November 2014

Pashubandha 2014 Volume No : 3 Issue : 11

Sunilchandra. U., Ravikumar.C1 and Santhosh.P.S2 Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology

Veterinary College, Bidar.1 Veterinary College, Hassan. 2 Dept. of VMD, Veterinary College, Bengaluru.

(Email : [email protected] )

Common behavioral disorders noticed in dogs and cats include aggression, house soiling,

excessive vocalization, nocturnal restlessness, separation anxiety, fears, noise phobias, cognitive

dysfunction syndrome (neurodegenerative disorder), repetitive and compulsive disorders. Pharmacological

treatment for any abnormal behavioral disorders/conditions in pets is most useful when combined with

behavior modification. Factors associated with animal behavioral disorders like etiology, predisposing

factors, condition and the owner’s cooperation should be taken in to consideration before selecting a

suitable pharmacological agent for behavioral abnormalities in small animals

• The potential adverse reactions of drugs can be minimized by performing a premedication

hematological examination, urinalysis, and serum biochemistry profile and by taking a complete

behavioral and medical history.

• Majority of the drugs prescribed for behavioural problems in pets are unlicensed and not registered

for veterinary use and are used in an extra-label fashion., with few exceptions.

• Clients must be made aware of this and informed consent forms should be obtained before initiating

the treatment.

• Drugs should always be considered as an adjunct to behaviour modification therapy, not as a

replacement/ substitute.

• Client compliance is important as behaviour modifying drugs may take up to six to eight weeks to

reach therapeutic blood concentrations.

• Drug therapy should always be gradually withdrawn.

An overview of the classes of medications used in behavioural abnormalities of dogs and cats are

shortlisted in this article.

Benzodiazepines ( BZDs):

• The agents are oxazepam, clorazepate, lorazepam, temazepam, clonazepam, diazepam and

alprazolam, the last two being most commonly indicated for treatment of anxiety related behaviour

problems like urine spraying and short treatment for sound phobias (eg: fireworks, thunderstorms).

Newsletter Date : 30 November 2014 Volume No: 3 Issue : 11

Veterinary College, Bengaluru Monthly e-Bulletin

• Diazepam produces short-term anxiolytic effects and at low doses diazepam retains its amnesic effects,

while at higher doses anxiolysis and sedation are achieved. Responses to diazepam are highly

individual, so that dose response must be titrated.

• Diazepam should be given prior to an anticipated fearful or phobic event. Adverse effects are- ataxia,

hyper excitability and disinhibition.

• Alprazolam may also be used in advance or given after a phobic event in order to impair the dog’s

memory of it. It may therefore be used to block the effects of unanticipated phobic events in order to

prevent them from having an emotional impact on the animal in the future.

• Contraindicated in states of hepatic and renal impairment and for long term use .

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs):

• Selegiline is used for the treatment of behavioural disorders with an emotional origin, which includes

fears and phobias.

• It reduces fearfulness, increases exploratory behaviour and has positive effects on cognition even in

healthy animals.

• It takes 4-8 weeks to begin to become effective, and is a useful adjunct to behavioural therapy,

especially in individuals that are frequently exposed to noise events, show signs of a generalisation or

are inhibited in situations when they are fearful or anxious

Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs):

• Clomipramine and amitryptilline are the TCAs licensed for use in veterinary medicine., commonly

used for separation anxiety, anxiety-related aggression, urination due to submission or excitement,

allergy-related pruritus, urine marking and hyper vocalization.

• Side effects: short term lethargy or sedation, mild and intermittent vomiting which is usually transient

and increases or decreases in appetite.

• Antihistaminic effect of these agents may be a useful adjunct in controlling pruritus due to atopy and

food allergies.

• Contraindicated in animals with seizures, urinary retention or history of cardiac arrhythmias and

within two weeks of administration of a MAOI

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs):

• Fluoxetine, sertraline and fluvoxamine are used for treating psychogenic alopecia, allergy-related

pruritus, anxiety related conditions, dominance-related aggression, fearful behaviours,

obsessive-compulsive behaviours, and urine marking.

• Fluoxetine is approved drug in dogs, for inter-dog aggression and the treatment of

obsessive-compulsive disorders in dogs. It reduces the clearance of diazepam, its active metabolite

nordiazepam and alprazolam, so concurrent use should be avoided.

Azapirones:

• Buspirone is the only member, advocated for treatment of mild to moderate anxiety related problems

and urine spraying in dogs and cats.

• Contraindicated in case of renal, hepatic impairment, epileptics, allergic reactions and caution is

needed as treatment can lead to an increase in aggression as it may decrease the inhibitory effects of

fear.

• It is ineffective in cases such as sound phobias or separation anxiety in dogs.

Pashubandha 2014 Volume No : 3 Issue : 01 Pashubandha 2014 Volume No : 3 Issue : 11

Beta blockers:

• Propranolol and pindolol are, indicated in treatment of situational anxieties in dogs and cats, used

before the anticipated situation occurs. They are contraindicated in animals with cardiac disease,

hypotension, and bronchospasm.

Antiepileptics

• These are the mood-stabilizing drugs, primarily indicated in those cases where epileptic activity is in the

etiology of the condition .

• These agents ( phenobarbitone, carbamazepine, and valproic acid) are unrelated chemical compounds

that are used in human medicine to treat bipolar disorder, impulsivity, emotional reactivity, and

aggression.

• Carbamazepine has been used in cats to decrease fear-related aggression against people, but it may

paradoxically increase aggression against same species.

• Lithium (75 mg total dose, bid) has been used to treat dominance-related aggression and psychotic

behavior (random air-snapping, pawing) in Cocker spaniels; has narrow therapeutic index exhibiting

side effects like polyuria, polydipsia, memory problems, weight gain, and diarrhoea

Hormonal preparations:

• Progestins should only be given to neutered animals and avoided in diabetes mellitus, breeding animals

and with concurrent corticosteroid use.

• The antiandrogen commonly used is delmadinone acetate.

• Cabergoline has antiprolactin effects and is recommended for the treatment of pseudopregnancy in

bitches and in spayed bitches with aggressive behaviour attributable to elelvated prolactin levels.

Antihistamines:

• They are useful in the management of mild anxiety associated with travel, inappropriate night time

activity and anxiety conditions in which pruritus plays a important role.

• Contraindicated in animals with glaucoma, urinary retention and hyperthyroidism. Diphenhydramine

and cyproheptadine are the H1receptor antagonists that are successful in some cases of spraying in

cats.

Alpha adrenoceptor stimulants:

• Phenylpropanolamine used in the treatment of sphincter mechanism incompetence in bitches and used

to manage house soiling in these cases. Increased aggression is the possible side effect.

Alpha adrenoceptor antagonists:

• Nicergoline is advocated for sleep disorders, diminished vigour and fatigue.

• It should not be administered within 24 hours of using alpha 2 agonists such as xylazine or

medetomidine.

Xanthine derivatives:

• Propentofylline is licensed for canine age related behavioural changes such as dullness, lethargy and

cognitive decline

• Response to treatment is better if combination therapy with selegiline is used.

Neuroleptics (Antipsychotic agents):

• Low potency phenothiazine tranqillisers (acepromazine, chlorpromazine, and thioridazine

hydrochloride) commonly used for sedation and restraint purpose, have side effects of sedation,


anticholinergic effects, and α-adrenergic blockade.

• High-potency agents (haloperidol, fluphenazine, trifluoperazine hydrochloride, prochlorperazine,

thiothixene, risperidone) result in less sedation and fewer autonomic side effects but commonly result in

extrapyramidal effects.

• Acepromazine is used as a short-term tranquilliser during phobic events related with fireworks and

thunderstorms and travel associated behaviour problems.

• It is believed that immobilising an animal while leaving it aware of, and emotionally responsive, to a

phobic event may intensify the experience and lead to worsening of phobia in the future.

• kHigh doses which may be required in order to sedate a dog; may result in hypovolaemia,

hyper excitability and extra pyramidal side effects

Dosage of drugs used in behavioural abnormalities of dogs and cats.


Class of drug Dog Cat

BZDs: Diazepam

Alprazolam

Oxazepam

Clonazepam

Clorazepate

0.55 -2..2 mg/kg, po

sid-bid

0.01-0.1mg/kg, po,bid

0.2 – 1.0 mg/kg, po,sid-bid

0.1 - 0.5 mg/kg, po, sid-bid

0.01-0.1 mg/kg, po, bid

0.2 - 0.4 mg/kg po ,sid-bid

0.125 - 0.25 mg/cat, po bid

0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg po, sid-bid

0.016 mg/kg sid-qid

0.125-0.25 mg/kg po bid

TCAs: Amitriptyline

Clomipramine

Nortriptyline

Doxepin

1-2mg/kg, po,bid

1-3mg/kg, po,bid

0.5 - 1.0 mg/kg po,sid-bid

3-5mg/kg.po,bid

0.5 - 1.0 mg/kg po, sid

0.25 - 0.5 mg/kg po, sid

0.5 - 1.0 mg/kg po,sid-bid

0.5-2.0mg/kg/po,bid

SSRIs: Fluoxetine

Fluvoxamine

Sertraline

Paroxetine

0.5-1mg/kg,po,sid

1-2mg/kg,po,sid

1-2mg/kg,po,bid

1mg/kg, po, sid

0.5-1 mg/kg po sid

0.25 – upto 1- 2 mg/kg, po, bid

-

1mg/kg, po, sid

Azapirones: Buspirone 1mg.kg, po,bid-tid 0.5-1mg/kg,po,bid,(< 5mg/cat)

MAOIs: Selegiline 0.5-1mg/kg, po,sid 0.5-1mg/kg, po,sid

Beta blockers: Propranolol

Pindolol

0.5-3mg/kg,po,bid

0.125-0.25mg/kg,po, bid

0.2-1mg/kg,po,bid

Antiepileptics: Phenobarbi-

tone

1-8mg/kg,po,bid 1-2.5mg/kg,bid

Carbamazepine 4-8 mg/kg,po,bid Total 25mg, po,bid

CNS stimulants: Dextroam-

phetamine

0.2-1.3mg/kg po,bid -

Methylphendiate 2-4 mg/kg,po,bid -

Dopamine2 receptor agonists

Cabergoline

5 mg/kg,po,sid

-

Alpha adrenoceptor stimu-

lants

Phenylpropanolamine

1.1-4.4 mg/kg,po,bid

1-1.5

1.1-4.4 mg

Alpha adrenoceptor antago-

nists

Nicergoline

250-500 µg /kg,po,sid

total dose-1.25mg, po, bid

po=oral, IV=intravenous, SC=subcutaneous, bid= twice a day, tid=three times a day, sid= once daily

Sunilchandra. U., Vinay.P.Tikare, Vijaykumar.M and Pradeepkumar1 Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology. 1Dept. of VPE Veterinary College, Bidar.

KVAFSU,Bidar (Email : [email protected] )

Alcohols:

• Ethyl alcohol (70% ethanol) and isopropyl alcohol (50% isopropanol)

• Isopropanol more potent than ethanol, used as a skin disinfectant and rubefacient.

• Rapid-acting antiseptic effects,wide germicidal activity,non corrosive, but-fire hazardous risk and

limited residual activity due to evaporation

• Limited activity in the presence of organic matter and not effective against bacterial or fungal spores

Acids and Alkalies:

• Strong mineral acids (HCl, H2SO4, etc) in concentrations of 0.1-1 N used as disinfectants; corrosive

action limits their usefulness.

• Acids are used as food preservatives (eg, benzoic acid), antiseptics (eg, boric acid, acetic acid),

fungicides (eg, salicyclic acid, benzoic acid),.

• Acetic acid, 1%, used in surgical dressings, and 0.25% acetic acid is a useful antibacterial agent for

irrigation of the urinary tract. At 5%, it is bactericidal to many bacteria and has been used to treat otitis

externa produced by Pseudomonas , Candida , Malassezia , or Aspergillus spp.

• Hydroxides of sodium and calcium used as disinfectants, their caustic property usually limits their

application on tissues. A 2% solution of soda lye (contains 94% sodium hydroxide in hot water) used is

a potent caustic . Calcium oxide , ie, lime (hydrated or air-slaked lime), soaked in water produces Ca

(OH)2. are used to disinfect premises.

Chlorhexidine:

• Has potent activity against gram-positive, some gram-negative bacteria but not against spores; activity

is enhanced by alcohols, quaternary ammonium compounds, and alkaline pH, and is depressed by high


Xanthine derivatives

Propentofylline

2.5-5 mg/kg,po, bid

total dose-12.5mg, po, sid

Antihistamines

Cyproheptadine

Chlorpheniramine

Diphenhydramine

0.4 - 0.5 mg/kg, po bid

220µg/kg, po,bid

0.4 - 0.5 mg/kg po bid

2 - 4mg/cat bid-tid

1-2 mg/kg, po bid-tid

2 - 4mg/cat bid-tid

Progestins: Megestrol Acetate

Medroxyprogesterone Acetate

2.5 - 5 mg ,po sid

10 mg/kg(female) ;20

(male) SC – max : 3 injec-

tions per year

2.5 - 5 mg ,po sid

10(females); 20 (males) mg/kg,

sc – max. 3 injections per year

Neuroleptics: Acepromazine 0.5-2.25mg/kg, po, tid 1.13-2.25mg/kg, po, tid

Kical and endoscopic instruments,plastic and rubber apparatus.

Cationic detergents

• Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (eg, benzalkonium chloride, benzathonium chloride,

cetylpyridinium chloride, cetyl pyridinium bromide/cetrimide) whose activity is reduced by porous or

fibrous materials (eg, fabrics, cellulose sponges) that adsorb them

• Iinactivated by anionic substances (eg, soaps, proteins, fatty acids, phosphates).

• Limited value in presence of blood and tissue debris.

• Effective against most of bacteria, some fungi , protozoa but not against viruses and spores.

• Aqueous solutions of 1:1,000 to 1:5,000 have good antimicrobial activity, especially at slightly alkaline

pH.

• When applied to skin, they may form a film under which microorganisms can survive, which limits

their reliability as antiseptics.

• Concentrations >1% are injurious to mucous membranes

Soaps

• Antibacterial potency is often enhanced by inclusion of certain antiseptics, eg, hexachlorophene,

phenols, carbanilides, or potassium iodide.

• Incompatible with cationic detergents

Chloroxylenols

• Parachlorometaxylenol and dichlorometaxylenol are broad-spectrum with more activity against

gram-positive than gram-negative bacteria.;

• Active in alkaline pH; however, contact with organic matter diminishes their activity.

• 5% chloroxylenol solution (in α-terpineol, soap, alcohol, and water) is diluted with water (1:4) for skin

sterilization and (1:25 to 1:50) for wound cleansing and irrigation of the uterus and vagina.

Preferred antiseptics

• With antifungal activity: phenols, chlorhexidine , iodine, povidone iodine, hypochlorite, cetrimide

• With antviral activity: isopropanol, ethanol, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, sodium

hyopochlorite, phenol, potassiumpermanganate, hydrogen peroxide, iodophors.

Recommended antiseptics/disinfectants for hospital/surgery: .

1. 2% Sodium hypochlorite: for gloves, syrienges, needles , blood spills on floor, floor washing. lab

glasswares

2. 2% Benzalkonium chloride: foreceps, thermometer

3. 2% Glutaraldehyde: Instruments-catheters, laryngoscope, endotracheal tubes

4. 6% Hydrogen peroxide: removal of blood clots from tubes,catheters, dressing wounds

5. Benzalkonium chloride: hand wash, foreceps, catheters , instruments

6. Phenol: disinfecting floors,walls, sanitary rooms.

7. Povidone iodine: surgical scrub, painting skin, dressing, hand wash.

8. Ethyl alcohol: antiseptic at injection site, furniture disinfection


RELATIVE EFFICACY OF CLASSES OF ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS.

*- not to be diluted in water

Dr A. S. Patil, Dr Ramesh Rathod, Dr B. N. Nagaraj and Dr L. Ranganath Veterinary Hospital, University of Agricultural Sciences Dharwad-580 005

(Email: [email protected]; [email protected] )

Under field conditions a veterinarian may have to perform surgery under various circumstances

like: to eliminate life threatening maladies ( Dystokia, Choke); removal of diseased parts (gangrenous tail

amputation, excision of tumors and yoke gall); removal of foreign bodies (Rumenotomy); to hasten

recovery process (Fracture stabilization); to make animals less dangerous (Disbudding); for economic

reasons (Castration); for aesthetic reasons (removal of supernumerary teats) and for diagnosis (Exploratory

laparotomy). Before taking up surgery he has to keep in mind the intricate relationship between himself

and others i.e. Veterinarian - Client - Patient – Government - relationship. He should strike a balance

between them.

Constraints At hospitals :

• No facilities for Inpatient housing and animal owners in most veterinary hospitals

• Complications can occur because of housing in a new environment

• Distress of transport

• Boredom in captivity at new place

• Diet may not be suitable


Classs of antiseptics/disinfectants

Type of activity Alcohol Iodine,

Iodophors

Chlorine Chlorhexidine Quaternary

ammonium

compounds

Glutaral-

dehyde

Bactericidal ++ +++ ++ +++ ++ +++

Lipid envel-

oped Virucidal

++ ++ +++ +++ + +++

Nonenveloped

virucidal

- + +++ + - ++

Sporicidal - + + - - ++

Effecive in

presence of

soap

++ +++ ++ + - ++

Effecive in

presence hard

water

+* ++ ++ + - ++

Effecive in

presence of

organic mate-

rial

- - - +++ - ++

With the bare minimum facilities available under field conditions the veterinarian can take up

various surgeries. But to get good results he has to keep certain considerations in his mind before

undertaking surgeries which relate to the owner, patient and surgeon himself.

Owner is the custodian and provider for the animal so a vet is legally answerable to him. First he

should be convinced that everything being performed is in the interest of the animal. Vet must also

consider the economic aspects of the case, surgical risks involved and sentiments of the owner. A word of

caution about the surgical risks should always be passed on to the owner and a surgical risk note should

always be attained well before surgery.

The patient should be identified properly and history collection should be given due importance.

Proper clinical examination is a must prior to surgery to assess the health status and to correct dehydration

and debility if any. Rest should be given if the animal has traveled long distances on foot to reach a

hospital for surgery. Withholding of food (for 16-24 hrs) and water (for 8-12 hrs) is required for general

anesthesia or when surgery is to be done under lateral recumbence. Animal should be washed and cleaned,

surgical site to be shaved one day prior to surgery if possible.

Equipments should be sterilized with autoclave preferably, if not at least expose them to steam in

pressure cooker and immerse in antiseptic solutions like Savlon (1:30), Dettol (1:4), Povidone iodine or

70% ethyl alcohol. Drapes or plastic vinyl sheets should be used to prevent contamination. Simple boiling

of instruments is a poor, slow and tiresome means of sterilization. The minimal period of boiling is 30

minutes. Addition of alkali to the sterilizer increases bactericidal efficiency and boiling time may be safely

reduced to 15 minutes. Corrosion is avoided by the addition of 0.5–1% washing soda (Na2CO3), while

accumulation of lime in serrations or joints is removed by leaving instruments in 5% acetic acid overnight,

then brushing off.

While planning surgery we must mentally visualize the operation to be done and make a checklist

of all items required (equipments, instruments, drugs and assistants including those for restraint) and

should be pre arranged.

Surgeon must take immediate action in the face of an emergency. Whereas the planned surgery

takes into consideration all aspects, which make the procedure as safe as possible for the patient. Such

surgeries should be performed only when circumstances are most favorable. Hands of the surgical team


Advantages of field surgery

Disadvantages of field surgery

Community involvement

Need for transportation of all equipments from the

hospital to the field

Awareness & education Rainy season and unreliability of electricity supply

Cost-effective-for owner Need to arrange the post operative care of animals

somewhere

Less stress on the animal and Sustainability Rural villages, hill areas, difficult road conditions

Good option for remote rural areas

And Volunteers - non-monetary support

Field surgery is not a place for a new and un experienced

team to start work.

Operation theatre is preferable location for surgery because of its

advantages. Open field surgery is a common practice in most developing

countries. An area free of dust and dirt should be selected or a

thorough cleaning of the area should be done and dust allowed settling

down. Sprinkling of water prior to cleaning is advised. Travis or bullock

cart can be used for standing surgical procedures. If lateral recumbence is

required, sufficient cushion should be provided by using sand (Fig. 1) or

straw material covered with clean gunny bags or tarpaulin. Sufficient clean

water and light should be made available. Onlookers should not be allowed

to assemble at the site to avoid disturbance and distraction.

Preparation of operative field: shave operative field widely after

application of disinfectant, soap and water. Wash area with soap and water

twice, then scrub with povidone-iodine solution, dry off, apply 70% alcohol

and rescrub with povidone iodine.

Effective hand sterilization procedures include: Chlorhexidine ‘scrub’ or 0.5% chlorhexidine

concentrate in 90% ethyl alcohol with 1% glycerine as emollient, in which 10 ml is first applied to clean

dry hands and permitted to dry, before further application and five minutes’scrub-up. Later sterilized with

Surgical spirit.

Prophylactically Antibiotics and NSAIDs should be administered 30 min prior to surgery because

presence of antibiotics in tissues prior to surgery will reduce the risk of infection. Anti-microbial drugs are

no substitute for sound and aseptic surgical technique in sterile aseptic procedures, neither can they be

expected to control deep-seated necrotic and purulent foci. These drugs should be considered as adjuncts

to the natural defense mechanisms of the host. Pre-operative use of analgesics reduces the degree of

operative discomfort and post-operative pain. Aim of fluid therapy is not complete restoration of deficits

but to correct crucial imbalances to restore patients own mechanisms. Here possible effects of surgery,

stress, anesthetics and other therapeutic agents on body fluid and its composition should be considered.

Some of the conditions are listed below.


Fig. 1: A hallikar bullock

is restrained in right

lateral recumbence on a

sand bed and is being

prepared for urethrotomy.

Sl No Disease Resulting Electrolyte

Imbalance

Therapy

1 Salivary fistula or injury, Pharyngi-

tis, choke

Loss of water, bicarbonate,

phosphates and K+

Polyionic Solution, Ringers

lactate

2 Abomasum - Impaction, torsion and

displacement; Intestinal - obstruc-

tion intussusceptions and volvulus

Metabolic alkalosis,

hypochloremia and

hypokalemia

Normal saline (0.9%) and KCl

(1.1%)

3 Ingestion of large quantities of

starch, grains

Metabolic acidosis Ringers lactate, NaHCO3

4 Obstructive Urolithiasis Metabolic alkalosis, hy-

pochloremia, hypophosphatae-

mia, hypocalcaemia, hyer-

kalemia and hypernitremia

Normal saline (0.9%), KCl

(1.1%) and Calcium Boroglu-

conate

5 Starvation, TRP, diaphragmatic her-

nia

Loss of water, electrolytes and

ketosis

Repeated small quantities of

glucose, amino acids, Ringers

lactate, and oral edible oil.

Proper restraint (physical and/ chemical) is mandatory for clinical examination and to carry out

minor and major surgical procedure. The choice of a method depends upon the species involved, site of

lesion, condition of the patient and nature of the animal.

1. Physical Restraint methods: Burleys technique, Rope squeeze method, Restraint for castration

2. Chemical Restraint / Anesthesia :Due post operative care is a must for getting positive outcome. This

includes a course of suitable antibiotics, NSAIDs, fluids, regular wound dressing and most importantly

prevention of auto mutilation and protection from flies (Fig.2 and 3).

Keeping above considerations in mind veterinarian can perform some of the surgical maneuvers

without much difficulty at the door step of the farmer. For Example - Esophagotomy, Rumenotomy,

traumatic (Fig. 4) / congenital herniorrhaphy, Patellar desmotomy, Urethrotomy, Exision of superficial

tumors, Eye cancers, C-Section (Fig.-5), Dehorning, Castration etc.


Fig. 4: Correction of traumatic evisceration of

ceacum and small intestine at farmers door Fig. 5 : Cesarean section in a jersey cow

under field conditions.

Sl. no Field anesthetic protocols for bovines

1 Xylazine(@0.01mg/ Kg, I/M) followed by Local / Regional analgesia – via infiltration, different

nerve blocks or IVRA using 2% Lignocaine HCl, Bupivacaine and Mepivacaine

2 Analgesia after epidural administration of Xylazine 0.03 mg/kg diluted with 2% Lignocaine to 5

ml total volume for adult cow) lasts twice as long (four hours) as after equivalent use of lignocaine

HCI (0.2 mg/kg) alone. Extent of perineal anaesthesia is more variable than with lignocaine and

reported to include the entire perineal region, including udder and flank.

3 Intravenous standing stun: Xylazine-0.02mg/kg; Butorphanol-0.02-0.01mg /kg;

Ketamine-0.05 - 0.1mg / kg lasts for 15-20 min. Small doses of i/v ketamine improves patient

cooperation. Use along with local anesthetic blockade.

Fig : 2 & 3

Dr. Madhukar* and Prof. H. A. Upendra#

*Assistant Professor, # Director, Institute of Wildlife Veterinary Research, KVAFSU, Doddaluvara,

Kodagu – 571232. (E-mail: [email protected])

Elephant societies consists of 2 to 25 individuals, comprising of closely related adult females and

their young ones. These societies are matriarchal and females are bonded for life within these groups.

Bull behavior: Adult bulls live mostly solitary life.

• They may form temporary association of 2 to 3 unrelated bulls

(bachelor herd).

• Bulls leave their herd at 12-15 years of age.

• Even though they interact with their herd during mating or feeding,

they will not form long term association.

Female behavior: Oldest and most experienced cows lead the group

with a single cow acting as their leader (matriarch).

• The seniors and matriarch decide the groups pattern of movements,

and reaction to other herds and threats.

• Young calves stay close to mother.

• In addition to the mother, the group takes care of all the young

calves.

• Adults encircle the calves to protect from the approaching threats.

• The members separate several times and reunite throughout the day.

• The groups form loose associations (bond groups) with distantly related families.

• These interact during migration and may move together, but ultimately wont mix-up.

Social interaction: Elephants are highly intelligent animals.

• They have a rich range of social interactions.

• Individuals of all ages and sex maintain bonding by frequent

touching of trunk tips to each other’s bodies, by rubbing each

other, and through auditory and olfactory signals.

• Play is the most common behavior in calves.

• Calves mock charging and learn to defend through wrestling.

• Male calves engage in aggressive and sparring plays.

• Male calves are more independent than females, which increases

with age, ultimately leading to complete separation.

Hierarchy: Bulls maintain hierarchy.

• Hierarchy is determined through age, size and power.

• Bulls of equal strength assess each other’s prowess through pulling and pushing, intertwining of trunks,

or lightly engaging their tusks.

• The sparring may lead to aggressive encounters, especially in the presence of a female in estrous (but

not always).


• During a combat, they charge other and may cross tusks to off

balance, with ears stretched and loud vocalizations all through.

• Goring with tusks is common and can lead to fatal wound on head or

chest.

• Tusks may be broken during combat.

• Most combats end either with withdrawal of weaker male or death of

one.

Attraction: Bulls go into a periodic condition called ‘musth’.

• This condition is initiated by the production of a dark tarry fluid

(temporin) from the temporal glands (or musth glands) situated on the

side of the head between the ear and the eye.

• This fluid emits strong musky odour.The bulls in musth have

heightened levels of testosterone that may rise up to 100 times the

normal values.

• Musth males also intermittently dribble urine.

• On an average, a bull can enter into musth annually, duration of

which may last about a month. For some bulls this duration may be

prolonged.

• Musth is associated with aggression towards other males, heightened

sexual activity.

• Musth is an opportunity to rise on the ladder of hierarchy to secure

mating with cows.

• Bulls can equally mate during non musth periods.

• Temporal glands of cows can also small volumes of temporin.

• Elephants rub the temporin on trees, which suggest that the secretions

may have communication roles.

Senses & Communication :Elephants have relatively poor vision.

• Elephants have highly sensitive sense of taste and smell.

• Chemical cues are received by touching each other’s temporal glands, genitals, mouths and smelling of

urine with the tip of the trunk.

• Elephants frequently smell the air to sense the presence of other individuals or animals in their vicinity.

• Elephants have acute sense of hearing and rich array of vocalizations.

• About 25 distinct calls that can be distinguished by human ears have been identified in African

elephants. Fifteen of these are low frequency calls and are called rumbles.

• The vocalizations are specific for their conditions or situations. For instance elephants vocalize

differently during musth, oestrous, or mating.

• Numerous infrasonic vocalizations that extends far below the hearing capability of human ears have

been recorded. These are less likely to be distorted by environmental factors and can be received by

elephants over a distance of 5 kilometers.


Injury, diseases and death

• An elephant can live for 60 years.

• Most die long before this age of starvation, injury, diseases,

drought, predation, etc.

• Elephants have strong emotional bonding, which can be

appreciated when a member of the group is injured, sick or dies.

• Some of the common behaviours are circling of the wounded to

prevent further attacks; lifting a wounded to feet and shouldering it

to safer place; jumping into water where a wounded animal has fallen, and heaving it out again; pulling

and pushing a calf out of mud where it had become stuck; standing guard over a stricken but living

animal lying on the ground; covering the body of a relative with grass and leaves as soon as it had died;

returning to the carcass or even skeleton of a dead relative; and tasting, picking up, and moving the

remains with their trunks.

• A widespread belief of elephant graveyard wherein it was believed that elephants go to a common place

to die, is a myth.

• Sick and dying elephants usually reach and stay near water bodies

with grass or trees nearby, so that it can obtain food with minimal

efforts.

• for this reason, more than one elephant may be commonly found

dead near water bodies.

Territory: Unlike many wild and domestic animals, elephants are not

territorial!

• The social or family groups have rough home ranges. However,

these overlap and are not defended fiercely.

• Within this range the group will show some daily or seasonal

habits.

• Elephants sleep lying down for about two to four hours, especially

during morning hours.

• Elephants stand under shade for hours with their eyes closed. They

dose off but won’t be usually sleeping this way.

Movement: Elephants walk or amble, but cannot canter or gallop.

• Elephants walk at a speed of 2 to 10 kilometres per hour which can

increase up to 20 km/hr while charging.

• Elephants walk cautiously, to avoid soft or cobbled grounds.

• They can manoeuvre dense terrain and can climb up and down

remarkably steep, slippery slopes.

• Elephant trails of 1-2 m wide that can extend tens of kilometers, formed of trampled barren grounds

during movements or migration are used by matriarch to guide their groups during migration.

• Elephants can swim good by paddling all the feet and use their trunks to snorkel.

The authors have used images and illustrations for educational purpose only and neither claims their

ownership nor endorses the depictions.


M. A. Kshama and A. Muralidhara Dept. of TVCC, Veterinary College, Bangalore, KVAFSU (Email- [email protected])

The Saint Bernard is a large, muscular breed of dog with a surprisingly kind, gentle, sociable and

friendly disposition which belies his large size .

• The St. Bernard is said to have originated from Sennenhunds, also called Swiss Mountain Dogs or

Swiss Cattle Dogs, the large farm dogs of the farmers and dairymen .These also served as the livestock

guardians, herding dogs, and draft dogs as well as hunting dogs, search and rescue dogs

and watchdogs. These dogs are thought to be descendants of molosser type dogs brought into the Alps

by the ancient Romans, and the St. Bernard is recognized internationally today as one of the Molossoid

breeds. The earliest written records of the St. Bernard breed are from monks at the hospice at the Great

St. Bernard Pass in 1707and hence the name.

• The most famous St. Bernard to save people at the pass was Barry (sometimes spelled Berry), who

reportedly saved somewhere between 40 and 100 lives. The classic St.

Bernard looked very different from the St. Bernard of today because of

cross-breeding later on Severe winters from 1816 to 1818 led to increased

numbers of avalanches, killing many of the dogs used for breeding while

they were performing rescues. In an attempt to preserve the breed, the

remaining St. Bernards were crossed with Newfoundland's brought from

the Colony of Newfoundland in the 1850s and so, lost much of their use as rescue dogs in the snowy

climate of the alps because the long fur they inherited would freeze and weigh them down. The dogs

never received any special training from the monks. Instead, younger dogs would learn how to perform

search and rescue operations from older dogs.

Description

They are giant sized breeds and belong to the working group of dogs. Male Saint Bernards stand 28

to 30 inches at the shoulder and weigh 140 to 180 pounds; females are 26 to

28 inches and weigh 120 to 140 pounds. They have an average life span of

8-10 years. Saint Bernards can be found in two coat types: shorthaired and

longhaired. The shorthaired coat is smooth but dense. The hair is slightly

bushy on the thighs, and the tail is covered with long, dense hair that

becomes shorter toward the tip. The longhaired coat is slightly wavy but

never curly or shaggy. The forelegs have a bit of feathering, but the thighs

and tail are bushy. Saint Bernards are various shades of red with white or white with red or sometimes a

mahogany brindle with white. . The red comes in various shades, from brindle patches with white

markings to brownish-yellow. The white occurs on the chest, around the neck (known as the collar),

around the nose (the noseband), and on the feet and tip of the tail. Black shading is usually found on the

face and ears. A white spot on the nape of the neck and a white blaze on the face are especially attractive

and desirable, as are dark markings on the head and ears that resemble a mask.


Contact :

Dept of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Extension Education

Veterinary College, Hebbal Bangalore

email: [email protected]

Blog: pashubandhavch.blogspot.in

monthly e-Bulletin

Published and circulated by Veterinary College, Hebbal, Bengaluru.

Editor: Associate Editior:

Dean, Veterinary College, Hebbal, Bengaluru Head, Dept. of Vety.& Animal Husbandry Extension Education

Dr. S. Yathiraj (Ex-Officio) Dr. K. Satyanarayan (Ex-Officio)

• PELVIC

Temperament

A well-bred Saint Bernard is calm, sensible, and patient. Some are more outgoing, others more

introspective. Adult Saint Bernards are calm and quiet indoors whereas youngsters are boisterous but all

Saint Bernards need space and deserve a roomy home with a spacious fenced yard in the suburbs or

country. This breed needs daily exercise (whether he seems to want it or not) to stay fit, although long

daily walks will do, along with regular opportunities to stretch out. He loves to romp in the snow, and

pulling a cart or carrying a backpack gives him a purpose in life.

Companionship is of prime importance to this sociable breed. Left alone too much, he becomes

dispirited and destructive. Saint Bernards are generally relaxed and accepting

of everyone, but because he is such a massive dog, he requires early, frequent

excursions into the world so that he grows up to trust and respect people. Most

Saint Bernards are fine with other animals when raised with them, but there is

some dog aggression, which can be frightening to experience because of this

breed's sheer bulk and power. They have an independent streak, but they are

willing to please if you can establish consistent rules through motivational

training methods that include praise and food rewards. Originally bred to withstand the cold temperatures

of the Alps, the Saint Bernard does not do well in heat. They are not known for barking without cause.

Saint Bernards are hard to beat as droolers, slobberers, and loud contented

Issues regarding health The very fast growth rate and the weight of a St. Bernard can lead to very serious deterioration of

the bones if the dog does not get proper food and exercise. Many dogs are genetically affected by hip

dysplasia or elbow dysplasia. It is also genetically predisposed to Osteosarcoma . They are susceptible to

ocular disorders like cataracts, entropion and ectropion. The breed standard indicates that this is a major

fault. The breed is also susceptible to epilepsy , dilated cardiomyopathy, and skin allergies.


Documents

November 2014