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Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 1
““Field Research”: Interviews, Field Research”: Interviews, Focus Groups and ObservationFocus Groups and Observation
(Babbie Ch 10)(Babbie Ch 10)
• Four Qualitative Paradigms• Interviews
– Interviews vs Surveys– Terminology– Common problems– Advantages/Disadvantages
• Focus Groups– Advantages/Disadvantages
• Observation– Advantages/Disadvantages
Geography 237aGeography 237aResearch MethodsResearch Methods
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 2
Four Qualitative ParadigmsFour Qualitative Paradigms
Naturalism/Ethnography• strong links to positivism• assumes reality is out there to be
“discovered”• focus on detailing the social world• often more attention to pattern than
explanation• idiographic• e.g., Whytes “Street Corner Society”
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 3
Four Qualitative ParadigmsFour Qualitative Paradigms
Ethnomethodology• strong links to phenomenology• reality is socially constructed vs “out
there”• researcher must interpret what study
participants say/do – not take them for granted/at face value
• stronger interpretive role of researcher over naturalism/ethnography
• nomothetic explanations – focus on “underlying social processes”
• e.g. Garfinkel’s “conversation clarification experiment”
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 4
Four Qualitative ParadigmsFour Qualitative Paradigms
Grounded Theory
• more blatantly inductive than the other 3 paradigms
• typically ideographic theory development
• attempt to systematize naturalistic enquiry
• constant comparative method of sampling and analysis – (see Qualitative Analysis lecture)
• e.g., Glaser and Straus
Case Studies
• in depth study of an “instance” of a phenomenon (e.g, community, process)
• principally detailed idiographic explanations (nomothetic research must apply beyond particular case)
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 5
Interviews Interviews “Interview” vs “Survey”“Interview” vs “Survey”
• “interview” in geog 237 means – qualitative in-depth interview (almost always face-to-face)
• in the literature, both are called “interviews”
• qualitative interviews less “structured” than survey questionnaires – (but just as rigourous and useful)
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 6
Some Characteristics of Some Characteristics of Interview ResearchInterview Research
• typically exploratory• typically inductive• typically idiographic (rarely
nomothetic)• typically small samples (even just
one!, tens, rarely over 100)• typically individuals and groups are
the units of observation
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 7
What is the instrument?What is the instrument?
• In survey research, the questionnaire is the instrument.
• What is the instrument in qualitative
face-to-face interviews?
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 8
Preliminary TerminologyPreliminary Terminology
Researcher as instrument• think on feet, empathy, not passive• “data” recorded in human memory• thus, data are interpreted even at
recording stage• emotionless detachment not advisable• experiential knowledge• (contrast with questionnaire)
Participant• person with whom an interview is
“conducted”• ideally, a two-way exchange of
information• treat as human beings rather than
rows in a spreadsheet.• (contrast with “respondent”)
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 9
Researcher as InstrumentResearcher as Instrument
Several forms of experiential knowledge are necessary to attempt understanding of the complexities and peculiarities of the educational reform processes at work in these settings. Cultural knowledge is needed of the racial, cultural, and sociopolitical contexts being studied. Schooling has been administered in four separate racially segregated and inequitably funded systems--European, African, Asian, and Indian. My knowledge of the history of residential and educational segregation is necessary to understand why attending the few open schools in central city and suburban areas was so desirable for the vast numbers of non-white students living in remote area townships in which schooling has been under funded and inferior to that offered white students.
Source: Brook 1992, Issues of researcher role and subjectivity in research on educational change in South Africa http://www.coe.uga.edu/quig/proceedings/Quig92_Proceedings/brook.92.html
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 10
Preliminary TerminologyPreliminary Terminology
What about bias?
• If personal, subjective knowledge about the phenomena is “allowed” what is to be done about “bias” in the results?
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 11
Preliminary TerminologyPreliminary Terminology
Field Notes• researcher notes:
– before interview– during interview– after interview
Autobiography• researcher description of likely
influences on interpretation• personal biases in relation to research
questions and participants• track changes in views
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 12
Autobiography
In describing the researcher as the primary research instrument, and as a participant observer throughout the study, there is some obligation on my part to provide a more extensive description of who “I” am, and of my experiential background, so that the reader may form a context in which to situate the comments and the conclusions of this study. As a local Hispanic woman who believes in life-long learning, I regard myself as having pulled myself up by my “boot strings” against all odds. Born in Laredo, Texas, I lived in the small South Texas town of Hebbronville for the first sixteen years of my life. I grew up as a physically challenged child who was not expected to live.
Source: Gramirez, http://www.tamucc.edu/~gramirez/aperso~1.doc
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 13
Steps in InterviewingSteps in Interviewing
Clarify objectives• though generally inductive, still do as
much background work as possible
Participant Selection• typically purposive – wide variety of
people to cover as many dimensions of phenomena as possible
• temptation to convenience sample (those easiest to talk with)
• random selection (but statistics rare)
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 14
Steps in InterviewingSteps in Interviewing
Interview• take field notes, audio tape record
Transcribe• field notes• audio tapes• ideally researcher transcribes to “stay
close” to data
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 15
Steps in InterviewingSteps in Interviewing
Analyze
• read over material and interpret meaning
• assisted by software (NVivo, NUDIST, Ethnograph)
Verify (member check)
• go back to participants and see if you have it “right”
• negotiated text
• what about disagreement?
Report
• write up
• present
• participants are audience too!
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 16
Interview GuideInterview Guide
Characteristics• topics to direct conversation• minimum to be covered in
conversation• allows inter-interview comparisons in
interpretation• not necessarily covered in order
– not a linear “roadmap” per se; more a series of unordered “signposts”
• participant guides conversation too
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 17
Interview Guide ExampleInterview Guide Example
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 18
Interviews:Interviews:Advantages/DisadvantagesAdvantages/Disadvantages(e.g., compared to surveys)(e.g., compared to surveys)
Advantages
Disadvantages
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 19
Interviews:Interviews:Advantages/DisadvantagesAdvantages/Disadvantages
Advantages• high validity• closer to social life• flexible• words of participants• discover the unexpected
Disadvantages• no (rare) statistical analysis• labour intensive• training - researcher as instrument• weak reliability• weak generalizability
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 20
Focus GroupsFocus GroupsCharacteristicsCharacteristics
• group interviews• 8-10• facilitator• note taker• participants similar characteristics
(e.g., all women, all against issue X)• exploration• group dynamics relevant – exchange
of ideas
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 21
Focus GroupsFocus GroupsExampleExample
• FACILITATOR: So what were the alternatives? What was the state of Ryley in 1992 when economic development seemed to be an issue?
• MARGRET: It was dying like most small towns were at that time.
• SADY: It’s been dying for 40 years and it hasn’t changed any from then.
• FACILITATOR: What’s the population?
• SADY: Including cats and dogs?
• UNIDENTIFIED: 411 I think.
• FACILITATOR: The last I have is ’96 statistics and it says around 500. But it could have gone down or up by then.
• MARGRET: Ryley’s around 500 I would say now.
• HUGO: I think, like all these little towns are dying, Holden is next and it’s 8 miles and that’s another small town. And I remember the school there when it had about 600, 650 people and now I think it’s under 400, 390. So it’s dying too. And so Ryley, they’re roughly the same size and I imagine Ryley was probably in that 500 or 600 once upon a time in the ‘50s.
• Margaret: Oh lots more before that, we had all these businesses here.
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 22
Focus GroupsFocus GroupsAdvantages/DisadvantagesAdvantages/Disadvantages
Advantages• approximates social conditions• new ideas• forces participants consider issues
may not think of themselves• increased participant self-awareness
on issue
Disadvantages• researcher has less control• difficult to analyze• training – facilitator skill• difficult to obtain groups• “social conditions” contrived
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 23
Observation:Observation:TerminologyTerminology
covert• people do not know being studied• ethical implications?
participant• the only way to truly “know” is to
“do”• “method acting” for researchers?• get involved in study group
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 24
Observation:Observation:TerminologyTerminology
going native• researcher’s reference group is no
longer academics, but group under study
Hawthorne effect• act differently because special
attention• different from social acceptability
bias (intentional) in surveys, but related
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 25
Observation:Observation: (field research) (field research)
Tradeoffs: Four Major Types of Observation Field Research
people know they are being studied
researcher engages in the activ-ities studied
people likely to act naturally
researcher risks “going native”
risk of Haw-thorne effect
researcher may affect study situation
Participant(covert)
no yes yes yes no yes
participant as observer
yes yes no yes yes yes
observer as participant
yes no no ? yes ?
observer(covert)
no no yes ? no no
Nov 15, 2005 6:50 am Geog 237a 26
Observation:Observation:Advantages/DisadvantagesAdvantages/Disadvantages
(e.g., compared to interviews)(e.g., compared to interviews)
Advantages
Disadvantages