suer. Winds may carry

airborne toxins inland, possibly aecting the people liv-

ing in coastal communities. The amount oK. brevistoxin

necessary to cause severe coughing and sneezing is al-

most undetectable using current chemical technologies.

The IncIDence anD geOgraPhIc sPreaDOF algal BlOOMs Is IncreasIng

Harmul algal blooms occur in all o the worlds oceans

and in all climatic regions. During the past three de-

cades, the recorded incidences o harmul algal blooms

have increased signicantly. Now, virtually all coastal

regions o the United States are subject to this threat.

The requency o harmul algal blooms is also increas-ing. K. brevis, or instance, repeatedly causes red tides

along the coast o Texas and the southwest coast o Flor-

ida, delivering a blow to the Gul Coast economy every

year. According to some estimates, this species alone

causes economic losses o roughly $50 million per year

between human illness and downturns in shellsh, n-

sh, recreation, and tourism.

From Monsoons to Microbesidenties the need or clos-

er monitoring o algal blooms to help resolve why harm-

ul algae are increasing in requency and range. Closer

monitoring will also allow earlier notication o public

health authorities so that they can act to reduce expo-

sure o the public to algal toxins.

DeTerMInIng The causes OF harMFul

algal BlOOMs shOulD Be a hIgh

research PrIOrITy

Although red tides have received much attention, the

conditions that provoke toxic algal blooms remain large-

ly mysterious, and individual blooms may be triggered

by dierent causes. The characterization o the lie cy-

Better tracking helps health ocials protect the public romexposure to toxic algae. One method o preventing exposure is totemporarily close beaches or shing areas. (Image rom Woods HoleOceanographic Institution)


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cles o many harmul algal species is critical in allowing

scientists to understand the root causes o blooms and toidentiy ecological controls on bloom dynamics. From

Monsoons to Microbesconcludes that improved meth-

ods are needed to identiy the toxic algal species that

make people sick. There is also a need to determine the

physical, chemical, and biological actors that promote

algal growth in order to improve the ability to predict,

manage, and potentially prevent harmul algal blooms.

BeTTer TrackIng can helP PrevenT

huMan exPOsure TO algal TOxIns

Scientists are now developing exciting new technologies

or identiying algal blooms, including ways to spot them

rom space. Scientists have also been designing a num-

ber o promising tools to detect the presence o algal

toxins rapidly and to track their route o transer through-

out the environment. Being able to predict when a harm-

ul algal bloom will become dangerous or humanswould make health ocials better prepared to make

management decisions that protect the public rom ex-

posure, such as temporary beach and shing closures.

Epidemiologythe study o the occurrences o diseases

in populationscan be used to identiy disease hot

spots. By investigating what sick people have in com-

mon, scientists can oten trace the cause o the problem,

such as an algal bloom, and warn the public accord-

ingly. Without such warnings, people can become ill

and not know why. In many cases, illnesses related to

marine toxins go unreported.

Epidemiological studies also alert the medical commu-nity to the presence o harmul algal blooms or other

events so they recognize the symptoms in their patients.

From Monsoons to Microbesconcludes that there is a

need both to document the incidence o toxin-related

illness in coastal areas and among travelers who visit

high-risk areas and to train public health authorities in

coastal states to recognize and respond to toxin-related

illnesses. Tracking has been most useul in caseswhere the acute eects rom toxic algae resulted

in a cluster o illnesses. It is also important

to consider sublethal or subsymptom-

atic eects that can result rom

low-level exposure to toxic

algae, which are only

now being studied

and understood.

A POSITIVE SIDE OF TOXIC ALGAE?

Although harmul algal blooms are a signicant threat to human health, their

story has a surprising positive side as well. A team o researchers recently

discovered that the toxic alga K. brevisproduces an anti-toxin chemical that

can actually blocks the eects o the K. brevistoxins on the human respira-

tory system. Even more astounding, t he researchers ound that this chemical,

called brevenal, helps to break up mucus in the lungs o cystic brosis

patients. This promising new medical discovery is one positive out come o

research ocused on toxic algae.


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The ocean is home to several types o disease-causing

viruses and bacteria (pathogens). These waterborne dis-

eases can either originate in the ocean or originate on

land but be transmitted through seawater. Like the pub-

lic health threats posed by harmul algal blooms, the

threats o waterborne diseases can be reduced through

improved tracking, environmental monitoring, epidemi-

ology, and basic research.

Most waterborne disease agents enter the human body

when people eat tainted seaood or swallow con-

taminated seawater. Some agents, however, can

enter through broken skin or mucous membranes;

the ree-swimming larvae o avian schistosomes

can even penetrate unbroken human skin and

cause a problem called swimmers itch.

Microbes in thevibrio genus are an ex-

ample o bacterial pathogens that

originate in the ocean. These bac-

teria multiply in marine waters

and include Vibrio cholerae

(which causes cholera) and

other lie-threatening patho-

gens.

Although cholera occurs

mostly in developing

countries, vibrio-related diseases

threaten human health everywhere

including the United States.

A major source o waterborne illness is seaood con-

sumption. In the United States, the most common vibrio

inections are caused by Vibrio vulnifcus and Vibrio

parahaemolyticus, and these inections occur most re-

quently in the Gul Coast region. According to the CDC,

about 59 percent o all vibrio inections in this country

are ood borne. O these, 4 percent are directly linked

to the consumption o oysters.

The CDC estimates that about 8,000 cases o mostly

mild vibrio inections occur each year, but many people

do not see a doctor, so their inections go unreported.

The Gul Coast reports the highest number o vibrioinections, with about 10000 seriously ill individuals

per year. These inections can be deadly in individuals

who have a weakened immune system. Among those

seriously ill who seek medical attention, V. vulnifcus

hospitalizes 93 percent, and 38 percent o these

patients die.

The CDC suggests that people should avoid harvesting

and consuming shellsh during warmer weather, when

disease-causing bacteria are more likely to be present. It

also suggests that people should thoroughly cook oys-

THE ROLE OF THE OCEAN IN

SPREADING DISEASE


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ters and use technologies such as irradiation

and pasteurization to eliminate vibrio in

shellsh.

Viruses, too, can be lethal, and even a single ingested

virus can cause an inection. Rotaviruses, or example,

are unusually robust and can be ound in seawater that

has been contaminated by sewage. Rotaviruses cause

severe diarrhea in young children, killing an estimated

870,000 children in the world each year, mostly through

their exposure to human sewage.

Understanding the epidemiology and causes o out-

breaks o waterborne pathogens will allow better control

o these outbreaks and will protect public health.

The Ocean can InFluence huMan healTheven hunDreDs OF MIles InlanD

Many diseases are not directly present in seawater but

are carried by other animals, called vectors, which can

be infuenced by changes in weather mediated by the

ocean. Worldwide, changing weather and climate pat-

terns aect the incidence o such diseases as malaria,

yellow ever, hantavirus, and others that are transmit-

ted by insects, mice, or other animals.

PUBLIC HEALTH EFFORT IN BANGLADESH

In tracking V. choleraearound the world since the 1970s, U.S. marine

microbiologist Dr. Rita Colwell noticed that our to six weeks ater the seasonal

peaks in sea-surace temperatures in the Bay o Bengal, cholera outbreaks in

Bangladesh increased dramatically.

Once she understood the eects o changes in sea-surace temperature on cholera

incidence, Dr. Colwell was able to warn residents in a particular rural village o an

impending outbreak by monitoring satellite data. She met with the women, teach-

ing them how to lter pathogens rom t he amily drinking water by placing our to

eight layers o clean sari cloth over the mouth o the water pitcher.

Tests show that Dr. Colwells ltration method removes about 99 percent o V.

cholerae. A three-year study demonstrated a 50 percent reduction in cholera

inections in villages where the women lter water through sari cloth.

Patients suering rom cholera in Bangladeshhospital. An American researcher, Dr. Rita

Colwell, developed a simple water ltrationmethod that has signicantly reduced cholera

inections in this region. (Image rom D. J. Grimes)

Vibrio vulnifcusis one o the bacteria inthe Vibrio genus that live in seawater andcause cholera and other diseases. (Imagerom CDC/ Colorized by James Gathany)


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Ocean anD clIMaTIc

cOnDITIOns OFTen

InFluence OuTBreaks

OF waTerBOrne DIseases

Environmental changes can aect

the dynamics o waterborne diseases.

When sea-surace temperatures in-

crease, pathogens can become more

concentrated in seawater, threatening to

contaminate seaood and drinking watersupplies in coastal communities. When sea

levels rise, low-lying areas can become inun-

dated with contaminated water. Recognizing

environmental clues such as higher sea-surace

temperature or rises in the sea level allows public

health ocials to take action to help prevent people

rom being exposed to waterborne diseases.

Eective public education not only alerts health care

providers but also allows the individuals in a community

to reduce their risk o exposure to waterborne

pathogens.

EL NIO LINKED TO HANTAVIRUS OUTBREAK IN THE

SOUTHWEST UNITED STATES

El Nio is a shit in weather patterns that is caused by natural fuctuations in

ocean dynamics. It brings unusually warm and wet weather to certain parts o

the world, including the west coasts o North and South America.

Though it is an ocean-based phenomenon, the eects o E l Nio can be elt ar

inland. In 1993, or example, an outbreak o hantavirus, which causes acuterespiratory distress, occurred in the our corners area o New Mexico, Arizona,

Colorado, and Utah. In retrospect, scientists observed that the unusually heavy

rainalls rom the 19921993 El Nio led to an abundant ood supply or deer

micethe most common reservoir o hantavirus in the southwestern United

States. The abundance o ood caused a population explosion among deer

mice, which commonly live in and around houses and stables. The urine o

these mice, which was inected with hantavirus, mingled with the dust in the air

ater drying. People who inhaled this inected dus t got sick, and more than halo those inected died.


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There Is a grOwIng neeD FOr raPID,

InexPensIve TesTs FOr DeTecTIngwaTerBOrne PaThOgens

The CDC, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),

and the Council o State and Territorial Epidemiologists

maintain a collaborative surveillance system o water-

borne disease outbreaks. This monitoring is instrumental

in determining national and regional trends o various

inections, which then helps to guide prevention pro-

grams throughout the country.

In 000, the U.S. Congress passed the Beaches Environ-

mental Assessment and Coastal Health Act to better pro-

tect seashore bathers rom harmul pathogens. O the

4,05 beaches monitored by the EPA in 005, 8 per-

cent were aected by advisories or closings.

In the United States, testing or coliorm bacteriathe

bacteria ound in human or animal wastesconstitutes

the cornerstone o all monitoring and regulatory pro-

grams. This testing has been eective in reducing expo-

sure to waterborne disease outbreaks that arise rom e-

cal contamination.

In addition to the bacterial contamination revealed in

coliorm tests, viruses can be transmitted by seawater.

However, viral monitoring has not yet been included inthe routine water quality tests. The EPA is working to

design a water quality test that will identiy both bacte-

rial and viral threats and provide results within two hours

so that beaches and oyster and clam-producing areas

Thousands o beachesin the United States areroutinely monitored orcoliorm bacteria, whichindicate the presence ocontamination by humanor animal wastes. Positive

coliorm tests can result intemporary beach adviso-ries or closings.

can be temporarily closed in a timely manner whenever

necessary.

From Monsoons to Microbesemphasizes the need to ap-

ply newly developed tests to environmental monitoring

and quality assessment, but it also notes that they must

be eld-tested or applicability in dierent geographic

locations. I the eld tests are successul, the new meth-

ods should be adopted by enorcement agencies as stan-

dard methods.


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CONCLUSIONS

The benets o oceans and ocean science or improving our

health and well-being are enormous. The discoveries o marine-

derived medicines, research tools, and other products, coupled

with the basic and applied research leading to new discoveries,

are already improving the lives o people all around the world.Ocean science is essential or developing eective ways o pro-

tecting communities rom harmul toxins, such as those produced

by harmul algal blooms, and dangerous pathogens, such as Vibrio

cholerae, as well as the potential dangers rom sewage leaks trans-

mitted through the sea. Exciting new research on the mechanisms

o disease transmission and the eects o climate and weather

patterns on ocean-related threats can help public health systems

prevent human exposure to illnessin coastal communities and

hundreds o miles inland.

The oceans touch the lives o billions o people in countless

ways. Ocean science can help us understand, predict, and

mitigate the threats within the ocean and develop products to

improve human health.


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About the National Academies

The National Academiesthe National Academy o Sciences, National Academy o Engineering, Institute o Medicine, and the

National Research Councilprovide a public service by working outside the ramework o government to ensure independent

advice on matters o science, technology, and medicine. They enlist committees o the nations top scientists, engineers, and

other expertsall o whom volunteer their time to study specifc concerns. The results o these deliberations are authoritative,

peer-reviewed reports that have inspired some o the nations most signifcant eorts to improve the health, education, and wel-

are o the population.

This booklet was prepared by the National Research Council based on the ollowing reports:

These and other reports are available rom the National Academies Press, 500 Fith Street, NW, Washington, DC 20001; 800-

624-6242; http://www.nap.edu. Reports are available online in a ully searchable ormat.

Photos on cover, p. 1, p.8, and p. 16 courtesy o Chip Clark, Smithsonian Institution.

For more inormation, contact the Ocean Studies Board at 202-334-2714 or visit http://dels.nas.edu/osb.

Copyright 2007 by the National Academy o Sciences.

Marine Biotechnology in the Twenty-First Century(2002)

Sponsored by: National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administrations

National Sea Grant College Program, National Science Foundation, The

Whitaker Foundation, Minerals Management Service, Electric Power Institute.

From Monsoons to Microbes: Understanding the Oceans Role in Human Health(1999)

Sponsored by: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Institute o

Environmental Health Sciences, National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


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In one way or another, every landorm and creature on Earth refects the pres-ence o the oceans. Understanding the Earths oceans is essential to our under-standing o human history, the origin o lie, weather and climate, medicines,the health o the environment, energy sources, and much more. Reports romthe National Academies provide in-depth analysis and useul advice or poli-cymakers and the general public on topics ranging rom exploring the oceansincredible biodiversity and resources to reducing threats to human saety romtoxic algal blooms, contaminants, and coastal storms. This series is intended tohelp readers interpret inormation about the state o our oceans and better un-derstand the role o ocean science.

Other booklets in this series include Ocean Exploration, Marine Ecosystems andFisheries, Coastal Hazards, and Pollution in the Ocean.

Documents

Oceans and Human Health