Nutrient Dynamics in Mangrove Draft

8/18/2019 Nutrient Dynamics in Mangrove Draft

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ABS+"AC+

Mangrove forests are highly productive coastal ecosystems confined to the intertidal

ons. !hey are considered the major conduits for tidal e"change of dissolved and

particulate matter bet#een the forest environment and adjacent coastal #aters as #ell

as net e"porters of organic matter and nutrients to the ocean$ caused by biological and

physical processes #ithin the forest ecosystem. %itrogen &hosphorus and sulfur are

some of the major macronutrient essential for the various biological activities$ hence

an effort has been made in present paper to e"plain their behavior in the mangrove

ecosystem. ' brief revie# of the behavior of heavy metal in the mangrove forest as

#ell as the capability of scavenging heavy metals has been attempted in present

paper.

%ey or$s: Mangrove, nutrient cycling , nitrogen , -hos-horus, heavy metals

#



.N+"O*)C+.ON

Mangroves are intertidal forest ecosystems in sheltered saline to brackish

environments. !hey are among the most productive coastal ecosystems in the #orld$

confined to the tropics and subtropics$ #hich dominate appro"imately ()* of the

#orld+s coastline bet#een 2)o % and 2)o , and are estimated to cover an area of 1.( to

2.0 - 10) m2 /orges et al$ 2003. nder natural gro#ing conditions mangrove trees

are #ell adapted to both flooding and saline #ater. !hey are regarded not only as

sinks of sediment and nutrients$ but also as sources of organic matter of lo# nutrient

uality /oto$ 12. !hrough out #elling of leaf litter and dissolved organic matter$

these generally productive #etlands act as detritus sources to the adjacent oligotrophic

marine food #ebs$ supporting valuable estuarine and coastal fisheries /5ee$ 1) !he

mangrove sediments are characteried by high organic matter and ammonia contents

but lo# o"ygen content /Morell and 6orredor 13 and$ hence$ contributions of

nutrients$ organic matter and detritus to the nearby coastal ecosystem are high.

!he mangrove ecosystem as a #hole is net autotrophic$ but the #ater column

and the sediment are largely net heterotrophic$ due to three processes /7ennerjahn and

8ttekkot$ 2002.9

1. 'uatic primary production is limited by high turbidity in the #ater column as

#ell as due to canopy shado# and large changes in salinity:

2. ;ater column and sediments receive important uantities of leaf and #ood

litter from the overlying canopy:

3. <"port of labile organic carbon from mangroves to adjacent auatic systems$

although variable from one site to another$ can be lo#

'



=ecent biogeochemical studies focused on tidal e"change bet#een #etland

vegetation and coastal #aters as #ell as nutrient recycling through sediment>#ater

interface. Most studies indicate some net e"port of detritus to the sea from salt

marshes /%i"on 1?0: ame and others 1?A and mangrove forests /oto and unt

1?1: Blores>Cergudo and others 1?(: ;olanski 1): ;afar et al$ 1(.

N)+".EN+ C/C.NG .N MANG"O0ES

Mangrove creeks are generally considered the major conduits for tidal

e"change of dissolved and particulate matter bet#een the forest environment and

adjacent coastal #aters: /=ivera > Monroy et al.$ 1). Most studies support the

contention that mangrove forests are net e"porters of organic matter and nutrients to

the ocean$ caused by biological and physical processes #ithin the forest ecosystem

/ Robertson, 1986; Dittmer & Lara, 2001. <"port of dissolved inorganic nutrients by

tidal #ater in mangrove forests #here the forest floor and creek bottoms are kno#n to

be sinks of these compounds /ristensen et al.$ 1): 'longi$ 1A suggests that

other mechanisms than diffusive flu" from sediments are also involved.

igure 1

!here are t#o interesting sources of nutrient in mangrove9

1. ,eepage of nutrient rich pore>#ater from creek banks during falling

tides$ and

2. Microbial mineraliation of nutrient containing organic matter in the

creek #ater itself.

'lthough pore>#ater seepage from creek banks is a potential source of

nutrients$ the volume of #ater passing through this path#ay is generally orders of

2



magnitude smaller than the tidal transport. !his source can therefore only affect the

chemistry of creek #ater #hen the interstitial nutrient concentrations in creek banks

are very high. %evertheless$ 5ara D ittmar /1 suggested that most of the diurnal

nutrient oscillations in a railian mangrove creek are due to dilution of nutrient>rich

pore>#ater seeping from creek banks by a variable and tidal driven volume of oceanic

#ater. Eo#ever$ Eo#es D Foehringer /14 found that the nutrient levels in the

small amount of #ater seeping from creek banks in a %e# <ngland salt marsh are

insufficient to affect the concentration of both dissolved organic carbon and inorganic

nutrients significantly in tidal #aters.

Bollo#ing processes have been sho#n to regulate the sediment>#ater

e"change of nutrients9

/1 Molecular diffusion$ caused by a nutrient gradient at the

sediment>#ater interface /,#eerts et al.$ 11$

/2 Baunal activity$ such as ventilation or e"cretion /lackburn and

Eenriksen$ 1?3: =utgers van der 5oeff.$ 1?4: ristensen$ 1?): 1??$ and

/3 enthic algal uptake of nutrients /=ysgaard et al.$ 1).

enthic regeneration in transitional coastal environments is also the potential

source of nutrients to the overlying #aters /Eart#ig 1(A: Geitschel 1?0:. 'n

intertidal flat region$ #here the sediment is regularly e"posed and sufficient light

penetrates to the sediment$ has been reported to have characteristically high levels of

benthic microalgal biomass and productivity /6olijn and de 7onge$ 1?4: Carela and

&enas$ 1?). &hotosynthetic processes can result in large diurnal changes and affect

the nutrient cycle near the sediment surface due to algal demand.

MANG"O0E .++E" AN* "EEASE O N)+".EN+

3



Mangrove forests are highly productive ecosystems$ #ith the net primary

production rates reaching as high as 20H)0 t 6 ha >1 year >1/6lough12$ 1(. 'lmost

one third of the net primary production can be lost as plant litter$ such as leaves and

t#igs$ and up to half of this litter is e"ported from mangrove creeks to adjacent

coastal #aters /=obertson et al.$ 12. !he e"port of such a large amount of organic

matter has a recogniable effect on the nutrition or biomass of consumer communities

in coastal #aters /Idum and Eeald$ 1(): 'longi 10$ although their uantitative

relationship is still to be established /aniel and =obertson$ 10: =obertson and

laber$ 12 ). !he amount of leaves decomposing in and on the forest floor is a

function of input /litter fall and import from adjacent areas and outputJremoval

/e"port by tides$ decomposition and removal by leaf>eating crabs. ecomposition

rates increase #ith humidity$ temperature$ and o"ygen availability and depend on the

composition of the organic matter /enner and Eodson$ 1?).!he e"port of plant

litter or macro>particulate matter from mangrove creeks is beyond doubt$ but no

general consensus has been reached for other materials$ such as nutrients and

dissolved and particulate organic matter /!#illey$ 1?): oto and ;ellington$ 1??:

;attayakorn et al.$ 10: Moran et al.$ 11: ,impson et al.$ 1(. !he presence or

absence of fresh#ater inputs into mangrove creeks seems to be an important factor

affecting the direction and magnitude of material flu"es /oto and ;ellington$ 1??:

=obertson et al.$ 12. Eo#ever$ inconsistencies amongst the published data may

have resulted from the differences of other characteristics$ such as tidal range$

geomorphology$ soil chemistry and mangrove plant biomass and community

structure.

4



!he decomposition of plant litter typically occurs in three$ often>simultaneous

phases9

/1 &hysical and biological fragmentation$

/2 Microbial o"idation of refractory components such as cellulose and lignin$

and

/3 5eaching of soluble components /Caliela et al.$ 1?).

I"ygen penetration and thus aerobic decomposition processes in coastal

marine sediments are usually limited to the upper fe# millimetres /=evsbech et al.$

1?0: Eo#arth D 7Krgensen$ 1?4. elo# the o"ic one$ decomposition of organic

matter occurs by a variety of anaerobic processes /e.g. Fambrell D &atrick$ 1(?:

Mackin D ,#ider$ 1?. acterial respiration processes in marine sediments use I 2$

%I>3$ MnI2$ BeIIE$ ,I4>2 and 6I2 as electron acceptors /Benchel D lackburn$

1(. Macrophyte detritus$ e.g. from mangrove trees and saltmarsh grasses$ typically

has high 69% and 69& ratios /e.g. ristensen$ 10: uchsbaum et al.$ 11: ;afar et

al.$ 1( compared #ith the demands of decomposing bacteria /Benchel D

lackburn$ 1(. !herefore a rapid immobiliation of nutrients may occur during

decomposition in mangrove forest sediments /oto et al.$ 1?: 'longi$ 11: 14:

1A: ristensen et al.$ 1?$ and other sediments as #ell. 8mmobiliation due to

adsorption reactions in these sediments may further reduce the availability of

phosphorus /e.g. rom D erner$ 1?0: 6lough et al.$ 1?3: ,undby et al.$ 12 and

ammonium /Mackin D 'ller$ 1?4 in the pore#ater. !hus$ there is an increased

loading of phosphate and ammonium to the sediment. !he leaching phase of

mangrove leaf decomposition is characteried by a rapid loss of soluble organic

compounds /sugars$ organic acids$ proteins$ phenolics$ etc. and inorganic minerals

5



/$ 6a$ Mg$ Mn$ etc.. =egardless of vegetation type$ this phase lasts any#here from a

fe# days to a fe# #eeks and can be responsible for substantial losses of carbon$

nitrogen$ and phosphorus /&arsons et al.$ 10: 6hale$ 13: ,teinke et al.$ 13:

!aylor and arlocher$ 1A: Brance et al.$ 1(. !he biotic contributions in this early

stage of decomposition are usually minimal and are most often limited to microbial

conditioning of the litter /%ykvist$ 1): 6undell et al.$ 1(: Brance et al.$ 1(.

N)+".EN+S .N MANG"O0E ECOS/S+EM

+a6le1!

N.+"OGEN

%itrogen is an essential element for a variety of biological and chemical

processes$ both at micro level i.e. organism level as #ell as macrolevel i.e. at the scale

of ecosystem. 8t is present in different inorganic /vi. 'mmonium$ %itrate$ %itrite as

#ell as organic form

acterial activity regulates most of the available ammonium pool$ particularly

in deeper sediments$ devoid of other biota$ just like any other auatic system.

'mmonia immobiliation and assimilation by microbes$ plants etc. al#ays

accompany and counteracts the mineraliation process. !he e"tent these process

balance each other is depended upon the carbon nitrogen/69 % ratio of the

decomposing organic matter. ,ubstance rich in nitrogen favors net mineraliation$

#here as those poor in nitrogen favors net immobiliation. 6oncentration of

ammonium is relatively high and influence by tidal cycle$ plant uptake and seasonal

change$ microbial decomposition$ temperature$ rainfall etc. /oto 1?2$ 1?4$ 1?).

!he availability of sediment nutrients to microbes and plants is complicated by

geochemical processes$ such as the involvement of some nutrients in adsorption

7



reactions to clay minerals. !he ammonium adsorption is lo# in mangrove sediments

compared to temperate salt marsh sediments$ probably due to higher concentration of

competitive cations such as iron /Eolmboe D ristensen$ 2003. 8n mangrove

sediments$ ammonium e"cretion by microfauna$ mesofauna and macrofauna must

occur $ but rate are almost #holly unkno#n. 8ndication of ammonification in the #ater

column comes mainly from the estimates of ammonium e"cretion by protooan and

metaoans graers. 8keda et.al.$/ 8n9 'longi et al$ 12 suggested the e"cretion rate

of various organisms ranged from 1 to 41) mg %. animal >1 h>1 over the body sies$

ranging from L1 to 10$000 µg.animal>1.

!he concentration of issolved Irganic %itrogen /I% is lo# in tropical

mangrove #ater. I% concentration has been observed decreasing #ith increase in

salinity /%i"on et al 1?4$ ;ong$ 1?4. 5o#est concentration of I% has been

recorded in the pre>monsoon season due to dilution from rain /Sarala devi et.al 1?3.

uring a tidal cycle highest concentration occurs at high tide and decreases during

ebb tide /Fuerrero et al$ 1??$ Ivalle et. al.$ 10. ,imilarly the concentration of

I% is also less in mangrove soil as compare to other tropical marine deposits.

Eigh nutrient loading in coastal ecosystems has recently caused serious

eutrophication problems. 8n a eutrophic shallo# environment$ o"ygen>depleted #ater

is occasionally generated at the bottom of the #ater column due to the accumulation

of organic matter /Ichi and !akeoka$ 1?A: emp et al.$ 12 and can cause the

death of benthic macro>fauna /=osenberg and 5oo$ 1??. enthic mineraliation is

considered as the important nitrogen path#ay in shallo# ecosystems /e.g.$ lackburn

and Eenriksen$ 1?3: emp et al.$ 12. %itrification processes occur in sediments

close to the sediment > #ater interface #here there is availability of o"ygen$ such as at

8



o"idied line of animal borro#s and #ithin the o"idied region of =hiophora /oto$

1?2. 'ssimilatory uptake of nitrogen counter balances the o"idation process: #here

by the uptake of the nitrate occurs for the gro#th of mangrove and bacterial cell/oto

et.al 1?).

=ecycled dissolved inorganic nitrogen /8% is released from the sediment to

the overlying #ater through sediment>#ater e"change processes and can be taken up

by phytoplankton. !herefore$ benthic algae in the intertidal flat ecosystems can

control the flu" of 8% at the sediment>#ater interface. enitrification is also kno#n

to be a significant sink in the coastal ecosystem by the formation of gaseous nitrogen

/e.g.$ aplan et al.$ 1((: oike and Eattori$ 1(?: %ed#ell and !rimmer$ 1A.

%itrogen and %2I is the end product follo#ing the Michaelis>Menten kinetics.

/%ed#ell$ 1(): 8uumi$ 1?A. !he sedimentary denitrification rate is affected by

bacterial processes associated #ith 8% cycling in marine estuaries in t#o #ays9

/1 'mmonium o"idation by nitrification in the sediment is strongly coupled #ith

denitrification /7enkins and emp$ 1?4: =ysgaard et al.$ 1): Igilvie et al.$

1($ and thus nitrification itself indirectly removes nitrogen through these

coupled processes$ and

/2 issimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium competes #ith denitrification for

nitrate as the terminal electron acceptor for respiratory electron transport /Eerbert

and %ed#ell$ 10.

/3 !he competition bet#een the denitrifier and ammonifier under anaerobic

conditions conseuently affects the removal of nitrogen by sedimentary

denitrification /,orensen 1(?.

&EI,&EI=,

19



8n flooded salt marshes and mangroves$ the grass and mangrove trees are able to

e"crete o"ygen through their root system$ producing an o"ygenated

microenvironment /,ilva et al.$ 11: Mendelsshon and &ostek$ 1?2: Mendelsshon et

al.$ 1?1 capable of trapping & as Be&I4 follo#ing the reaction9

4Be2 I2 4E 4Be3 2E2I:

Be3 3E2I Be /IE3 E:

Be /IE3 E2&I4 Be&I4 IE> E2I

8n general$ the capacity of mangrove soil to immobilie phosphate depends on

the amount of organic matter$ its 69 & ratio$ and the type and amount of clay minerals

present. issolution of mineral phosphate also depends on physiochemical

characteristics such as pE$ available sulfides$ alkalinity and redo" state /oto$ 1??.

!hese factors can$ of course$ be affected by the activity of microbes and larger

organisms. 8n comparison #ith the release rates of phosphorus from mineral

phosphates and refractory organic materials$ the turnover time for & uptake$ utiliation

and e"cretion by living organisms is very short. 5ocal & cycles can be very efficient in

tropical mangroves$ #here it has been estimated that up to ??* of the forest & pool is

retained #ithin the system /oto and unt$ 1?2.

Mangrove trees /oto and ;ellington$ 1?3: Beller et al.$ 1 and microbes

/'longi$ 14 are often phosphorus /&>limited in the tropics. !he & concentrations in

sea#ater and pore#ater of unpolluted mangrove forests are lo# /'longi et al.$ 12$

and the affinity of the soils for & usually is very high /e.g. Eolmboe et al.$ 2001.

!ogether #ith algal gro#th$ leaf litter dynamics have been vie#ed as important for the

nitrogen cycling of fringe mangrove sediments /ristensen et al.$ 1)$ and & cycling

is also likely to be influenced by leaf fall and decomposition. !he & dynamics in

11



mangrove sediments are closely coupled to the activity of Be> and sulfate>reducing

bacteria$ #hich are the primary microbial decomposers in the normally reduced

sediments /,herman et al.$ 1?: ristensen et al.$ 2000.

Cariations in dissolved & concentrations may mirror changes observed for

dissolved %. Bor instance$ in mangrove estuaries of the #et tropics$ dissolved and

total phosphorus concentrations decrease #ith increasing salinity /%i"on et al.$ 1?4:

;ong$1?4: 5iebeeit and =au$ 1??: =obertson et al.$ 12 issolved and

particulate phosphorus concentrates in mangrove sediment are usually generally N40

µM for 8& and N4 µM for I&. 6oncentrations vary over time and intertidal

position$ reflecting seasonal effects of plant uptake and microbial gro#th$

temperature$ rainfall$ o"ygen availability and sediment type /oto$ 1?2$ 1?4.

issolved inorganic phosphorus /soluble reactive phosphate e"ists mainly as a

nutrient salt /E&I42> at the pE of sea#ater. Calues in unpolluted mangrove #ater#ays

range from N 0.1 to > 20 µM #hereas !otal & content of mangrove sediments appears

to fall #ithin the range of 100>1A00 µM g>1 /oto$ 1??

,oluble reactive phosphate is readily assimilated by bacteria$ algae and higher

plants$ including mangroves. Most dissolved & in auatic systems consists of various

organic phosphates /primarily phosphate esters originating from living cells$ #hich

are often resistant to hydrolysis and therefore of limited availability. Mangrove soils

are e"pected to contain a high proportion of organic & compounds due to their

generally high organic matter content /oto$ 1??. Eesse /1A2$1A3 for instance$

found that ()>?0* of the total e"tractable & #as organic. oto /1?? has pointed out

that much of this organic & is in the phytate form and bound to humic compounds and

is probably not readily available for microbial and mangrove plant nutrition. .

1#



'lthough organic & is the major fraction$ the inorganic phosphates probably

represent the largest potential pool of plant>available$ soluble reactive phosphorus

/oto$ 1??. Most of the inorganic & in mangrove sediments is either bound in the

form of 6a$ Be and 'l phosphates or as soluble reactive phosphorus adsorbed onto$ or

incorporated into$ hydrated Be and 'l sesuio"ides . !otal organic & concentrations:

proportionally greater in surface /0>2) cm sediments: reflect the influence of roots$

#hereas the inorganic fractions mainly Be>&$ proportionally and in real terms increase

gradually #ith depth reflecting the influence of increasing ano"ia particularly belo#

the root layer/oto$1?? &atterns of & in estuaries subjected to heavy monsoonal

rainfall are also nearly identical to those for nitrogen. 5o#est & concentrations has

been observed during dry periods /,arala evi et al.$ 1?3: alakrishnan %air et al.$

1?4

+a6le #!

igure #a #6

Sulfur

,ulphur cycling in mangrove sediments can have significant impacts on the benthic

community due to a variety of secondary effects$ e.g. associated pE changes. ue to

the high salinity conditions e"isting in the mangrove ecosystems$ sulphate reduction

not e"pected to be controlled by the concentration of sulphate in the mangrove forest

sediments. 8t is much more likely that the rates are controlled by the availability of

organic matter and the biological and physical processes acting on the o"idation of the

sediments$ e.g. bioturbation$ root o"idation and tides. ,ulphate reduction appears to be

an important process in mangrove sediments$ and relatively high rates have been

found /e.g. ristensen et a/., 1): ristensen$ 1(: 'longi et a/., 1?: Eolmer et

1'



a/., 1. !his suggests that sulphate reduction may contribute significantly to

mineraliation of organic carbon and nutrient availability in tropical mangrove

sediments /Eolmer et al., 14.

!he accumulation of sulphur in subtidal marine sediments is primarily

controlled by the rate of sulphate reduction and the o"idation state of the sediment

/!hode>'ndersen D 7Krgensen$ 1?. 8n tidal environments$ ho#ever$ additional

factors also play an important role. !idal currents and #ave action can affect the

o"idation status of sediments directly by increased advective transport of pore #ater

and particles. uring lo# tide$ the sediment surface desiccates and o"ygen can

penetrate deeper into the sediment via burro#s and cracks in the surface. !he

presence of rooted vegetation also strongly affects the biogeochemical cycling of

sulphur by vertical translocation of organic matter and o"ygen /Eolmer D %ielsen$

1(: Eolmer D 5aursen$ 2002$ and the cycling of sulphur is closely coupled to the

reactive iron pools /!hamdrup$ 2000. =eactive iron o"ides present in sediments may

efficiently o"idie reduced sulphides. !his suggests that the cycling of reduced

sulphur compounds is highly dynamic in mangrove forest sediments. &yrite appears to

be the most important inorganic sulphur component in mangrove sediments$ attaining

pool sies )0>100 times higher than acid volatile sulfur pools /ristensen et al., 11$

12: Eolmer et a!., 14$ 1: 'longi et al., 1?.

!here is uite a significant burial of sulphides in the mangrove forest

sediments in particular in the mid>intertidal sediments$ #here the o"idation by

bioturbating organisms is lo# and the sulphate reduction activity high$ but also the

high>intertidal sediments sho# large accumulations belo# depths of bioturbation

/Eolmer et al., 14. 8n addition to the burial of inorganic sulphur compounds$ an

12



accumulation of organic sulphur has been found in the deep sediments in the inner

part of mangrove forests /Eolmer et al., 14. ' similar accumulation o orani"

sulphur has been observed in mangrove peats /'ltschuler et al., 1?3$ but the

underlying mechanisms behind this accumulation are not #ell understood. Eo#ever$

the burial o inorganic sulphur appears to be limited by the availability o iron

/Eolmer et al., 14$ #hich may favor formation of organic sulphur compounds.

.G)"E 'a '6

;EA0/ ME+A

<levated concentrations of heavy metals have been recorded in mangrove

sediments all over the #orld$ #hich often reflects the long>term pollution caused by

human activities /5acerda et al.$12: &erdomo et al.$ 1?: Earris and ,antos$ 2000:

!am and ;ong$ 2000. ue to their 8nherent physical and chemical properties$

mangrove muds have an e"traordinary capacity to accumulate materials discharged to

the near shore marine environment /Earbison$ 1?A.!he cycling of trace metals in

mangrove ecosystems has been the subject of recent studies$ due to the potential role

of mangroves in the abatement of trace metal pollution /5acerda$ 1?.

!race metals enter mangrove ecosystems #ith the incoming tide associated

#ith suspended particles$ iron and manganese o"i>hydro"ides /5acerda et al.$ 1?.

;hen reaching the reducing conditions$ dominant in most mangrove environments$

these o"i>hydro"ides are reduced and dissolved$ and can release their trace metal load

to the #ater column. ,ince mangrove #aters can have as much as 10 mgJ5 of

dissolved sulfide$ due to the predominant sulfate reduction metabolism of mangrove

sediments$ many trace metals are efficiently precipitated as insoluble sulfides

/Earbinson$ 1?Aa$ b: 5acerda et al.$ 1(: 6lark et al.$ 1(. ue to permanent

13



anaerobic conditions of mangrove sediments and high sedimentation rates in

mangrove environments$ trace metals suffer rapid accumulation and burial in the

sedimentary column. !hus$ mangroves can act as biogeochemical barriers to trace

metal transport in coastal #aters /5acerda$ 1?. !he mechanisms described above

may also hamper trace metal uptake by mangrove plants. Eo#ever$ trace metals

#hich do not form stable sulfides$ #ill not be affected by this precipitation process

/5acerda$ 1(.

Table '

Many studies on trace metals in mangrove plants have sho#n concentration

factors /leaf concentration to sediment concentration ratio lo#er than 1.0 for most

trace metals$ the only e"ception being Mn$ #hich al#ays has concentration factors

higher than 1.0. If all trace elements studied$ Mn generally$ sho#s a significant

correlation bet#een sediment and leaf concentrations /5acerda$ 1(.

Mangrove sediments are anaerobic and reduced$ as #ell as being rich in

sulphide and organic matter. !hey therefore favor the retention of #ater>borne heavy

metals and the subseuent o"idation of sulphides bet#een tides allo#s metal

mobiliation and bioavailability /,ilva et al.$ 10: !am and ;ong$ 2000.

6oncentrations of heavy metals in sediments usually e"ceed those of the overlying

#ater by 3H) orders of magnitude /Gabetoglou et al.$ 2002 and$ #ith such high

concentrations$ the bioavailability of even a minute fraction of the total sediment

metal content assumes considerable importance #ith respect to bioaccumulation

#ithin both animal and plant species living in the mangrove environment. ,ince

heavy metals cannot be degraded biologically$ they are transferred and concentrated

into plant tissues from soils and pose long>term damaging effects on plants. Eo#ever

!am and ;ang /13 suggested that the mangrove soil component has a large

14



capacity to retain heavy metals$ and the role of mangrove plants in retaining metals

#ill depend on plant age and their biomass production.

Many mangrove ecosystems are close to urban development areas /,hriadiah$

1$ !am and ;ong$ 2000: MacBarlane$ 2002: &reda and 6o"$ 2002 and are

impacted by urban and industrial runoff$ #hich contains trace and heavy metals in the

dissolved or particulate form.

MANG"O0E AS A S.N% O N)+".EN+S

Mangrove ecosystems are one of the major types of natural #etlands in

tropical and subtropical regions$ flooded by fresh river #ater as #ell as by salty

sea#ater. ,imilar to other estuarine ones$ mangrove ecosystems also receive a large

amount of #aste from their related drainage and rivers and have become a massive

pollution sink. =ecent studies have also uestioned the importance of mangroves as a

source of inorganic nutrients and have sho#n that certain mangrove ecosystems may

not be as significant sources as accepted before and may even represent sinks of

inorganic nutrients !he use of a mangrove ecosystem$ the same as other natural

#etlands$ as an alternative lo# cost se#age treatment facility has been proposed by a

number of researchers /Eenley$ 1(?: 6lough et al.$ 1?3: =ichardson and avis$

1?(: !am and ;ong$ 13: reau" and ay$ 14: 6orredor and Morell$ 14$

!am.$ 1A: ;ong et al.$ 1) especially in coastal regions #ith pressing needs for

#aste#ater treatment. 5ike other trees$ mangrove trees absorb nutrients and

pollutants from the inerstitial #aters or sediment solution in the vicinity of the roots

hairs /,adi$ 12. Eo#ever$ there seems to be a kno#ledge gap as to the role of

these cations for phytoplankton dynamics in mangrove ecosystems. Bor sea#ater$

these cations are usually treated as conservative$ yet relatively little is kno#n about

15



their sources or sinks in mangrove creeks and the biotic andJor abiotic processes

controlling their concentrations /6ohen et al 1.

!he effectiveness of a #etland system to remove the input pollutants is highly

dependent on the chemical$ biological andJor physical processes$ and the entire soil>

plant>#ater system is important in the reduction of pollutants from #aste#ater

/unbabin and o#mer$ 12: Fale et al.$ 13. !he performance of a natural

#etland #aste#ater treatment system therefore depends very much on the #etland

characteristics$ #hich are e"tremely variable. 8t is difficult$ if not impossible$ to

translate results from one geographical area to another$ or from one type of #etland to

another /!rattner D ;oods$ 1?. espite their significance in purifying #aste#ater$

natural #etlands in many countries including the nited ,tates are legally limited to

providing only tertiary treatment of secondary #aste /reau" D ay$ 14. Most

studies #ere focused on the removal mechanisms of suspended solids$ organic matter

and nutrients from domestic or livestock #aste#ater by #etlands /#orredor and

$orell, 14..

Conclusion

Mangroves ecosystem demonstrate close link bet#een vegetation assemblage

and geomorphologic defined habitats. Eo#ever despite of their close link$ the

prevailing geomorphologic and ecomorppholgical vie# are uite contrary the

ecologist vie# mangrove as highly productive source of organic matter from #here$

there is a net out #elling of energy supporting comple" estuarine and near shore food

#ave. Feologists$ ho#ever$ vie# mangrove sediments as a sink for nutrients

characteried by long term import of sediments. !hough a lot #ork has been done in

order to get a clear picture of nutrient cycling in mangrove ecosystem$ but still the

17



dynamics is not completely understood. 8t is also felt that there is an urgent need of

establishment of the detailed database in order to have a more cleare picture of the

cycling of nutrients

18



"EE"ENCES:

'longi .M.$ 10 a <ffects of mangrove detrital out#elling on nutrient regeneration

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Fuman$ E.M.$ 7imene$ 6.<.$ 12. 6ontamination of coral reefs by heavy metals

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#2



Eenley$ . '.$ 1(?. 'n investigation of proposed effluent discharge into a tropical

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#3



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#4



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#5



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MacBarlane$ F.=.$ urchett$ M..$ 2000. 6ellular distribution of 6u$ &b and Gn in the

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Mackin$ 7. <. D 'ller$ =. 6. 1?4 'mmonium adsorption in marine sediments.

5imnology and Iceanography #8, 2)0H2)(.

Mackin$ 7. <. D ,#ider$ . !. 1? Irganic matter decomposition path#ays and

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Mendelssohn$ 8.'. and &ostek$ M.!. 1?2. <lemental analysis of deposit on the roots

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%i"on ,; /1?0 et#een coastal marshes and coastal #aters. ' revie# of t#enty

years of speculation and research in the role of salt marshes in estuarine

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#8



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'9



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'1



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'3



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21?

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