Observational Research Observation

Naturalistic Systematic

Case studies Archival research

Observing Behavior: Descriptive Research

Descriptive research involves the direct observation and description of behavior.

If people know they are being observed, their behavior may change. This is called reactivity.

Naturalistic Observation Charles Darwin’s

voyage on the HMS Beagle (the basis for his theory of natural selection)

Naturalistic Observation Jane Goodall's study

of chimpanzees

Participant Observation Participant observation -- the person

collecting the data participates in the process being observed Disguised (covert) vs undisguised (overt)

Rosenhan (1973) On Being Sane in Insane Places

John Howard Griffin (1960) Black Like Me “I learned within a very few hours that no one was

judging me by my qualities as a human individual and everyone was judging me by my pigment. As soon as white men or women saw me, they automatically assumed I possessed a whole set of false characteristics (false not only to me but to all black men). They could not see me or any other black man as a human individual because they buried us under the garbage of their stereotyped view of us. They saw us as “different” from themselves in fundamental ways: we were irresponsible; we were different in our sexual morals; we were intellectually limited; we had a God-given sense of rhythm; we were lazy and happy-go-lucky; we loved watermelon and fried chicken… Always, in every encounter even with “good whites,” we had the feeling that the white person was not talking with us but with his image of us.

Criticisms of Participant Observation By joining the group, they change it in some way Groups are unaware they are being observed

May be unethical People don’t liked to be spied on, feel betrayed,

foolish Observer bias Hard to quantify unstructured data

Structured Observational Methods Structured

Quantitative methods in which behaviors are observed and recorded with objective system

Researcher must meticulously develop coding system Code things relevant to research Coding system is lens of research

Interrater reliability Extent to which the ratings of different observers are in

agreement

Structured Observational Methods

Gender differences & obedience to stop signs

(McKelvie & Schamer, 1988)

Men were as likely to obey (36%) as to disregard the stop sign (36%)

Women were more likely to obey (62%) than disregard the stop sign (16%)

Observational Research

Gender, group size, and amount of beer consumed (Geller, Russ, & Altomari, 1986)

Observed 56 females 187 males at local bars (university students)

Results Drank more in a group Males drank more than females

Function of container type

Observational Analysis: Coding System

Interaction Process Analysis Observational coding

system developed by Bales to measure 6 task and 6 socioemotional activities in a group

Case Studies An intensive description and

analysis of a single individual, organization, or event

Advantages: Informing us on rare, unusual

or noteworthy conditions not easily studied otherwise

Disadvantages: Causes cannot be identified

Case Study: Love Canal Levine’s study of Love Canal residents

Research Questions: Why did such an event occur? How did community leaders respond? How did residents cope?

Data sources: Reviewed historical records Newscasts & newspapers Public meetings Met & interviewed residents & officials

Case Study: Phineas Gage

September 13, 1848 Cavendish, Vermont Gage was a foreman for a railway construction

gang An explosion sent a 3’ 7” tamping iron through

his skull, landing 25 yards behind him

Case Study: Phineas Gage Went back to work several months later,

but his personality had changed He worked taking care of horses and

working on a farm for the next 11 years In February, 1860, he began to have

epileptic seizures and died May 21, 1860 His body was exhumed in 1867 so

scientists could study his skull

The Man Who Mistook His Wife For a Hat

Dr P., was a successful musician

Dr P. could only recognize objects if he could make out a distinct feature. He recognized his brother

because of his big teeth Asked to identify a glove

‘A continuous surface…infolded on itself. It appears to have…five outpouchings, …’

Mistook his wife for a hat

Archival Research Using previously compiled information to answer research

questions Researcher doesn’t collect original data Analyzes existing information

Types of archival research data Statistical records Survey archives Written records

Examples sources: census data, hospital records, historical documents,

police reports, speeches made by politicians, marriage licenses, weather reports, outcomes of sporting events

Important Archival Findings Increased risk of cancer if exposed to

radiation, asbestos, vinyl chloride, etc.

Congenital malformation of infants if mother had German measles during pregnancy

Archival Research: Gurr (1968) Theory = violence rate related to a feeling of deprivation 1100 observations of violence collected from New York Times

Index, Newsyear (annual index of Facts on File), and the Africa Digest, Annual Register of Events in Africa, Hispanic_American Report, and several case studies published as books.

Quantitative indices of strife: number of participants, number of casualties, number of days it lasted, etc.

Quantitative indices of deprivation: economic downturns, political suppression, etc.

Found a significant relationship

Archival Research: Durkheim (1951)

Theory = suicide is related to lack of integration into a social group Codes for social group integration = religious, familial, political Obtained suicide rates from public records Results= suicide is lower in

Catholics married people people with children periods of national unification and fervor

Archival Research: Miller (1927)

Is there a general tendency to vote a candidate out of office whenever your personal budget is stressed (regardless of the actual cause)?

Index of stress = rainfall in agricultural regions Index of voting = candidate retained or replaced by opposing

candidate Period chosen 1825-1924 Results=

above average rainfall = candidates retained below average rainfall = candidates replaced