Now we’re 25.Digital advertising grows up.

Think back to what you were doing in 1994.

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If you’re an ad industry veteran, chances are that you or someone you knew was

camping by the fax machine, spending hours sending out buy orders and waiting

for confirmations. Or perhaps you were mocking up print ads using early versions of PageMaker and saving files on SyQuest

disks. Maybe you were still in school, rushing home so you could return in time for the start of an episode of Mr. Squiggle

or Heartbreak High—or you were watching a worn-out copy on a videocassette

recorder. Some of you might not have even been born yet.

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Headlines during 1994 saw Eastern seaboard bushfires in New South Wales grip the nation, while MP John Newman was shot outside his home in Australia's

first political assassination since 1997. Protests kicked off about Sydney Airport's third runway, and telephone numbers in

Australia began transitioning to eight digits. And Australia took its first Winter Olympics medal, while the Canberra Raiders won the

premiership and Muriel's Wedding hit the big screen.

Global TV events saw Australians glued to their TVs, watching the drama of ice skater

Nancy Kerrigan in the run-up to U.S. Nationals and the slow-motion chase of

O. J. Simpson down the Los Angeles freeways.

In the year digital advertising was born, as reported by American magazine

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The Atlantic, it all started with the very first banner ad—a rectangular image on a new website called HotWired.com that simply

challenged visitors to click “right HERE.” And it led us to this point—an industry entering

a new age of maturity after years of innovation and challenge.

We’re celebrating digital advertising’s quarter-century mark with a compilation

of interviews in this report. As we take a trip down memory lane into the industry’s

formative years, not only can we see how far we have come, but we envision the next

steps for digital advertising in the years to come.

Buckle up as we transport you back in time and take you on an

extraordinary journey through the first 25 years of digital advertising.

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The first banner ad— a star is born.

According to John Battelle, co-founding managing editor of Wired magazine, the

technology publication had merely a single mention of the World Wide Web

(WWW) in the first edition (January 1993). “We were very fortunate that we managed

to squeeze one little notation about it in, because otherwise I think some of our

digital bona fides might have been questioned,” he said.

However, the World Wide Web soon came to dominate Wired’s pages, with editors

and journalists feverishly accessing pages using beta versions of Netscape Navigator

or Marc Andreessen’s browser out of the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.

It wasn't long before a group of Wired team members decided that they needed to

live up to their beliefs and build an online presence of their own. So they created a

separate company, called HotWired, with an entirely separate team than the

magazine's—all in order to get the site off the ground.

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The first digital banner ad, sold by Wired’s advertising team and placed on HotWired,

broke the fourth wall and asked the audience, “Have you ever clicked right HERE?” It

formed part of AT&T’s “You Will” campaign, which focused on what the company

thought the future would bring to telecommunications.

The ad confidently boasted to users, “You will” click—and they did in droves. Battelle

recalls that almost 70 percent of visitors clicked on the ad, while The Atlantic cites a

figure closer to 44 percent—which is still phenomenal to think about now, when click-

through rates for online ads struggle to reach even single digits.

Lisa Ronson, Chief Marketing Officer at Australian supermarket giant Coles, said

AT&T’s "You Will" marketing campaign was “visionary.”

“It was simple, compelling, and integrated and the results were outstanding—a 44%

click through rate,” Ronson said.

“They didn’t completely lose their minds and treat digital completely separately. They

continued to focus on marketing basics and customer engagement. So many

advertisers in the years following ran blindly and lacked the basics of emotion,

creativity, and engagement into digital. We presumed that consumers were rational

when engaging with them in digital channels. Some got it so very wrong.”

Despite AT&T’s early success, it wasn’t long before what’s known as “banner blindness”

became a common challenge for creatives to overcome. Advertisers resorted to ever

wilder ways to grasp people’s attention. So began a trend of flashing colours and

outrageous animations—who could resist trying their hand at a flashy, clickable

“shoot the duck” game?

According to the Interactive Advertising Bureau Australia (IAB), in 1999 digital ad

revenue in Australia was AU$34 million, sitting at 1 percent of the total ad market

Fast-forward to 2019 and it’s 53 percent of the market, at a cool AU$8.8 billion.

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In tracking advertising back then, there were 300 local sites that took advertising and

about 70 marketers who were brave enough to be buying display advertising,

according to Gai Le Roy, CEO of the IAB.

She added that the lack of early brand investment was noticeable, and the Fast-

Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) space were incredibly slow to embrace digital

advertising.

“It was a really weird mix in the early days,” Le Roy said.

“The obvious ones to embrace digital back then were the banks as they could see that

performance driven angle of digital, as well as the tech companies like Intel, but it

depended on the agency in terms of their appetite for driving investment.”

Le Roy recollects an early digital ad experience that has stuck with her to this day. She

remembers pharmaceutical company Novartis's banner ads for treatments swamping

the internet with an irksome flea hopping across the ads.

“There were banners everywhere for this flea treatment. Again, it was just because it

was a forward-thinking agency who said it's cheap, it's growing, let's try it and we

want to try building banners,” Le Roy said.

“Graphics were pretty simple back in those days and people were basing everything

Lisa Ronson Chief Marketing Officer, Coles

“We presumed that consumers were rational when engaging with them on digital channels.

Some got it so very wrong.”

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on click-through rates, so it was about anything that was very obvious and

garnered attention.”

As much as people talk about the death of the banner — and it's definitely a much

smaller part of the current ecosystem — it's still around, despite everything new

that's come into play.

Le Roy recalls how in those early days, pretty much every banner ad had 'click here'

just to teach consumers on what they were meant to do.

From the push to get people to download ringtones, diverting people to online

'portals', and directories going digital, to moving from a very desktop-focused culture

to broader digital marketing strategies, Le Roy said it’s been “lots of little shifts along

the way” to advance digital advertising.

Mark Frain, Chief Executive Officer at Multi Channel Network (MCN), recalls a

“memorable but certainly quite annoying” Direct Line insurance ad out of the UK

featuring a red phone on wheels that would scoot across the content.

“It was everywhere. I’d be in the middle of reading something and it was that intrusive

that the red phone would go straight across the text. It certainly wasn't

subtle,” Frain said.

“In terms of creative treatment, it wasn't of the highest production value, let's

just say that.”

Phil Cowlishaw, head of Adobe Advertising Cloud for Asia and the Pacific, recollects

early conversations with media agency clients, informing them about retargeting.

“It seems crazy today that it was an exciting tactic, but back then brands used to get

so excited about it,” Cowlishaw said.

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“Fast-forward to today and you have savvy consumers that purposely abandon carts

as they know the retailer will retarget them with a better offer to get them

over the line.

“That’s a huge shift, consumers being aware of how brands are behaving and are

effectively manipulating that ecosystem to drive conversations. It's a huge

step change.”

Hugh Jellie, Marketing and Sponsorship Manager at Carlton & United Breweries,

recalls the “going viral” expression really hitting home after they launched the

infamous Carlton Draught "Big Ad” in 2005.

Due to fragmented audiences of traditional media, the brand opted to stream the ad

online two weeks before being broadcast on TV. Within weeks it was downloaded

more than 160,000 times and made its way to more than 132 countries.

“I didn't realise it at the time, but 'going viral' was no longer just the domain of cat

videos. It was now the pursuit of marketers also,” Jellie said.

Highlights from digital advertising's past.

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1996DoubleClick launches.

1994First-ever banner ad launches.

1997Pop-up ads invented by Ethan Zuckerman.

2000Google launches AdWords.

2006 AdBlock add-on is released.YouTube launches.

2012 Adobe acquires Efficient Frontier.

2011 Adobe acquires Demdex.

2018 GDPR goes into effect.

2007 Apple releases first iPhone.

2009 Adobe buys Omniture.

2016 Adobe acquires TubeMogul.

1998 GoTo.com creates first keyword auction.OpenX launches open-source ad exchange.

Highlights from digital advertising's past.

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An obsession with data and analytics.

DoubleClick launched in 1996 and for the first time, an ad server could serve ads

on behalf of an advertiser instead of trafficking individual ads to individual media

companies. It was finally possible to deliver ads at scale. DoubleClick was eventually

acquired by Google for US$3.1 billion 12 years later.

Five years later came Google AdWords and the dawn of search advertising. AdWords

was one of the first links in the chain that created today’s obsession with data

and analytics.

In 1999, Simon White, co-founder of Australian media agency Ikon Communications,

alongside co-founder Gary Hardwick, launched the business with the Commonwealth

Bank as their foundation client.

As one of the fastest-growing media agencies in its first decade, White describes

the agency as having an explosive start as a modern media agency, known for its

employee centric culture “in an industry known for sweatshops.”

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“Before launching my own agency, yes, I placed one of the first few banner ads with

internet service provider OzEmail via independent digital media agency Bertini

Murray, for FAI insurance, in 1995,” White said.

“I remember waiting with the client as we typed in the link and saw our banner ad

materialise like the Tardis—a whopping 1 minute 10 seconds later. The static banner

ad was treated like a poster, with fewer words the better. We then understood what

WWW meant the ‘World Wide 'Wait' back then.”

Gemma Anderson, head of performance and growth at Deakin University, recalls

her first job in digital and quibbling over putting tags on the website to measure what

traffic was coming through.

“I just remember that none of us thought that was important and we couldn't

understand why they were asking for that and what it even actually meant at the

time. We just saw it as ugh, that's a lot of work, that's a little expensive,” Anderson said.

“Looking back, I've never really forgotten that moment because I always look back at

it and go gosh, that was so naive. Of course you would put the tags on your website

these days. We put so much investment and time and effort to make sure that tagging

is correct, the taxonomy makes sense. If a tag drops off one of our assets, that's a

critical moment for us — if a tag is down we've got to fix it, that's the number one

priority to get it back up.

“It was just a very different back then and the level of importance that we put it on it

now, compared to then has just changed so significantly.”

The early 2000s marked rapid shifts in investment to analytics and measurement, as

advertisers needed to find ways to prove the effectiveness of their spend. After all, a

banner featuring a litter of dancing kittens and some ukulele music might sound great

on paper, but the campaign shouldn’t continue if marketers can’t figure out what that

ad actually delivers for their bottom line.

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1995

$150B

$300B

$450B

$600B

1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 2019

Lorem ipsum

Digital: 22%

Digital: 43%

Digital: 4%

Total: $329B

Total: $413B

Total: $523B

Other: 25.7%

Verizon: 3.4%

Microso�: 4.1%

Amazon: 6.8%

Facebook: 21.8%

Google: 38.2%

Global advertising spending over time.

All figures are in US$. Source: Zenith

After one year of operation, AdWords generated US$70 million in advertising revenue

for Google, according to Statista. Today, Zenith reports that digital global ad

expenditures topped US$230 billion in 2018. This accounts for about 40 percent of all

global ad spend.

As the dotcom bust faded into a mere memory, 2005 brought two game-changing

companies to the digital advertising arena: Facebook and YouTube. These two brands,

which would become internet advertising titans, were founded within just two weeks

of each other and brought never-before-seen formats and opportunities to

digital marketers.

Facebook popularised the news feed, a now-ubiquitous format across the web,

though it wasn’t originally met with fanfare. The day after News Feed launched in

2006, protestors swarmed Facebook’s offices and demanded that the company

reverse the design change, according to Business Insider.

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John BattelleCo-Founder of Wired and CEO of NewCo

“The dotcom bust gave everyone a kick in the pants and made them say, ‘What can we do with this new medium that could actually solve some problems

for advertisers?’”

Users grew used to the news feed, however, and Facebook’s global audience numbers

have continued to grow every year since—although there have been some

indications recently that the Facebook app is beginning to reach a saturation point.

This could explain the US$1 billion purchase of Instagram in 2012 and the US$19

billion WhatsApp deal two years later.

The arrival of YouTube, which Google bought for US$1.65 billion in 2006, took video

advertising to the next level. The video platform blazed the trail for content creation

in the widest and most democratic way ever, with all the pluses and minuses that

come with that. With YouTube, the storytelling methods employed by TV advertising

could be delivered straight to large online audiences for the first time in a highly

targeted way. Their first pre-roll and promoted video ads launched in 2008, and by

the next year, YouTube was clocking up more than one billion video views a day.

In 2007, Ikon was sold to publicly listed STW Group. That same year, according to

White, they ran the communication strategy for Neil Lawrence's renowned "Kevin

07" campaign.

“We dominated the election on digital as the youth were a key to votes. I don’t think

the liberals had heard about the channel,” White said.

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White recalls it being hard work, particularly with how long it took to convince clients

the medium wasn’t just about instant response.

“I always got frustrated as a young media guy with campaigns and not knowing how

much each channel was delivering in terms of sales. Digital gave you more of an

understanding of your audience and one to one,” White said.

“When video came it was most exciting, as advertising could truly show clients what it

could do emotively.”

When Facebook launched, Jellie said it took a lot of businesses a couple of years to

realise its potential with many setting up their own accounts between 2008 and 2010.

However, with social media now being an “integral part of the marketing mix for any

organisation,” he said this has forever changed the marketing landscape.

“In its earliest days, digital advertising was a mere extension of the well-established

TV and print channels. But today, digital channels enable brands to shape their brand

positions and strategies in real time,” Jellie said.

“Brands are now resourced to respond within 24 hours rather than the traditional

six-month creative development and media buying process that once existed.”

Celebrities and politicians alike soon took notice of the growing popularity of video

and social channels and their ability to interact with wide audiences on a more

personal level.

Frain said the whole customer experience around video has come on tremendously.

“We’re seeing brands use video differently, whether that be for longer-form messaging

or five-second stinger ads in between content and this is not just digital publishers,

but traditional publishers investing heavily in premium online video

content,” Frain said.

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Now, what’s known as “influencer marketing” is ubiquitous across all social and video

channels. Celebrities like Kim Kardashian can reportedly pull in around US$300,000

for a single Instagram post, and a whole host of nano-influencers, baby influencers,

and even CGI influencers are opening up their feeds to advertisers. Influencer

marketing is another segment that isn’t without its challenges (think about the

ill-fated Fyre Festival), and marketers have increased their scrutiny of influencers they

believe have bought fake followings or aren’t properly adhering to their briefs.

The launch of the iPhone in 2007 was one of the defining moments in the history

of mobile advertising. Sure, marketers were already placing simple mobile apps on

WAP browsers way back in 1999, but the rapid adoption of smartphones changed

advertising dramatically.

For example, when Facebook filed for their IPO in 2012, they didn’t “directly generate

any meaningful revenue from the use of Facebook mobile products.” Fast-forward

just a few years, and Facebook generated US$15.5 billion in mobile ad revenue in the

fourth quarter of 2018 alone, according to their official results conference call.

The adtech/martech world boomed around this time, as the drive was on to increase

efficiency and secure better targeting at scale through the power of software. Despite

the creeping encroachment of walled gardens, launch after launch of companies

operating in digital advertising created an environment ripe for mergers and

acquisitions as players fought to build a competitive stack of solutions.

“Until 2009, Adobe was predominantly known for our leadership in delivering

amazing creative and desktop publishing solutions,” said Amy Robson, senior product

manager and evangelist for APAC at Adobe.

However, that all changed when we acquired Omniture — a surprise move into the

digital marketing space. This was the start of Adobe’s efforts to help streamline the

measurement of content and applications and position us as a real player in the

advertising space.

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The drive was on to increase efficiency and secure better targeting at scale through the

power of software.

Robson said that for the first time, advertisers could not only create great advertising

content, they could now execute and measure their advertising efforts under the

umbrella of a single company.

We have continued to invest with acquisitions such as Efficient Frontier (2011),

Demdex (2011), and TubeMogul (2016) – creating a combined offering that acts as the

only independent solution providing agnostic ad-buying, audience activation and

measurement options, that is tightly integrated with marketing technology.

Amazon emerged as another sleeping giant of the ad industry. Quietly, the

e-commerce beast ascended to become the third-largest player in digital advertising

in the U.S., according to the Wall Street Journal. They may have a single-digit

percentage share of the market right now, but their growth shows little sign of slowing

as marketers seek valuable inventory at the exact point when a consumer is likely to

make a purchase.

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Naomi Simson, entrepreneur, co-founder of Big Red Group, and investor on

Network Ten's Shark Tank, said finding customers (and keeping them) has never

been harder or more expensive. As algorithms change on social networks almost

minute-by-minute, and as Google shifts into gear with its advertising offerings, it can

be hard to keep pace.

“It’s difficult at best for the mere mortals among us to stay up to date and on top of

what is required to serve customers what they want, when and where they want

it,” Simson said.

“But with developments like AI marketing technology, this promise of brand building,

serving and acquiring customers via digital advertising, is becoming more and

more a reality.”

We’re just getting started.

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Simson said she looks to the “experience economy” as the future, with the brands

that align with customer values and are authentic and consistent about the customer

experience, winning out.

“Loyalty cannot be bought. It is to be earned by consistently delivering on the

‘experience.’ Retail specifically is becoming all about the experience, and this passion

for experiences is impacting retailers both online and offline—customer journeys are

far more complicated.” Simson said.

Simson argues that AI is an almost essential weapon in this era of marketing as hyper-

personalisation and first-class customer experience expectations rise to the fore.

“At a time when attention is the new currency, brands must offer something of value

every single time they interact with a customer. AI can enable this like never

before,” Simson said.

Digital advertising has had its ups and downs over its formative years, suffering

several setbacks on the way to finding its feet as a mature adult.

Just like the pile of discarded socks at the corner of a teenager’s bedroom, the laundry

list of challenges facing the ad industry began to mount up, and some still linger

today. Those issues range from advertisers unwittingly funding questionable,

offensive, or even illegal content on video platforms to serious concerns around

privacy and the ongoing discussion around viewability.

But there is light at the end of the tunnel. The industry has begun to band together to

address those challenges as the sector looks to better position itself for the next 25

years of growth and success.

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Gemma AndersonHead of Performance and Growth, Deakin University

“The biggest challenges we will have is how do we create compelling assets and creative that is going to resonate with person A and be slightly

different for person B.”

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In the early days of digital advertising, creative was often limited to translating a

print campaign into a digital format, with little alteration. It often didn’t suit the

medium well, but it was the easiest and fastest way to meet the requirements of the time.

Creative success was measured solely by hits—a metric that remains important today.

Yet only when these hits are combined with other measurement metrics can

marketers really determine the true success of their campaigns.

According to many industry leaders we interviewed, big advancements in digital

creative didn’t develop much until the first dotcom bust in the early 2000s. Unlike

traditional channels, there wasn’t yet a widely held perception that digital needed

strong creative to be effective.

One of the first steps in the development of digital creative was the introduction of

animation. Looking back at the clumsy, initial attempts to put animation into practice

may make us smile today, but back then, dancing babies marked a massive leap

toward transforming static images into ones that could actually tell very basic stories.

Back to the drawing board.

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The Shareability factor.

The advent of mobile unlocked more creative opportunities for digital advertising.

And we’re not just talking QR codes. Marketers can utilise the features of the phone—

like the gyroscope—letting users control the action of an ad by waving their device

around or making the user’s phone vibrate to highlight certain moments, like the

revving of a car engine.

Snapchat pioneered the use of phone cameras in advertising—ads that people not

only engage with, but actively share across their networks—a marketer’s dream.

Maxibon in Australia was one of the first to tap Snapchat’s branded lens offering in

2017, and within 24 hours of launching, the ‘Bon lens’ delivered a unique reach of 2.17

million people, in which 1.4 million people interacted with the filter, turning

themselves and their friends into a ‘Bon-head’.

Cuong Lam, Group Marketing Manager at Maxibon's parent company Peters Ice

Cream, oversees brand planning, strategy, and execution across key brands, including

Drumstick and Maxibon.

Lam said digital advertising strategies that serve to “put the consumer first” are

responsible for pushing the medium to the next level.

“It used to be that brands wanted consumers to click on their banners, but we know

that doesn’t happen, so integrating e-commerce, video, or gaming into display

banners has created a whole new level of convenience, making it far easier to meet

consumers’ needs,” Lam said.

“In addition, the digitalisation and delivery of must-see content to consumers

wherever and whenever they are consuming content has made it more convenient.”

Today, advertisers understand that creative in digital is vital to campaign success and

that they can also monitor, change, and adjust creative assets in real time. If an ad isn’t

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working, they can update the ad with different creative based on first- and third-party

data inputs that are tailored to the desires and needs of the target consumer—and

assets can be delivered by an advertising platform that gets that ad in front of viewers

within seconds.

Cuong Lam Group Marketing Manager, Peters Ice Cream

“Integrating e-commerce, video or gaming into display banners has created a whole new

level of convenience.”

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Lam explained how digital advertising has been the perfect and effective interface

for consumers to engage with Maxibon as it allows the brand’s “cheeky and

irreverent personality” to come out.

“Digital advertising allows for brands to be nimble and respond in real time to

competitive or cultural events, which is a key driver of brand relevancy,” he said.

Building iconic brands in digital advertising alone is a reality, but there’s a huge onus

on the creative to become iconic itself, Anderson said.

“Not enough brands invest time and energy, both from a strategy perspective but also

from a creative strategy perspective, in terms of making their digital advertising

impactful,” she said.

We can see clearly now.

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“For a lot of brands trying to cut through in what's a very cluttered and noisy

advertising space, digital might be their only way to do it. There are alot of brands out

there that don't have the budget for TV, so they're going to have to do it anyway.”

In another 25 years’ time we won’t still be saying the word ‘digital’, with Anderson

firmly believing it should be phased out now.

“I don't understand why we still call it digital advertising because it is just advertising,”

Anderson said.

Deakin University no longer has a digital marketing department as this only served

to create a very siloed approach since everyone buys or manages some type of

digital channel, Anderson explained.

“You're also starting to see that internally in a lot of marketing organisations the word

'digital' in those roles is fading out,” she said.

“The same will happen when it comes to advertising—it's just a matter of time.”

The Aus factor.

Anderson said there are certainly some unique challenges about how Australia’s

population is dispersed, meaning that you have to be smarter in terms of the

channels you use and buy.

Without the ability to hire a specialist in every channel, Anderson said people work

across a multitude of channels which means they can better understand how things

fit together.

“We don't have a big population like the U.S. We have to learn how to do a lot

more—meaning that we have had to be more efficient and do a lot more with a lot

less,” she said.

“That creates a bit of pressure on us, but I think we've all risen to the occasion as well.”

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Cowlishaw added that Australia is fortunate to have some of the most sophisticated

advertisers in the world.

“I've worked on three continents and I can safely say some of our advertisers that

we work with today are far and away more ahead in their thinking, in their data

regulation, in the way they treat their customers and in the way they create

sustainable growth for their business,” he said.

“You have to give a lot of credit to brands in Australia for really driving those initiatives.”

Asking the right questions.

It wasn’t until around 2011 and 2012 that viewability—a measure of whether an ad

has the opportunity to be seen by a real human—became a key industry topic.

Viewability was a response to help people understand that just because you were

buying cheap, it didn’t mean that you were buying real human engagement. An

impression and a click were totally different to someone actually watching the video.

At the same time, some unscrupulous publishers were also creating inventory that

played video below the fold, or somewhere ridiculous like inside a tiny banner,

which was obviously not effective for the advertiser.

To combat the issue, TubeMogul coined the phrase “fake pre-roll”—the name given

to ads that play at the beginning of a video—and launched a site to call out bad

players in 2011.

While 100 percent viewability is still sometimes trumpeted as a metric to aim for,

most practitioners believe it is a false metric.

Today, viewability continues to be one of the metrics that advertisers use to optimize

their campaigns. In less than a decade, it has shifted the game from one that looked

purely in terms of CPMs to one that values viewable CPMs.

Viewability isn’t perfect. Advertisers need to be aware of the subtle change in the

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language when defining the metric. It doesn’t guarantee a view, only that there was

an opportunity for the consumer to view the ad. Customers can still open up another

tab or scroll away. That has nothing to do with the publisher—just as a viewer

deciding to visit the restroom during a TV ad break has nothing to do with a network.

Today, demand-side platforms (DSPs) advise advertisers to use technology in order

to establish a baseline viewability figure. They can then improve that metric over

time through constant testing. Metrics will always vary depending on target

consumers and inventory bought—but DSPs (alongside independent, third-party

verification and viewability analysis firms) can guide advertisers along the right path.

Cowlishaw said that brands wanting to get their heads around inventory and

measurement shows a clear intent that the industry is really advancing.

“When you think about why they're doing this, it's because there's a realisation of the

importance of the role digital has to play in this marketplace in driving really great

experiences for brands—giving them longer lasting relationships with their

customers,” Cowlishaw said.

“It's also fundamentally driven by a need for advertisers to have control. Everything

they're focused on is how do they get better control of their brand and greater

knowledge of the data that they're generating in advertising to help them improve

the experiences that they're delivering.”

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Just as the industry thought it was tackling the viewability issue, ad fraud reared its

ugly head in a big way. Irregular and suspicious patterns began appearing in the

ecosystem, such as unheard-of single web domains suddenly generating massive

amounts of traffic. DSPs also began noticing single IP addresses (which the industry

associates with a single user) having the ability to watch hundreds of videos in

mere seconds.

As with viewability, new companies were formed to combat and protect advertisers

from non-human traffic generated by ad fraud scammers who often set up elaborate

schemes including “botnets” of infected consumer devices to siphon ad dollars off

for themselves.

Clear and present danger in ad fraud.

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There are some signs that industry initiatives like these are working. A report from the

Association of National Advertisers and ad fraud detection firm White Ops, cited by

the Wall Street Journal, estimated that the money advertisers lost to ad fraud would

be reduced from US$7.2 billion in 2016 to US$6.5 billion in 2017.

Recently, also reported by the Wall Street Journal, companies including White Ops,

Google, Facebook, Verizon, and Oath joined in an effort to unravel the work of

scammers, which led to the U.S. Department of Justice charging eight people with

operating alleged ad fraud schemes in 2018.

As advertisers realise that the adage that “you get what you pay for” does ring true, premium

publishers are positioning themselves to meet the growing need for quality inventory.

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Despite the demand by advertisers for an ecosystem that is open and transparent,

some large publishers are continuing to build walls to shift ad dollars into

their greenery.

The walled gardens of the ecosystem restrict access to certain inventory from

third-party players, often adding sweeteners to the pot in order to encourage direct

purchase by advertisers. And, while they do offer data, technology providers warn of a

lack of transparency over how those assets are compiled—and whether marketers’

campaign goals really are being reached. Top marketers like Unilever’s Keith Weed

and Procter & Gamble’s Marc Pritchard have previously compared this issue to those

platforms “grading their own homework,” as reported by Campaign.

We're going to need a bigger ladder.

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Independent, third-party verification is recommended (whether working with a

walled garden or not), as the inventory available at the beginning of the month when

you ink a deal may not necessarily be the same as what’s floating around at the end.

Georgia Brammer, Country Director at Australian independent ad server Flashtalking,

said as large players such as Google and Facebook continually strengthen their walled

gardens, advertisers are faced with a decision to reduce their reliance on these

ecosystems or to accept the lack of transparency and interoperability that comes with

these closed stack offerings.

“It is becoming increasingly difficult to leverage and incorporate independent third

parties for a number of critical functions,” she said.

“These include simple tasks like verifying delivery, reach, and frequency at the user

level; analysing cross-channel engagement or performing multi-touch attribution

outside the player's own tools; or even incorporating offline sales data and third party

device graphs for cross device analysis.”

Brammer said using Google’s integrated stack as an example, while it offers ease and

convenience, it comes at a “huge cost” of data transparency, objectivity, and

independence.

She said for advertisers who value control of their own data, or who believe in checks

and balances and wish to separate media sales from delivery and measurement,

there are alternatives.

“Leading DMPs, DSPs, and ad-serving platforms are more and more interoperable

with open, integrated ad stacks that minimise friction and eliminate conflicts of

interest,” she said.

“By joining forces, these service providers enable advertisers to realise the promise of

data-driven marketing, while maintaining flexibility, independence and ownership

of their data.”

32

1995

$150B

$300B

$450B

$600B

1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 2019

Lorem ipsum

Digital: 22%

Digital: 43%

Digital: 4%

Total: $329B

Total: $413B

Total: $523B

Other: 25.7%

Verizon: 3.4%

Microso�: 4.1%

Amazon: 6.8%

Facebook: 21.8%

Google: 38.2%

Percent of total digital ad spending.

Source: eMarketer

Global CEO of WPP, Mark Read, also has concerns about the excessive power

of the big two.

“I think Facebook and Google get a disproportionate share of the advertising dollars in

part because the platforms work, in part because it’s simpler for clients to spend

money with them—through companies like our own—than it is to spend it more

broadly,” Read said.

He added that another part of the reason is a lack of trust in other parts of the online

ad ecosystem.

“I think those are things that we need to fix,” he said.

33

Taking back control in privacy.

It’s not just concerns about the volume of publishers that advertisers will have to

work with—worries about data ownership and ad frequency also come into play

when ad buyers have to spread funds across multiple siloed publishers.

Ideally, an independent DSP should prove to be the type of single-platform solution

that advertisers turn to to cut through the barriers as this offers no threat to

publishers, since it doesn't own any of its own inventory.

But as major e-commerce players like Amazon make aggressive ad moves, such

as with their recent acquisition of Sizmek's ad server business and dynamic content

optimisation solution, this sees even more walled gardens bed in.

Only time will tell if this solution is realised and embraced.

Even before the Facebook Cambridge Analytica data-breach scandal exploded on

front pages in 2018, concerns surrounding data privacy had been growing steadily

since 2001. And this became especially concerning as more and more companies

were being hacked.

It’s now becoming even clearer that data security is more important than ever as

consumers find out that something as private as their menstrual cycle timing may

have been shared without their knowledge, as reported by the Wall Street Journal.

Privacy regulation has been top of mind for almost every corporation since the

introduction of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)—the European

Union’s sometimes vague, often misinterpreted regulation to put the power of data

ownership back into the hands of the people. GDPR, which came into force in May

2018, is designed to restrict personal data access only to companies and individuals

who have clearly and transparently asked for it—and who have received consent

from the individuals whose data is being requested.

34

“We have been around 25 years, which can sometimes seem like a really short time or a long

time, depending on who you are, but that challenge to keep making that consumer experience better

and get the creative guys more excited about what they can do.”

Gai Le Roy IAB Australia CEO

Le Roy said major industry shake-ups, such as GDPR’s impact in market and changes

in tracking, give the opportunity to step back and look at how we're going to build

something even better that consumers understand.

“When I was trying to flog in digital and trying to explain that you need to think about

the strategy across platform, when it was 1 percent of the market, the EPs at Channel

Nine were not having a bar of it."

“So we've just got to keep an open mind on the future and I guess be cynical at times

but open to new opportunities."

Still, some advertising practitioners complain that while they understand the

principles behind GDPR, the actual wording is confusing and hard to put into practice.

Many believe that the main challenge of the policy is that there isn’t a deep enough

understanding and clarity around what people mean by the word “consent.”

35

This in turn opens up gray areas that certain industries, technology companies, or

websites will attempt to capitalise on in order to serve ads and use people’s data

until a broader consensus is reached.

In Europe—and increasingly in the United States with the emergence of California’s

new data privacy law that is set to take effect in 2020—advertisers are sensing that

a single, clear, and global framework would actually benefit the entire industry, rather

than a tapestry of different regulations across the globe.

GDPR and data protection will only become bigger priorities this year and beyond

as the industry moves away from a period of wiggle room and into a zone where

companies face fines and legislative issues.

Earlier this year, Google became the first major company to be hit with a big GDPR

penalty after France’s data protection authority ordered the advertising giant to pay a

US$57 million fine. The ruling was a sign that the big players are firmly in the sights of

regulators—with others sensing more action is to come.

36

There's a better way to get personal.

Ronson said marketers were no doubt “completely dazzled” by digital and the

ability to measure and became far too rational.

“We assumed that humans started to behave rationally when the internet was born.

We were so wrong, and the growth and omnipresence of social media demonstrates

that,” Ronson said.

“Digital, at the end of the day, is the channel—not the message. We need to use it as

part of an integrated and compelling campaign to change consumer behaviour.”

White agrees that the industry has come a long way, especially with data, but the

issue is data overload—and the danger is clients can have all this information but

37

don’t know how to treat it and what to do with it all.

“We can go a long way with AI but perhaps we need to think more or do more

research with humans before creating tech that makes money first and doesn't

consider social implications or knock on effects,” he said.

Anderson said "sometimes there's no value in going too granular with data and

research, but there's a huge opportunity in terms of the depths of strategies in

personalisation."

“The biggest challenges we will have is creating compelling assets and creative that is

going to resonate with person A and be slightly different for person B and be slightly

different for person C,” Anderson said.

“We've got so much opportunity now to become a lot more targeted and relevant, but

in terms of how we develop our strategies, a lot of creative strategies still only talk

about one or two audiences. But our ability these days is to target 1,000 different

audiences."

Cowlishaw said brands have done a fantastic job of hiring the right people into their

businesses, but he agreed that the industry can be guilty of overcomplicating the

realities of digital advertising.

“We talk a lot about data, programmatic, and real-time bidding, but the reality of what

we're trying to do is connect a brand to a consumer. This means delivering a great

experience to the person we want to turn into a customer, who we want to turn into a

loyalist,” he said.

“That hasn't changed since the birth of advertising and it’s how brands grow, simply

connecting and having good relationships and growing those relationships.”

In the early days, audience targeting was a pretty basic proposition with companies

like Sensis and BlueSkyFrog making making headway.

38

“Money has flowed into the big global players and the walled-garden approach

hasn't allowed anyone really to start linking that directly to other media

investments and other measurements.”Mark FrainCEO, MCN

Someone who wanted to target home buyers would think, REA Group, and would

buy inventory on that site. But REA only had a certain amount of inventory available,

and that marketer was bound to be competing for those ads against hundreds, if not

thousands, of other brands.

This is where the importance of audience targeting comes into its own—it’s what you

do in order to guarantee reach to your desired customer without blowing the bank or

being disappointed every time you launch a campaign. It also opens up undervalued

inventory that you might not have thought of before but that still gets into the eyes of

the people you are trying to engage with. This, obviously, has benefits to both the

advertiser and the publisher, who can finally monetise inventory they may have

struggled to sell in times past.

In the past, ad networks were the first step toward broadening inventory in order to

target specific audiences. Ad networks did this by packaging bundles of similar titles

or publishers that targeted specific audiences. For example, advertisers could

purchase sports publisher packages or packages appealing to technology lovers.

While this was a step in the right direction, it still wasn’t as granular as

advertisers needed.

39

Today, audiences can be targeted in many different ways. They can be purchased on

contextual elements. They can be targeted based on age, gender, location, purchase

intent, or past purchase behavior. Depending on the different partners used, targeting

can be based on whether a consumer is in the market for a product like a new car or

if they’re ready to renew their insurance. Such data can be anonymized, aggregated,

and provided in bulk for an advertiser to use in their advertising campaigns.

There are a variety of different tools to measure and confirm the effectiveness of

audience targeting. A partner such as Nielsen can validate whether the age and

gender matches you targeted correspond to what you’ve been told about the

audience. There are also ways to match targeting against offline sales data. Partners

like Quantium and Data Republic can provide matching and overlap reports to see if

you really were reaching intended loan purchasers or insurance shoppers.

Topic, or contextual, targeting is another way you can reach audiences, often used

around premium, non-specific inventory (such as the News.com.au, Nine.com.au,

Daily Mail Australia). This format uses technology to understand the text content of

the page around the ad and then serves a relevant message to users. For example, if

an advertiser wants to target a user that has shown signals as a travel intender, they

may serve an ad on a page in the travel section of the Sydney Morning Herald website

that’s talking about airlines, flights, ferries, hotels, or car rentals.

40

With more platforms becoming connected, there are more ways to measure

how ads are performing as consumers switch across devices. That presents a

plethora of opportunities—and challenges.

“There are too many metrics that don’t actually correlate to desired outcomes,”

said Cowlishaw.

To determine effectiveness, advertisers need to start thinking more in line with how

their overall advertising plans are impacting lift in various areas. Is digital advertising

helping to drive incremental customers to particular websites? Is it able to drive

net-new customers through concepts such as retargeting? Is it having a positive

impact on the perception of my brand?

Measurement is getting better.

41

Simple measures like impressions, clicks, and conversions are still incredibly

important, but capabilities are now in place to go deeper. But how much is too much?

And when does measurement start getting performed just for the sake of it—and for

the benefit of the measurement provider?

In a video environment, for example, an advertiser may be adamant that they have

two goals for every campaign—a high click-through rate and a high completion rate.

It’s possible to measure both of these metrics, but if you have a high click-through

rate, your completion rate is actually going to be quite low. When an ad is clicked

on—usually considered a strong indicator of campaign success and intelligent

targeting—the consumer is unlikely to return to the ad just to ensure they watch it all

the way through.

Frain said the level of data and analytics that clients can get from digital campaigns

has helped drive the growth of digital. He said data and justification are important,

but part of the digital measurement has actually become overwhelming for clients.

“This has fuelled growth, but the biggest challenge and therefore the biggest

opportunity is connecting that digital measurement to other parts of the media

campaign or advertising campaign that you're running,” Frain said.

42

“Money has flowed into the big global players and the walled-garden approach hasn't

allowed anyone really to start linking that directly to other media investments and

other measurements.

“I think the big challenge is how we take all the industry bodies, the IAB, Think TV,

and the out-of-home industry and knit all of those together. Then you'd start to get

robust digital measurement across many more media types than just digital as per

the definition it is today.”

It’s not just about what you measure, but how long you measure it for. With digital

advertising, advertisers have tended to focus more on optimising the short-term

performance of their campaigns.

Longer measurement frameworks are starting to gain popularity. Longer-term

measurement windows take into account the impact of campaigns promoting

high-consideration but lower-frequency purchases. Instead of thinking in short,

month-by-month cycles, it forces the marketer to understand and orchestrate a

campaign that drips through 18 or 24 months—which matches the length of time

someone might spend researching a big-ticket purchase like a car or kitchen

refurbishment.

Still, for many online advertisers, the shorter term–focused click-through rate still

reigns supreme as the measurement metric of choice. Cowlishaw traces the

popularity of clicks back to the dawn of paid search.

“In the early days of paid search campaigns, I would talk to Pizza Hut about buying the

word ‘pizza’ on Google. We could then take their budget and tell them exactly how

many clicks they were going to receive and project the number of pizzas sold for their

budget. No other medium had ever been this accountable before,”Cowlishaw said.

Marketers were hooked on this new ability to measure and monetise. But they were

missing something—paid search was the end result of all the hard work marketers

had been doing to build the brands.

43

Stephanie TullyQantas CMO

“The extension of customer direct marketing via programmatic into digital channels was a significant milestone for

Qantas.”

“Paid search is the success metric that tells you whether all of your advertising” and

not just the search budget delivered, Cowlishaw said. “Because of this, I think of clicks

and click-through rates as a highly overinflated metric to base off of.”

Stephanie Tully, executive manager group brand and marketing at Qantas, said it’s

vital for the airline to be present where its current and future customers are.

Given the digitisation of the consumer landscape, Tully describes the channel as

“critical for Qantas as a brand,” explaining that as a marketer she’s excited to see the

continued evolution of digital advertising in a rapidly changing digital ecosystem.

“Digital advertising has progressed enormously since its introduction in the early 1990s

and no doubt will continue to evolve,” Tully said.

“The extension of customer direct marketing via programmatic into digital channels

was a significant milestone for Qantas in how we engage with our customers,

particularly given the strength of our loyalty program.”

44

Stephanie Tully, executive manager group brand and marketing at Qantas, said

it’s vital for the airline to be present where its current and future customers are.

Given the digitisation of the consumer landscape, Tully describes the channel as

“critical for Qantas as a brand,” and said as a marketer she’s excited to see the

continued evolution of digital advertising in a rapidly changing digital ecosystem.

“Digital advertising has progressed enormously since its introduction in the early

1990s and no doubt will continue to evolve,” Tully said.

“The extension of customer direct marketing via programmatic into digital channels

was a significant milestone for Qantas in how we engage with our customers,

particularly given the strength of our loyalty program.”

The next level.

45

Marketers are doing it themselves.

In-housing is a movement that’s getting a lot of attention. Especially in recent years as

more advertisers create internal teams for traditionally outsourced functions like

media buying and creative development. But what most brands really want is greater

control over data and decisions on marketing spend—a point often missed in the

industry literature. Most brands don't have the budget or talent to cultivate expertise in

the wide array of what the agency ecosystem has to offer, be it strategy, creative,

content, attribution, contracts, or more.

Programmatic functions are one area where brands prefer greater transparency and

control over data and spend, and they’re either fully or partially bringing that in-house.

For example, Foxtel, CommBank, CUB and L’Oréal have taken the ad-buying function

in-house or are currently doing so.

46

The trend towards brands bringing their media investments in-house is driven by a

demand for more control. This is particularly evident when you look at the average

DSPs used by advertisers. According to eMarketer, this has gone from more than seven

in April 2016, to four in 2018.

Brands typically choose one of two different ways to take in-house control of their

digital advertising spend. Some opt to bring everything in-house, wanting complete

control over their digital advertising spend and execution. Others sign deals directly with

their tech suppliers, instructing agencies on exactly how to use the tech. That way, the

advertiser can benefit from the deep knowledge and industry relationships owned by

the agency while also maintaining the transparency and agnostic buying power of the

technology provider.

The biggest challenge to both scenarios is talent. There is now a huge talent gap as

demands from technology providers, brands, agencies, and competing companies like

Google and Facebook go after an ever-diminishing pond of experienced programmatic

minnows and fish. On the surface, bringing everything in-house might sound appealing,

but you’ll either have to throw a lot of worms into the water or paddle furiously if you

want to land and retain your talent catches.

Meanwhile, the client-agency relationship is far from dead. As CEO of the world’s largest

agency network (WPP), Mark Read says a growing number of his agencies are putting

their staff onsite within their clients’ companies: “I think that agencies can uniquely bring

creativity, technology, and people who understand how to help clients grow and

prepare it for the future. That’s what we mean when we talk about being a creative

transformation company. I think clients are much better served working with their

agency partners or working with WPP to put our people on the client premises.”

47

“Agencies can uniquely bring creativity, technology, and people

who understand how to help clients grow and prepare it for the future.”

Mark ReadCEO, WPP

48

The next 25 years.

49

We’re now on the final leg of our whistle-stop tour through the last quarter-

century of digital advertising. But what does the future hold? By 2044, outside

the industry we may finally see marvels like fusion power nearing commercial

availability, virtual telepathy becoming the preferred way to communicate, and

China’s space program rivaling NASA's.

While there’s much speculation about what advertising will look like between now

and then, the next couple of years will be pivotal. And all signs point to an

evolution spurt.

The industry will need to come together to overcome challenges over privacy, how

data gets used, and what it will take to make changes that put consumers first. We’ll

need to find workarounds for legacy, walled data gardens that make it difficult for

marketers and advertisers to know if their work is resonating with customers.

Jellie describes the potential of digital advertising as being “unlimited.”

“It is evolving and will adapt to regulation, media fragmentation, and any other

challenges that are laid down,” he said.

White said we still cannot underestimate the role of adblockers as generation upon

generation get used to no ad breaks on platforms such as Netflix and Stan.

“In general, the majority of ads are boring, predictable, skippable, and a waste of

money that won’t deliver sales that the CFO wants. Clients need to wake up, stop

ticking boxes, and roll the dice more to get rewarded,” White said.

Alongside the inevitable rise of adblockers, Cowlishaw said there will be a greater

respect for consumers as the pay-off between receiving an ad experience and, for

The next couple of years will be pivotal. And all signs point to an evolution spurt.

50

example, being able to read free content on the internet, is something people are

becoming more comfortable with.

“The reality is we may see less advertising space, but we're going to require a higher

level of accountability that exists behind that advertising space because every ad

impression is going to count,” Cowlishaw said.

“Every ad impression is going to matter, so how you treat and deliver that impression,

potentially still through display, is going to be increasingly more important in terms of

how you deliver against brand goals.”

Anderson sees a very connected future for digital advertising, with the next frontier

focused on getting the traditional channels in line with what digital is doing as it’s “so

much more sophisticated.”

“We still have a long way to go when it comes to treating TV buying in the same way

we treat digital advertising buying, but we’re starting to make significant advances

around connected TV,” Anderson said.

“Now it's a case of all of those traditional above-the-line channels and platforms

starting to catch up to be capable of doing the same things that digital can do.

“We need to bring that type of thinking, strategy, targeting, personalisation, and

connection with attribution to those more traditional channels so that we can buy

them with more confidence.”

New growth is also being predicted in formats such as audio. The emergence of

popular podcasts, combined with high-quality inventory options on streaming

platforms like Spotify, has driven the consumer demand for audio platforms and

opened up new creative territory for advertisers.

Looking to the future of digital advertising, Frain, who said premium digital content

from local publishers will continue to grow exponentially, sees the increased

commercialisation opportunity as an exciting next step.

51

“It's always been the case with digital and with media consumption changing ahead of

the ad product capability,” Frain explained.

“We are always steps behind the consumer and as we catch up, we start to monetise

that audience. One of the most exciting things is we're never going to catch up, but

the quantum of gap that we've been behind is now starting to shorten so we're able

to monetise those movements way, way faster.”

Frain said a surefire pattern for years to come will be digital having a much bigger

impact on some of the established media channels, therefore making them arguably

more powerful than they've been in the past.

Frain said the nature of the client relationship will change most in the next 25 years,

with that relationship taking more of “business partners–style” shape.

From interpreting consumer trends to optimising customer touchpoints, to creating

better customer service bots, Simson believes AI can and will be applied to a

staggering breadth of marketing activities.

“That wide range of applications is a testament to AI’s remarkable ability to break

down longstanding departmental silos and drive true omnichannel campaigns,

aggregating customer data from countless channels spanning the entire digital

ecosystem,” Simson said.

“This is something simply not achievable by humans at the pace required in an

economy where customer attention is the new currency.

“Beyond all the talk, discussion, and ideas — we must find a better way to reduce the

cost of finding customers, audiences, and prospects.”

From talking about sustainable food credentials or everyday value to timely recipes

and the “what am I going to cook” moments, Ronson said for Coles, digital advertising

is important as it helps it serve up relevant content in a timely manner to help

its customers.

52

In terms of what she’s most looking forward to in the years ahead, Ronson said to see

brands continue to push the boundaries and be brave.

“To emotionally engage, to change behaviour, to sell products and experiences or

positively impact society,” she said.

“That's not just restricted to digital, it’s across all marketing. Which is the way to look

at digital—as part of an integrated approach.”

From digital out-of-home and addressable TV to radio streaming, Le Roy agreed,

adding that the digitalisation of other media channels will continue to ramp up, as

well as the impact of voice-demand systems.

“Now, with connected TV and voice, the advancements and opportunities are not

going to stop—which is why I think most people who are still in the industry are

because it keeps evolving and the expenditure keeps going up because there

are new formats.

“The really blunt facts are that digital is where consumers are spending their

time,” Le Roy said.

“That is where the brands of the future are going to be built because that's where

consumers are, consuming messages and interacting.”

53

Here's to 25 more incredible years of digital evolution. We can't wait to see

what the future has in store.

Learn more about

Adobe Advertising Cloud

on Adobe.com.

54

Sources

Adrienne LaFrance, “The First-Ever Banner Ad on the Web,” The Atlantic, April 21, 2017.

"Advertising Expenditure Forecasts," Zenith, December 2018

“Advertising Revenue of Google from 2001 to 2018 (in Billion U.S. Dollars),” Statista, 2019.

Alexandra Bruell, “Ad Fraud Declines Offer Hope as Marketers Fight Sophisticated Bots,” Wall Street Journal, May 24, 2017.

Amy Robson, personal interview with Pippa Chambers, May 2019.

“Average Number of DSPs Used by US Advertisers, Jan 2016–April 2018,” eMarketer, May 2018.

"ig Ad hits one millionth viewer," AdNews, July 2005.

Cuong Lam, personal interview with Pippa Chambers, May 2019.

“Fourth Quarter and Full Year 2018 Results Conference Call,” Facebook, January 30, 2019.

Gai Le Roy, personal interview with Pippa Chambers, May 2019.

Gemma Anderson, personal interview with Pippa Chambers, May 2019.

Georgia Brammer, personal interview with Pippa Chambers, May 2019.

Hugh Jellie, personal interview with Pippa Chambers, May 2019.

I-Hsien Sherwood, ”Too Much ‘Complexity’ and ‘Crap’ Hinders Agency-Brand Relationships, Says P&G CMO,” Campaign, April 4, 2017.

Jillian D’Onfro, “10 Years Ago Facebook Had ‘The Most Inglorious Launch Moment in History’ but It Changed Everything,” Business Insider, September 6, 2016.

John Battelle, personal interview with Ryan Levitt, February 2019.

Lara O’Reilly and Laura Stevens, “Amazon, With Little Fanfare, Emerges as an Advertising Giant,” Wall Street Journal, November 27, 2018.

Lisa Ronson, personal interview with Pippa Chambers, May 2019.

Mark Frain, personal interview with Pippa Chambers, May 2019.

Mark Read, personal interview with Ryan Levitt, February 2019.

Naomi Simson, personal interview with Pippa Chambers, May 2019.

Phil Cowlishaw, personal interview with Ryan Levitt, February 2019, and Pippa Chambers, May 2019.

Rob Barry and Suzanne Vranica, “U.S. Charges Eight With Online-Ad Fraud,” Wall Street Journal, November 27, 2018.

Sam Schechner and Mark Secada, “You Give Apps Sensitive Personal Information. Then They Tell Facebook,” Wall Street Journal, February 22, 2019.

Simon White, personal interview with Pippa Chambers, May 2019.

Stephanie Tully, personal interview with Pippa Chambers, May 2019.

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