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Nutritional Needs in Aquaculture Diversity in Species and Purpose
Jesse Trushenski EAGLE FISH HEALTH LABORATORY IDAHO DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
PUBLIC VS. PRIVATE AQUACULTURE
Aquaculture is a commercial, agricultural practice and a natural resource conservation and management activity
Both help to support the American way of life
Most are more familiar with commercial aquaculture than the hatchery systems
Today’s presentation will highlight some differences and similarities in nutritional needs and the value of rendered animal products to both sectors
FISHING FOR A LIVING
Commercial fishing puts food on the table and pays the bills for millions of Americans
Freshwater fisheries are small in comparison, but significant
~14 million lbs. landed in Florida annually, worth $5+ million
National Marine Fisheries Service. 2014. Fisheries economics of the United States 2012. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-F/SPO-137.
The value of commercial fisheries landings is on the rise in the U.S.
Freshwater
Saltwater
Great Lakes
FISHING FOR FUN
Recreational fishing creates economic opportunity and supports aquatic resource conservation
If recreational fishing were a company, it would rank #51 on the Fortune 500™ list
Roughly 60 million American anglers are responsible for…
$115 billion in economic output $15 billion in state/federal taxes 828,000 jobs
Southwick Associates. 2013. Sportfishing in America, an economic force for conservation. American Sportfishing Association.
Total Contribution to GDP = $62 billion
FISHERIES IN DOLLARS AND CENTS
National Marine Fisheries Service. 2014. Fisheries economics of the United States 2012. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-F/SPO-137.
Commercial and recreational fisheries help drive the U.S. economy
The U.S. government must fulfill various treaty and statutory obligations to tribal nations guaranteeing the right to fish
TRIBAL TRUST RESPONSIBILITIES
Fishing is a part of cultural identity
Fish and fishing are central to the subsistence and ceremonial practices of many indigenous people
HATCHERIES SUPPORT OUR NATION’S FISHERIES
Hatcheries put fish in the nets of anglers, commercial fishermen, and tribal communities
0%
50%
100%
Pink Sockeye Chinook Coho Chum
Contributions to Southeast Alaskan Salmon Harvest 2005-2009
Hatchery-origin Wild
Heard, W.R. 2011. Overview of salmon stock enhancement in southeast Alaska and compatibility with maintenance of hatchery and wild stocks. Environmental Biology of Fishes 94:273-283.
Charbonneau, J.>, and J. Caudill. 2010. Conserving America’s fisheries, an assessment of economic contributions from fisheries and aquatic resource conservation. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Impacts of NHFS Stocking Programs 2006
13.5 million angler days
$554 million in retail sales
$903 million in industry output
8,000+ jobs
GLOBAL AQUACULTURE IS DIVERSE
Annual Production (MMT)
Freshwater Fish
Mollusks
Crustaceans
Marine Fish
Other
FAO 2014
More than 500 species are raised
worldwide Including more than 400 finfishes and crustaceans
MAJOR TAXA RAISED BY US FISH FARMS
Catfish Trout
Tilapia Hybrid Striped Bass
Red Drum Largemouth Bass
Sturgeon Carps
2013 Census of Aquaculture, USDA
+
> 95% of total >450 MM lbs.
MAJOR TAXA RAISED BY US HATCHERIES
Rainbow Trout Chinook Salmon
Steelhead Brown Trout Coho Salmon Brook Trout
Channel Catfish Lake Trout
2005 Fish Production Summary USFWS AADAP
+
> 95% of total >44 MM lbs.
~100 species and hybrids are produced by public hatcheries in the U.S.
Primary Producers & Detritus
Primary Consumers
Secondary Consumers
Tertiary Consumers
Plains Minnow
Southern Redbelly Dace
Topeka Shiner
Chain Pickerel
Pallid Sturgeon
Walleye
DIVERSITY IN PUBLIC AQUACULTURE
Fishbase 2016
PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF ATLANTIC SALMON
Protein
Lipid
Ash
Shearer et al. 1994
THINKING SMALL AND THINKING BIG
Higher resting metabolic rate Higher energy expenditures Higher feeding rates (e.g. 5%)
Higher maintenance demand
Lower resting metabolic rate
Lower energy expenditures
Lower feeding rates (e.g. 3%)
Lower maintenance demand
TYPES OF HATCHERIES
Production hatcheries Produce large volumes to increase abundance for commercial/recreational
fishing or mitigation
Support harvest, not natural recruitment
Supplementation hatcheries Produce fish intended to become part of the wild population
Reduce short-term risk of population losses, increase harvest opportunities
Conservation hatcheries Produce fish for restoration of imperiled species
Serve as a refuge for rare stocks and genes
Many facilities operate as functional hybrids
COMPARISON OF HATCHERY OPERATIONS
Production Hatchery Conservation Hatchery
Spawning time Directed by biologists for convenience or to time stocking or return
Synchronized to wild spawn
Target number of progeny
Larger, to maximize output Smaller, to match carrying capacity of receiving waters or ensure equal family representation
Mating strategy Haphazard or to promote certain characteristics
Highly structured to maintain diversity
Incubation temperature
Chosen to control developmental time
Synchronized to receiving waters
Culture system Standard, smooth tanks/raceways
Enriched, semi-natural tanks/raceways
COMPARISON OF HATCHERY OPERATIONS
Production Hatchery Conservation Hatchery
Husbandry techniques
Standard, to maximize efficiency and output
Innovative, to reduce conditioning and domestication
Water temperature
May be modified to maximize growth or meet production goals and timelines
Synchronized to receiving waters and natural life history
Rearing density High, up to maximum rearing capacity of the system
Low, to minimize behavioral and health concerns
Feeds Selected to satisfy minimum nutrient requirements and meet production goals at the lowest cost
Selected to address unknown nutrient requirements and ensure maximum fitness of progeny
Macro- & Micronutrients
Metamorphosis
Reproduction
Behavior Stress
Response
Biosynthetic Rates
Cell Signaling
Appetite Regulation
Osmoregulation
Growth & Development
Energy Substrates
Immunity & Survival
Antioxidative Defense
Seafood Quality
Endocrine Status
Metabolic Regulation
Pigmentation
Membrane Competence
Tocher 2003, Li et al. 2008
Macro- & Micronutrients
Metamorphosis
Reproduction
Behavior Stress
Response
Biosynthetic Rates
Cell Signaling
Appetite Regulation
Osmoregulation
Growth & Development
Energy Substrates
Immunity & Survival
Antioxidative Defense
Seafood Quality
Endocrine Status
Metabolic Regulation
Pigmentation
Membrane Competence
Tocher 2003, Li et al. 2008
Macro- & Micronutrients
Metamorphosis
Reproduction
Behavior Stress
Response
Biosynthetic Rates
Cell Signaling
Appetite Regulation
Osmoregulation
Growth & Development
Energy Substrates
Immunity & Survival
Antioxidative Defense
Seafood Quality
Endocrine Status
Metabolic Regulation
Pigmentation
Membrane Competence
Tocher 2003, Li et al. 2008
WHAT DO WE FEED FISH?
Protein
Lipid Carbohydrates
Micro-nutrients
Typical
Ingredients High Energy
(Carnivorous) Medium Energy
(Carnivorous) Low Energy
(Omnivorous)
Fish meal 25-50 20-40 0-20
Soy products
0-15 25-35 30-50
Gluten & animal products
5-20 15-20 15-20
Cereal grains
10-18 20-25 30-45
Fats/oils 20-30 5-10 2-5
Other 3-5 3-5 3-5
Typical
IngredientsHigh Energy
(Carnivorous)
Medium Energy
(Carnivorous)
Low Energy
(Omnivorous)
Fish meal 25-50 20-40 0-20
Soyproducts
0-15 25-35 30-50
Gluten& animal products
5-20 15-20 15-20
Cerealgrains
10-18 20-25 30-45
Fats/oils 20-30 5-10 2-5
Other 3-5 3-5 3-5
THE RISING COST OF FISH MEAL
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Price in $US/MT
“…much research has focused on finding replacements for fish meal…Partial replacements have been achieved. However, no dramatic breakthroughs have been reported, and the share of fish meal and fish oil used in aquaculture is increasing…” FAO 2008
Aquaculture consumes ~61% of global supply
THE RISING COST OF FISH OIL
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
“…given the difficulty in replacing fish oils…it is clear that competition for fish oil is likely to be a more serious obstacle for some sections of the aquaculture industry.” FAO 2008
Fish Oil Price in $US/MT
Aquaculture consumes ~74% of
global supply
FEEDSTUFF ATTRIBUTES TO CONSIDER
Compositional profile and practical feeding value
Protein content and quality
Presence of antinutritional factors
Interactions with other nutrients
Economic and environmental costs of raw materials
Availability
Cost-effectiveness relative to marine ingredients AND other feedstuffs
Sustainability
Influence on animal performance Growth and survival
Reproductive performance
Safety
MINIMIZING LOSS OF LC-PUFA
No growth effects Substantial LC-PUFA loss
Trushenski and Boesenberg 2009
No growth effects Limited LC-PUFA loss
Trushenski et al. 2008
No growth effects Limited LC-PUFA loss
Trushenski 2009
n-3
MC-PUFA
SFA
MUFA/SFA
RENDERED FATS MAY ALSO MAKE FATTY ACID REQUIREMENTS EASIER TO ATTAIN
Trushenski et al. 2013 400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
0 10 20 30 40
Wei
ght
Gai
n (
%)
Dietary LC-PUFA Content (g/kg diet)
Break Point = 29.3 g LC-PUFA/kg diet
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
0 10 20 30 40
Wei
ght
Gai
n (
%)
Dietary LC-PUFA (g/kg diet)
Growth was suppressed among fish fed high
levels of C18-rich soybean oil, but not SFA-rich
soybean oil
FEED FORMULATION
Feedstuff FISH
ONLY
BEEF
ONLY
BEEF +
50%
EPA
BEEF +
100%
EPA
BEEF +
50%
DHA
BEEF +
100%
DHA
BEEF +
50%
BOTH
BEEF +
100%
BOTH
Soybean meal 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300
Corn gluten meal 238 238 238 238 238 238 238 238
Wheat bran 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205
Menhaden fish meal 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Menhaden fish oil 98 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Beef tallow 0 98 86 75 86 74 77 56
EPA supplement 0 0 12 23 0 0 10 21
DHA supplement 0 0 0 0 12 24 11 21
Micronutrients &
binder 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59
All diets formulated to contain ~40% protein, ~14% lipid
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
1
Dissection and Tissue Collection
10 weeks
Vision Acuity Trials
Weight gain, specific growth rate (SGR), feed conversion ratio (FCR), feed intake, tissue fatty acid composition, and Djh
N = 4, 1-way ANOVA with Tukey’s HSD pairwise comparison tests where appropriate PROC GLIMMIX, SAS 9.3
WEIGHT GAIN (%) P < 0.001
NSD
zy y zy y zy z z z 0
50
100
150
200
250
FISH ONLY BEEF ONLY BEEF + 50%EPA
BEEF +100% EPA
BEEF + 50%DHA
BEEF +100% DHA
BEEF + 50%BOTH
BEEF +100% BOTH
yx z yx yx zy x yx x 0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
FISH ONLY BEEF ONLY BEEF + 50%EPA
BEEF +100% EPA
BEEF + 50%DHA
BEEF +100% DHA
BEEF + 50%BOTH
BEEF +100% BOTH
FEED CONVERSION RATIO P < 0.001
DO WE REALLY KNOW FATTY ACID REQUIREMENTS?
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
ReportedRequirement(NRC 2011)
FISH ONLY BEEF ONLY BEEF + 100% DHA
g fa
tty
acid
s/kg
fe
ed
DO WE REALLY KNOW FATTY ACID REQUIREMENTS?
ReportedRequirement(NRC 2011)
FISH ONLY BEEF ONLY BEEF + 100%DHA
DO WE REALLY KNOW FATTY ACID REQUIREMENTS?
ReportedRequirement(NRC 2011)
FISH ONLY BEEF ONLY BEEF + 100%DHA
SUCCESSFUL SPARING OF FISH OIL WITH BEEF TALLOW
Beef tallow appears suitable for use in HSB feeds
Trial provides insight regarding fatty acid requirements of HSB
‘Known unknowns’ are better than ‘unknown unknowns’
DHA may be more critical than EPA
Results consistent with the “omega-3 sparing effect”
SFA-rich lipid sources, like beef tallow, may effectively reduce LC-PUFA requirements of fishes
Similar results from companion trials with Atlantic Salmon and Pompano
RENDERED FATS MAY ALSO MAKE FATTY ACID REQUIREMENTS EASIER TO ATTAIN
Sparing fish oil with beef tallow does not impair performance in the way that other alternative lipids do
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Fish Oil(+)
Control
BeefTallow (-)Control
BeefTallow +
DHA
Atlantic Salmon
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Fish Oil(+)
Control
BeefTallow (-)Control
BeefTallow +
DHA
Pompano
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Fish Oil(+)
Control
BeefTallow (-)Control
BeefTallow +
DHA
Hybrid Striped Bass
Weight Gain (%) Bowzer et al. 2016 Rombenso et al., in review Emery et al., in review
INFLUENCING REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE
Lewis et al. 2013
Results with SFA-rich coconut oil suggest SFA- and MUFA-rich lipids are better than
C18 PUFA-rich lipids for broodstock, too
SAFETY OF FARMED FISH
Risk outweighed by benefits of seafood consumption
National Academies Institute of Medicine Food and Agriculture Organization World Health Organization
BUT, perception is reality and feeding rendered fats can reduce contaminant burdens
0
5
10
15
Dioxin-like PCBs Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins anddibenzofurans
WHO-TEQ (pg/g) Fish Oils Animal Fats
Ábalos et al. 2008
Although there is variability in levels, marine ingredients are potential sources of organic and inorganic contaminants
Risks of contaminants in farmed fish are largely overblown
THE CHALLENGES…
Fish meal and oil are finite resources which aquaculture increasingly monopolizes
Sources of amino acids abound, but may be improperly balanced, unpalatable
Alternative proteins impact production performance, livestock resilience, etc.
Sources of essential fatty acids can be limiting
Alternative lipids affect tissue composition, reproductive performance, etc.
THE OPPORTUNITIES—OUR NATION’S FISHERIES
Economic Opportunity
Seafood Security
Recreation
Cultural Identity Ecosystem
Services Biodiversity
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Authors of the various works cited herein
Fats and Proteins Research Foundation
Idaho Department of Fish and Game
Southern Illinois University Carbondale