Notes

1: THE RELIGIONS PROPER AND QUASI-RELIGIONS

1. Paul Tillich, Christianity and the Encounter of the World Religions (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1963) pp. 4-5.

2. SeeR. C. Zaehner, Concordant Discord (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970) pp. 176-7.

3. Zaehner, Concordant Discord, p. 11. There is yet another parallel in the 'Great Ultimate' of the neo-Confucians.

4. Tillich, Christianity and the Encounter of the World Religions, p. 64. 5. It has never been clear to me why James thought that this task defines

the relation of philosophy and religion; philosophy is clearly involved in what he proposed, but it is clear that the enterprise is primarily historical in character and certainly does not exhaust the role of philo­sophy in this connection.

6. Many of those who reject religious ultimates do so firm in the belief that they have simply put the matter aside; it has, however, an an­noying tendency to reappear. An excellent example is found in the case of Voltaire who vigorously objected to histories written from a religious point of view and divine providence, claiming that this was no more than dogmatism and superstition. When, however, he set out to write his history he did so from the standpoint of his Enlightenment ideals - progress, objective truth and the death of superstition - and thus substituted one ultimate for another. It is not necessary to claim that all ultimates are justified in order to hold that from some ultimate there is no escape. The real danger about ultimates is not their exist­ence, but the self-deception involved when people have ultimates but refuse to admit it.

7. Tillich, Christianity and the Encounter of the World Religions, p. 5. 8. Reinhold Niebuhr has dealt with this matter in brilliant fashion in his

chapter 'The Master of Destiny', in The Irony of American History (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1952) p. 65, where he refers to the 'cruelties which follow inevitably from the communist pretension that its elite has taken "the leap from the realm of necessity to the realm of freedom" and is therefore no longer subject to the limitations of nature and history which have hitherto bound the actions of men'.

9. Corliss Lamont, Humanism as a Philosophy (New York: Philosophical Library, 1949) p. 34.

10. Free Inquiry is the title of a quarterly journal published by the Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism; the issue referred to is vol. 9, no. 2, Spring, 1989.

135

136 Notes to pages 12-22

11. Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (New York, Simon & Schuster, 1945) p. 364. Though typically whimsical, this view is not without some truth.

12. Lamont, Humanism as a Philosophy, p. 75.

2: HUMANISM AS A QUASI-RELIGION

1. Paul Kurtz (ed.), The Humanist Alternative (London: Pemberton Books; Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, 1973). The essays by Blackham, Hook, Friess, Schneider, Van Praag, Phillips and Williams which are discussed in the text are all to be found in this volume.

2. To avoid misrepresentation, I shall quote the propositions as they appear on pp. 19-21 and thus distinguish them from comments of my own.

3. This is no place to raise this complex theological matter, but if one cites what purports to be relevant evidence, it is imperative that it be correctly understood. According to Lamont, the 'mainstream of Chris­tian thought' has insisted that there will be 'a resurrection of the flesh, the identical body of this world without a hair or a fingernail missing' (p. 118). This, of course, is not so; the idea behind the resurrection image is precisely not 'more of the same' or the unending continuation of what was, but the notion of a qualitative difference between what was and what is to be. The point is that we do not have to know what a spiritual 'body' is in order to know that it is not a natural body that is intended. The philological evidence here is striking. The term 'athana­sia', literally 'deathlessness' and translated in the King James Version as 'Immortality' occurs throughout the entire New Testament only twice, 1 Cor. 15:53 and 1 Tim. 6:16. By contrast the term 'Aionie' which means 'eternal', 'everlasting', in relation to God, life and time, occurs dozens of times in the New Testament books. It could be argued that the identification of the Christian doctrine as that of immortality came about as the result of two factors; first, the inclusion in the natural religion as defined by Herbert of Cherbury of immortality on the ground that is supposed to be a doctrine common to a number of religions, and, second, the stress placed on the immortality of the soul by the Deists. The supposition in both cases seems to have been that the idea of immortality is more 'rational' than the notion of 'resurrection'.

4. In the middle of the nineteenth century, scientists working on the relation between energy, heat and work in the field known as thermo­dynamics coined the term 'entropy' to indicate the fact that as energy is transformed in work it is no longer available as energy. Like many scientific conceptions - Evolution and Relativity are among them -entropy was given a common sense meaning and came to stand for the general idea that the universe is 'running down' with bodies cooling, springs untensing, electrical charges leaking away, etc. A popular rhyme declared 'That no life lives forever; that dead men rise up

Notes to pages 23-46 137

never .. .' and even some philosophers began to brood over the possi­bility that in the end the universe would turn to ice. Bertrand Russell dramatised the idea in his essay, 'A Free Man's Worship', where the free spirit, like Prometheus castigating Zeus, is hurling defiance at the universe in the face of this frozen destiny. Lamont has this idea in mind in what he is claiming here.

5. There are, of course, problems surrounding the use of 'universe', 'cos­mos', and 'Nature'. Are they meant to be synonymous? Does any one of these terms include the others? It would appear that 'Nature' is the main focus, since it is the only term capitalised. As we shall see, there are problems with that too since, with the removal of so-called 'super­nature' the term 'Nature' no longer has a contrast with anything else.

6. Lamont seems to have overlooked the fact that much the same thing could be said about his Humanism; it appropriates for itself all the achievements of human beings and even incorporates the insights of the founders of the world religions.

7. Boston, Beacon Press, 1947. 8. Edited by Paul Kurtz (London, Pemberton Books, 1973; Buffalo, New

York: Prometheus Books, 1973). 9. That this is no idle caveat becomes clear when we recall Lamont's

claim that it is a 'possibility' that by the year 2000 a world-wide Humanist civilisation would emerge.

10. This term derives from James's Varieties of Religious Experience where he used it in a very precise sense to denote beliefs about the nature of the 'More' in religious reality on its farther side that he claims is continuous with the subconscious on its hither side. It is clear that what he has in mind is that overbeliefs are those of particular religions concerning the 'More', and this is confirmed by his contrast between 'overbeliefs' and 'what is common and generic' to the nature of reli­gion as such. It is not clear whether Hook is using the term in James's sense since it seems to have taken on a life of its own even if it does not appear in most dictionaries.

11. Van Praag was at the time of the writing of his essay President of the International Humanist and Ethical Union and Professor of Philo­sophy at the University of Utrecht.

12. Free Inquiry, 1987/88, vol. 8, no. 1. 13. It is not without significance that in earlier versions, 'Humanism' was

generally written with a capital 'H' whereas in the case of the Secular humanists there is a move to the lower case.

3: MARXISM AS A QUASI-RELIGION

1. The recollections, confessions and assessments by these individuals are found in a widely circulated book, The God that Failed, edited by Richard Crossman, MP, which appeared in 1949. See pp. 45 ff.

2. One needs to remember that 'economics' as a field of study is now conceived much more narrowly than was the case in Marx's time.

138 Notes to pages 46-63

Economics -literally, 'the law or order of the house'- was then taken to include the socio-political, historical situation of nations and of their constituent groups and communities, and not only what we might call today the 'economic' aspect of the situation which usually means how much will a programme cost and where will the funds come from. The distinction is important because it meant that when Marx was writing about 'economics' he was concerned as well with moral considerations, the effect of social arrangements on human life, social and political criticism involving justice and equality and philo­sophical ideas such as dialectical development in history, the role of praxis, and the overcoming of human alienation. Hence, when he insisted on the 'economic' basis of history, he must be understood in the broader sense of the term.

3. The Logic of Hegel, Part 1 of the Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences, Translated by William Wallace (Oxford University Press, 2nd edn, 1892) Sec. 81.

4. Ibid., Sec. 119. 5. See Gajo Petrovic, Marx in the Mid-Twentieth Century (Garden City,

NY: Anchor Books, 1967) p. 73. Petrovic notes that there are some passages in the German Ideology which have been used to support the claim that Marx rejected general speculations about man. His reply is: 'But is German Ideology Marx's last word in philosophy? Did not he also write Capital?'

6. 'The Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right', Karl Marx Early Writ­ings, trans. and edited by T. B. Bottomore (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964) p. 52.

7. Ibid., p. 75. 8. Economic and Philosophical Mss. (1844) quoted in Fromm, Marx's Con­

cept of Man, p. 101. Original in Bottomore, p. 127. 9. Species being- sometimes called 'species life'- is a concept that Marx

took over from Feuerbach who used it to define what is peculiar to human consciousness, namely, that we are conscious not only of ourselves as individuals but as members of the human species as well. This consciousness is of a human essence that is the same in all men. For Marx we act in accordance with our nature when we live as social beings.

10. Bottomore, 'The Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right', pp. 43-4. 11. Because so much has been lumped together under the name of 'Marx­

ism', it is not always easy to find Marx's explicit views. In this case it is important to note that Marx expressly states 'communism' is not the final stage in the development he outlines, but only a 'transitory period' in the process whereby a humanistic society is to emerge from a class society.

12. It has often been remarked how similar in tone and in righteous indignation over human misery and oppression are Marx's early writ­ings to the judgements on society made by the ancient Hebrew prophets.

13. It is important to take into account the fact that Marx, while he wrote much about communism as the ideal form of political economy, did not think in terms of a regimented Communist Party of the sort that

Notes to pages 63-82 139

was developed after the Russian Revolution under the aegis of Lenin and, in later years, Stalin.

14. Richard Crossman, M.P., Ed., The God that Failed, New York, Harper, 1949.

15. Crossman, The God that Failed, p. 4. The values in which they had lost faith are described as 'Coolidgism in America', 'Baldwinism and Mac­Donaldism in Britain', and 'the collective pacifism of the League of Nations'.

16. The Latin converto and its Greek counterpart epistrepho connote a turn away from a position now seen to be false and toward what is now seen to be the truth.

17. Page 34. One can see here how the Party intensified the ideas of both dialectic and the dialectic of history which came from Hegel and through Marx. Belief in the necessity with which the outcome of dialectical struggle comes about in history was the basis of belief in the infallibility of the Party's doctrine.

18. There is a monstrous irony in what Koestler describes; what has become of Marx's idea of alienation and what deeper alienation can there be than this self-imposed deception carried out in the interests of a Party that declares itself to be beyond good and evil?

19. Julia Ching, Probing China's Soul (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1990) p.130.

20. It is noteworthy that during his incarceration in Spain, the Communist Party did nothing in his behalf.

21. It has often been noted that Communism has invariably found it difficult to find roots in Protestant soil because of the tradition of a revolt in the name of individual conscience against any absolute authority but God.

22. At the time Wright was writing, the accepted term was 'Negro' but since times have changed, I shall use the term 'Black' instead, except, as in the text above, when direct quotations are involved.

23. Letter from Moscow by David Remick, The New Yorker, 23 March 1992, p. 72.

4: NATIONALISM AS A QUASI-RELIGION

1. Hayes's classic study is Essays on Nationalism (New York: The Macmil­lan Co., 1926). In view of the widespread acknowledgement of the importance of Hayes's work, it is surprising that his name is not even mentioned in an otherwise good study, Individualism and Nationalism in American Ideology by Yehoshua Arieli (Cambridge: Harvard Univer­sity Press, 1946).

2. The 'artificial' character of nationalism was foreshadowed in Hob­bes's theory of the state. Leviathan is not an affair of nature; it is the creature of man through and through and it seems clear that what fascinated Hobbes about this creature is that it represented so colossal an artefact, a machine with highly integrated parts; a monument to

140 Notes to pages 83-93

human ingenuity. Hans Kohn also stresses the 'artificial' character of nationalism when he claims that, in opposition to Aristotle's view, nationalism is not a 'harmonious natural growth' stemming from family, village, tribe, etc., but an abstract feeling that needs to be made concrete through education, economic interdependence and political and social institutions integrating the masses into a unity that can never be concretely experienced (The Idea of Nationalism, New York, The Macmillan Co., 1944, pp. 8-9).

3. The sense of having a patria is well-expressed in the poem 'The Man Without a Country' by Edward Everett Hale, 'Breathes there a man with soul so dead, who never to himself hath said, "This is my own, my native land," and whose heart has ne'er within him burned when home his footsteps he has turned from wandering on a foreign strand?'

4. For this special meaning of the term 'nation' see The Universities of the Middle Ages by Hastings Rashdall (Oxford, 1895, New Edn, 1936), vol. n, p. 150.

5. Hayes, Essays, p. 5. 6. That nationalism does draw on these loyalties if it is to exist at all is not

controverted by the fact that the totalitarian state must either crush or reorient the most powerful lesser loyalties that exist within its boun­daries in order to maintain sovereign power. One cannot imagine a wider-scale illustration of this point than what is now taking place in the dismantling of the Soviet Union. The Union of 'Soviet Socialist Republics' was achieved in the first place by the bringing together of the constituent nationalist republics through appeals to already exist­ent bonds of loyalty and community - for example, 'pan-Slavism' -and to a common enemy- the capitalism of the West- and then by subordinating all these 'national' interests to the higher power of the Communist cause represented by the supreme Soviet. For a variety of reasons that need not concern us here, this nationalism finally fell apart when it became clear to the people of the constituent republics that their interests were not being represented by nor did they co­incide with the aims of the Communist Party and the central bureau­cracy. Among other things, this development shows that what I have been calling 'natural' affinities among people can prove to be stronger than the 'artificial' constructions of nationalism.

7. Hayes, Essays, p. 24. 8. An excellent case in point is the work of the eminent German philo­

logist, Max Muller, who first developed the theory of an original Aryan language which he identified with race accompanied by the claim that this race is superior to all others.

9. This is nowadays an old-fashioned term coming out of the last century and it is better replaced by clearer concepts such as Otto's idea of the numinous or the sense of awe and wonderment in the presence of the Holy, or Tillich's concept of 'ultimate concern' which expresses an absolute commitment to the most worshipful reality.

10. Hayes, Essays, p, 102. Consider in this connection John Oakesmith's characterisation of Nationalism; it is, he wrote, 'what the vast majority of civilized people feel to be the most sacred and dominating

Notes to pages 93-7 141

inspiration in life'. Race and Nationality (New York, 1919). See Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism, p. 579, note 2. Kohn claims that this definition holds only for nationalism as it developed after the French Revolution.

11. Much the same sort of ceremonial concern is to be seen in connection with national anthems. Commenting on Haydn's composition of the Austrian national anthem, H. L. Mencken observes that 'When the hymn was first sung on 12 February 1797, it made a collossal success and Haydn became a national idol' (Baltimore Evening Sun, 23 November 1916).

12. Jacques Barzun, 'Literature in Liszt's Mind and Work', in Words on Music, edited by Jack Sullivan (Athens, Ohio, 1990), p. 211.

13. This transposition shows itself in many ways and examples abound. Many people, for instance, who find it difficult in an age of science to continue to speak of persons as having 'souls' in a traditional religious sense, do not hesitate to make much of the 'soul' of the nation, espe­cially on ceremonial occasions. Similarly, there are those who shrink from the thought of an ultimate human 'destiny'- the 'to Whence' of religious faith- but have no qualms about accepting with enthusiasm the idea that their nation has a special 'destiny' in the course of world history. So powerful was this idea in nineteenth-century America that territorial expansion was placed under the rubric of 'Manifest Des­tiny', a doctrine which nicely combined at least at that time, clear nationalist aspirations with the typical American reluctance to shed its mantle of innocence by eschewing any show of aggression - the expansion is 'justified' because it has been thrust upon the nation as something ordained.

14. An excellent example is found in the form of an automobile bumper sticker - one of our recent forms of instant communication - which made its appearance at the time of the Gulf War and carried a replica of the American flag with the legend, 'These colors don't run'. The message was clear: to withhold support for armed intervention was tantamount to dishonouring the country and the flag, while marking oneself as a coward at the same time.

15. G. K. Chesterton's ironic comment comes to mind here, although the context is different. Concerning the conflict between science and reli­gion which raged in the last century, he remarked that 'science tells a great many little truths in the interest of a great lie, while religion tells a great many little lies in the interest of a great truth'.

16. Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism (New York: The Macmillan Com­pany, 1944), p. 18.

17. Hayes was, of course, writing almost seventy years ago and it is true, as he says, that in the past Islam established common bonds among peoples as far apart as the Arabian Peninsula, India and Africa, but in recent decades the picture has greatly changed. Islam has become invested in some of the most uncompromising nationalisms that have ever existed, witness Iran, Iraq and Pakistan.

18. Page 124. Hans Kohn whose studies of nationalism have greatly en­larged our knowledge of this phenomenon and its effects throughout

142 Notes to pages 97-113

the world, puts special emphasis on the divisiveness of nationalist aspirations: ' ... the age of nationalism has made the divisions of mankind more pronounced and have spread the consciousness of antagonistic aspirations to wider multitudes of men than ever before.' Prophets and Peoples: Studies in Nineteenth Century Nationalism (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1946), p. 4.

'The closer the contact between various cultures and their growing rootedness in the minds and morals of the masses have not only deepened conflicts between nations but have produced cultural tensions which invest the national struggles with the halo of a semi­religious crusade' (ibid., italics added).

19. This quotation and the preceding one are taken from William James, in John K. Roth (ed.), The Moral Equivalent of War and Other Essays, (New York: Harper & Row, 1971).

20. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1946. 21. The Myth of the State (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1946), p. 43. 22. Cassirer's treatment of Carlyle's lectures On Heroes, Hero-Worship and

the Heroic in History is a case in point. Taking note of several writers who sought to hold Carlyle responsible for National Socialism, Cassirer admits that there is 'much truth' in the idea, but hastens to add that Carlyle had no conception of history as a system, but saw it as a panorama of the biographies of great men, and he concludes, 'To read into Carlyle's work, therefore, a definite philosophical construc­tion of the historical process, taken as a whole, or a definite political program is precarious and illusive' (p. 191). It is, however, not clear that Carlyle should be treated with so much generosity in view of the fact that he was rebuked by John Stuart Mill for invoking both human and divine decrees in behalf of Negro slavery and praised by Von Treitschke - a powerful promoter of anti-Semitism in nineteenth­century Germany - as 'the only Briton who had completely under­stood the Germans'. See Kohn, Prophets and Peoples; he cites an article by J. Selwyn Schapiro, 'Thomas Carlyle, Prophet of Fascism', in The Journal of Modern History (June, 1941), pp. 97-115.

23. The sentence comes from On Heroes, Lect. 11, pp. 41ff, Centenary Edition and is quoted by Cassirer on p. 195.

24. In another of his 'popular' writings, The Distinguishing Features of the Present Age, Fichte asks the question, 'Who then in the first place gave to the countries of Modern Europe their present habitable shape ... ?' and continues, 'History answers the question. It was pious and holy men, who, believing it to be God's will that the timid fugitive of the woods should be elevated to civilized life ... went forth into the de­sert wilderness.'

25. This contention is quite absurd. Despite the minority view of some Christian thinkers that 'Jerusalem' should have nothing to do with 'Athens', the dominant position among Christian theologians has been that there can be creative and beneficial interplay between reli­gion and culture. H. Richard Niebuhr's Christ and Culture makes this point, but, in any case, Gobineau's claim is totally at variance with recognized historical facts.

Notes to pages 113-22 143

26. See Cassirer, pp. 239ff. 27. Ibid., p. 244. 28. See Shlomo Avineri, Hegel's Theory of the Modern State (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1972). 29. The movement is not a temporal one since all three co-exist, but it is

successive in the sense that an ever-widening community is involved. 30. Philosophy of Right, Sec. 340. The full passage of which this well-known

statement is the last sentence helps to clarify this somewhat cryptic statement. It is as follows:

It is as particular entities that states enter into relations with one another. Hence their relations are on the largest scale a maelstrom of external contingency and the inner particularity of passions, private interests and selfish ends, abilities and virtues, vices, force and wrong. All these whirl together, and in their vortex the ethical whole itself, the autonomy of the state, is exposed to contingency. The principles of the national minds (Volksgeist) are wholly restricted on account of their particularity, for it is in this particu­larity that, as existent individuals, they have their objective ac­tuality and self-consciousness. Their deeds and destinies in their reciprocal relations to one another are the dialectic of the finitude of these minds, and out of it arises the universal mind, the mind of the world, free from all restriction, producing itself as that right which exercises its right - and its right is the highest of all - over these finite minds in the 'history of the world which is the world's court of judgment'.

Hegel did not use quotation marks for the final words, but they are taken from Schiller's poem, 'Resignation'. In another place Hegel says that the universal mind is not 'mere might', but the embodiment of reason and hence its judgement is not a matter of 'blind destiny'.

31. Philosophy of Right, Sec. 347, Knox trans.

5: RETROSPECTIVE SUMMARY

1. It is interesting to note that, while James thought his philosophy to be as far apart from Hegel's thought as any two thinkers could be, both are at one in their approach to the study of religion. Both wanted religion to speak for itself; James sought to lay hold of religious faith as it is found in the existing individual and Hegel insisted, following Aristotle, that we must follow the lead of the subject matter - what religion in its many forms shows itself to be- and not become involved in our own ideas and predilections which are merely private opinions and judgements.

Bibliography

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Ching, Julia, Probing China's Soul (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1990). Crossman, Richard, MP (ed.), The God that Failed (New York: Harper, 1949). Dewey, John, A Common Faith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1934). Fichte, J. G., The Vocation of Man, trans. William Smith (La Salle, Illinois,

The Open Court Publishing Company, 1940). Hayes, Carlton, J. H., Essays in Nationalism (New York: The Macmillan Co.,

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York, 1946). Konvitz, Milton R., judaism and the American Idea (Ithaca and London:

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Buffalo, NY, Prometheus Books, 1973). Lamont, Corliss, Humanism as a Philosophy (New York: Philosophical

Library, 1949). 144

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Brothers, 1909). Niebuhr, H. Richard, Christ and Culture (New York: Harper & Brothers,

1951). Niebuhr, Reinhold, The Irony of American History (New York: Charles

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Clarendon Press, 1970).

INDEX

absolutising of finite reality Marxism 69,76 Nationalism 97, 118, 119, 132,

134 see also ultimate allegiance/being

alienation Humanism 40 Marxism 7, 11, 56--60, 139;

abolition of 59-60; forms of 56-9; labour and 50, 57; religion as source 12, 49

Zen Buddhism 35 America see United States Amos 2 Arieli, Yehoshua 84 Aristotle 23, 41, 140, 143 Arius 20 art

and Humanism 17 and master race theory 113-14

Aryan race 112-14, 133, 140 and Buddhism 113, 134

atheism and Marxism 55, 59 Austria, anthem 94 Ayer, A.J. 37

Balzac, H. de 66 Barth, Karl 38 Barzun, Jacques 94 Bentham, Jeremy 25 Berlin, Isaiah 37 black race 112

and art 114 and Marxism 72, 73

Blackham, H.J. 29, 40,41 Blanshard, Brand 37 Bosnia 88 Bottomore, T.B. 54, 55, 56, 57, 58 Britain

Communist Party 77 national mission 100, 101

146

Buddhism 1, 2, 3 beginnings of 10 and evil 127 and human flaw 44 and Humanist ideals 19, 43,44 and master race 112-13, 114, 134 and Nationalism 97 Noble Eightfold Path 19, 44 pattern of 122 Zen 34-6

Canada 88 capitalism 7, 48 Carlyle, Thomas 107

on heroes 108-9, 111, 112, 114-15, 131

as prophet of fascism 142 Carter, Jimmy 89 Cassirer, Ernst 104-7, 108, 117,

118,142 on master race theory 112, 113,

114,133 on myth 105-7

caste system 113 Castro, Fidel 100, 130 Catholicism

and Communism 71-2 and Humanism 27, 127 see also Christianity

Channing, William Ellery 20 Chicago 72-3 China 69, 118

Cultural Revolution 69, 130 Nationalism 101 see also Marxism

Ching, Julia 69, 100, 130 Christianity 1, 2, 3

and evil 24-5, 124-5, 127 human flaw 4, 123 as Humanism 19, 27, 127 immortality 125, 136

Index 147

and master race theory 112-13, 133

and Nationalism 93, 114, 133; parallels 96-7

parallels with Marxism 128 pattern of 122 and resurrection 125-6 self-criticism 76 symbols 131-2

class struggle 47, 60, 62 colonialism 101 commitment see loyalty Communism 79-81, 101, 104, 135

and Catholicism 71-2 cause of downfall 45-6 Comintem policy 67,68 disillusionment with 45, 79-81 ends justifying means principle

45,66,79-80 God that Failed 63, 77-81, 129, 130 as Humanism 27 infallibility of Party 66, 139 McCarthy trials 95-6 power of Party 71 projection of vision 119 propaganda 45,81 self-righteousness of 78 see also Marxism

comparative religion 6, 123 Comte, Auguste 26 Confucius 19, 43 conversion to Marxism 64-5,71,74,

129 corruption

Communism 45 and finite ultimates 121 and religion 13, 118-19, 120

creation evolution and Humanism 31 Humanism 16, 31, 33, 38; and

evolution 31 Marxism 54-5

Croatia 88 Crossman, Richard 63 Cuba 69, 100, 101, 130 culture

and heroes 111 and national identity 88-9 and religion 142

death and Christianity 125 and Humanism 21, 22, 26 see also immortality

deficiency in human nature see human flaw

deliverance 126-7 form of deliverer 3 in historical religions 3, 4, 5,

122-3 Humanism 42-3,44,123-4,

126-7 individual as own deliverer 11,

59,62,123-4,127 Marxism 51, 59, 62, 68, 69, 128

democracy 96 and Humanism 17, 26, 28, 38,

40,42 as national mission 102, 103 projection of vision 119

Descartes, R. 49 destiny of individual

and faith 109-10 in historical religions 2-3, 4-5 Humanism 17, 18, 21, 22 Marxism 12, 68, 77, 128, 129;

and alienation 58-9,60, 61,62 Nationalism 85, 99-101, 141 religious surrender 64 see also deliverance

destiny of nation 101, 105, 141 and genocide 88

Dewey, John 24, 25, 41, 43 on evils 124 on nations 90

diagnosis of human predicament 10,123

in historical religions 2-3, 4-5, 122

Humanism 40, 42, 44, 126 Marxism 49, 51, 58, 69, 128

dialectic 47, 64, 139 and facts 66, 74 of history 7, 50, 128, 134, 139

dialectical materialism 50, 51 divided self 118, 120 Divine Being see ultimate

allegiance /being Docetism 125

148 Index

Dostoevsky, F.M. 99 Dreiser, Theodore 20

Edwards, Jonathan 8 Emerson, Ralph Waldo 20,107 Engels, F. 58, 64, 129 equality and Humanism 31

see also race Erasmus, D. 20 Ethical Humanism 30

see also Humanism ethics, Marxism 70

see also morality Europe, Nationalism 91, 94 evil/s 24-5, 124-5

deliverance from 3, 4-5 and Humanism 24-5, 32, 34, 43,

44, 59, 124-5; overcoming 123 and Marxism 59, 128 of traditional religions 13

evolution see creation

faith 65 and destiny of individual 109-10 Koestler on 64 and Marxism 7 4

faith-healing and Humanism 37, 38 fascism 83,104,117

Carlyle and 142 fatalism and Humanism 17 Feuerbach,L.A. 54,138 Fichte, J.G. 108, 109-11, 142 Fischer, Louis 45, 75-6 France 93

national mission 100, 101 Revolution 93, 99

freedom and American mission 103 Hegel on 115-16 Humanism 31, 38 Marxism 50, 56, 61 misuse of 127 as responsibility 106

Friedan, Betty 37 Friess, Horace 30 fulfilment see destiny;

self-fulfilment Fundamentalism and Humanism

39

Geist 35, 116-17 genocide 25,87,88,134 Germany

Medieval 101 national anthem 94 Nazism 83, 84, 104, 117; mission

of 100 Gide, Andre 63, 73-4, 75 Gnosticism 125 Gobineau, J.A. 107, 142

master race theory 112-15, 133; and Buddhism 114, 134

God in Christianity 4 and hero-worship 108 in historical religions 2 and Humanism 34, 127 Marx on 55, 56, 59 safeguard against

totalitarianism 117 Goethe, J.W. von 109, 111 Gorbachev, Mikhail 45, 81 Gould, Stephen J. 37 Great Britain see Britain Greece, Ancient 101

patriotism 113, 114 Griinbaum, Adolf 37

Hayes, Carlton J.H. 85, 97, 139, 141

bases of nationalities 86-7 Nationalism: defined 82, 83, 91;

as religion 92-3, 130 on soul 132

Hegel, G.W.F. 53, 62, 132 on contradiction 48 on dialectic 47 on dominant nation 116-17 on freedom 115-16 on history 50, 60 on morality 116 and nation state 84, 91, 107, 112,

115 on national leader 92 on self-consciousness 49 on universal mind 143 on war 116

Herder, J.G. 108 heretics and traitors 96-7

Index 149

heroes 108-11, 115, 131, 132 of Communism 130 and history 108, 118

history and Aryan race 114-15 Carlyle on 108, 109 and hero-worship 108, 118 and Marxism 47, 62, 68, 81;

iron laws of 50; necessity of 81; on the side of 48, 77, 80, 128

nations as dominant 116-17 and realisation of freedom 50, 61

Hitler, Adolf 104, 132 genocide 87, 134 influence of Hegel 84, 115 as sacred 131 see also Germany

Hobbes, Thomas 139 Hook, Sidney 12, 30, 115, 137 human concerns 6

and Nationalism 118, 119-20 see also diagnosis of human

predicament; ultimate allegiance /being

human flaw 10, 122, 123 and Humanism 40, 44, 123 Marxism 11 resources to overcome 10-11, 44,

123 and world religions 2-3,4-5, 10

human nature see man/woman, concept of

human rights and Humanism 29 Humanism 15--44, 134

Academy of 37 Committee for the Scientific

Exploration of Religion 37 and death 21, 22, 26 defined 28-30, 32 and ethics 17, 30 as Eupraxophy 38-9 and evil 24-5, 59 and faith-healing 37, 38, 39 and finite concerns 7 and Fundamentalism 39 history of 15 and immortality 16, 19, 21-3,

125, 126

individual as centre of reality 29-30

individual as own deliverer 62, 123-4, 127

and motives 25-6 naturalistic 11, 12, 40 plurality of 27,30-1, 32,36-7,

127 propositions of 16-18,31 publications 15, 37, 38, 39 as quasi-religion 13, 23, 39,

126-8 and reason 17, 31, 38, 40, 43, 44,

124 and religion 33, 37-8, 42;

contrasts 39-40, 43-4; rejection of 38-9

religious Humanism 27, 28, 30, 32,33,34

scientific Humanism 30 and separation of body and

mind 21 and social sciences 43 and supreme being 34 values 28 and worship 40 and Zen Buddhism 34-6 see also under science;

supernatural; Nature

idolatry 7, 119, 120, 121, 134 Marxism 130; shrines 69 and symbols 131-2

immortality 136 and Humanism 16, 19, 21-3, 125 and resurrection 125-6

India, Nationalism 85, 86 Ireland, Nationalism 85 Isaiah 119, 134 Islam 1, 2, 3, 141

and Nationalism 96, 97 Italy

fascism 83, 104, 117 Nationalism 99, 101

James, William 21, 27, 33, 109, 127,143

on human flaws 44, 118 overbeliefs 137

150 Index

James, William (Contd.) religious surrender 64 role of philosophy 6, 15, 135 on war 98,99

Japan 89 as nation state 104 Nationalism 83

Jefferson, Thomas 90, 102 Jesus 18, 108

and humanist ideals 19-20, 43 John of StThomas 15 Judaism 1, 2, 3

God and totalitarianism 117 Holocaust 134 human flaw 4, 123 and humanist ideals 19 and immortality 125 pattern of 122 self-criticism 76

Kant, I. 25, 41, 109, 113, 116 Karpinsky, Len 81 Kierkegaard, S.A. 51 knowledge and Humanism 16, 31

and control of Nature 22, 24 scientific 22

Knox, T.M. 115 Koestler, Arthur 45, 63, 64-70, 71,

77, 139 conversion 64-5, 129 on dialectic 66, 74 on faith 64 and Spanish Civil War 69-70, 81

Kohn, Hans 85-6, 97, 99, 141 on artificial character of

Nationalism 140 Konvitz, Milton 117 Kronstadt blood bath 75 Kurdistan 88 Kurtz, Paul 33--4, 35, 36

characteristics of Humanism 27-9,30,32

Humanism as Eupraxophy 38-9

Lamennais, F.R. de 99 Lamont, Corliss 15, 43, 127

characteristics of Humanism 18, 19-24,26

on evil 24-5, 32, 42

on function of religion 13,44 on immortality 22, 136 on individual as own deliverer

124 Lamont, Corliss (contd.)

on supernatural 11, 126 Lea, Homer 98 leaders 92, 100, 104

and heroes 111 Lenin, V.I. 27, 46, 64, 67, 100

statues of 130 Lodge, Oliver 21 loyalty

focus of 7 and Humanism 40,44 and Marxism 68, 69, 71, 130 and Nationalism 91, 92, 106,

118, 140; and mission 85--6; objects of 8, 130-1, 134; and traitors 95, 96-7; ultimate 8, 134

Luther, Martin 76, 108, 117

McCarthy Era 95--6 man/woman, concept of

and Christianity 29 and human nature 29 and Humanism 29, 40-2, 44 Marxism 29, 48, 51-3, 138 and Zen 36

Mann, Thomas 70 Mao Zedong 46, 100, 101, 118

symbolism 69, 130, 131 see also China; Marxism

Marcel, Gabriel 95 Maritain, Jacques 15, 127 Marx, Karl 41, 64, 128, 129

economics as social 137-8 and ideas of Hegel 47-50 initial vision 46-7; and later

regimes 138-9 see also Marxism

Marxism 45-81 on alienation 49-50, 56-9, 128 and art 66-7 on atheism 59 class struggle 47, 60, 61-2 on conscious activity 53--4, 56 contradiction 47,48

Index 151

contrasted with Judaism and Christianity 12

disillusionment with 70, 71, 73, 74,75---6,79-81

distortions 67 on evils 59, 128 experiences of 63-81, 129 exploitation 48 and finite concerns 7 and fixed conscience 78 on freedom 50, 61 and humanism 138 intellectual appeal 63, 72, 74, 75,

79,81 on humankind's self-creation

54-5,56 on object of labour 54, 55 on private property 58, 60 as quasi-religion 12 on religion 55, 59---60; opposition

to 7, 11-12; as source of alienation 49, 128

Revolutionary Dynamism 67 sacrifice for cause 63, 66, 71 species-being 54, 57, 138 see also deliverance; dialectic;

history Mazzini, Giuseppe 99 meaning of life and Humanism 31

see also self-fulfilment Michelet, Jules 99 Mill, J.S. 25, 142 morality 1

Hegel on 116 and Humanism 17, 38 universallaw 113

Muller, Max 140 Mussolini, Benito 100, 104, 115,

117 myth

and emotions 105---6 and Nationalism 105-7 political 106-7

Nagel, Ernest 37 Nationalism 7, 75, 82-120

appeal to blood relationship 87-8

artificial character of 139-40

basis of nationality 86-7, 89-90 culture and national identity

88-9 defined 82,83,84-5,91 and destiny of nation 141 divisiveness of 97, 118, 120, 142 and emotions 105---6 and genocide 88 God as safeguard against

totalitarianism 117 and heroes 108-11, 130, 131 and honour 131 and intangible ideals 82, 132 leaders 92, 100, 104 and master race 112-13, 114-15,

118 mission of nation 82, 85---6, 91,

93,99,101 destructive consequences 102,

104; in history 130, 132; and power 102, 103-4

na tion defined 83 national anthems 94,130,141 national flag 94,131 nationality defined 83-4 not a religion 97-8, 119-20 and patriotism 89-90, 91, 94, 95,

96; legitimate 82, 83 projection of ideals 105, 132 as quasi-religion 92-3, 107 and racial superiority 87-8, 104,

107, 133, 134 and religions compared 94-5,

96-7, 118-20, 132 and responsibility of nations

103-4 and sacred objects 94, 95, 132 and salvation 93 and size of nation 90-1 state as impersonal God 118, 119 and superiority 8, 85, 116-17,

118,120 symbolism 93-5, 101, 105, 106,

131 and traitors 95-7, 98, 120 and war 98-9, 131 see also genocide; loyalty

Nature and Humanism 35, 42, 137 appreciation of 17

152

Nature and Humanism (Contd.) control over 22, 43 and death 22 as neutral 24, 32 and supernatural 16

Nazism see under Germany Niebuhr, H. Richard 38, 142 Niebuhr, Reinhold 13, 38, 102-4,

135 on immortality 126

Nietzsche, F.W. 54, 76 Noble Eightfold Path 19 nominalism 6

Oakesmith, John 140 obedience and Nationalism 92,

118 Otto, Rudolph 115, 140

Pakistan, Nationalism 85 Parker, Theodore 20 patriotism 113, 140

as local 90, 91 and Nationalism 82, 83, 89-90,

94,95,96 Peirce, Charles 89 perestroika 81 Petrovic, Gajo 51-2, 53, 138 Phillips, Bernard 34-6,42 philosophy 15

and Humanism 18-19 role of 6, 135

Plato 2, 41, 91, 126 progress 29,93,130

technological 8 propaganda

Communism 45, 81, 101 Nationalism 92

prophets, Hebrew 2, 76, 119, 134 Protagoras 15,30

Quakers 20 quasi-religions

compared with religions 7, 12-13,24-5

idolatry of 134 individual as own deliverer 11,

62,123-4,127 and purpose in life 121

Index

reasons for development of 8-9, 13

and ultimate 123 see also diagnosis of human

predicament; Humanism; Marxism; Nationalism; religion

Quine, W.V. 37

race Aryan 114, 133, 134,140 purity 87-8 racism 78, 114 superiority 107, 112-13, 133 see also Nationalism

reason and Humanism 17, 31, 38, 40,

43,44,124 and Nationalism 110

religion comparative 6, 123 and culture 142 definition 23-4 demonic distortion 119, 121,

132-3 as dimension of human life 1-2,

6-7, 122 function of 13, 123 Humanists on 33,38-40 Marxism on 55,59-60 nature of 2, 122-3 and philosophy 6, 135 and quasi-religions 7, 12-13,

24-5 and science 121, 141

religion (contd.) and supernatural 23-4 see also Humanism; Marxism;

Nationalism; traditional religions

Religious Humanism 30 see also Humanism

resurrection 136 and Humanism 21 and immortality 125-6

ritual and Humanism 33 and Nationalism 93-4

Rome 101

Index 153

Royce, Josiah 65 Russell, Bertrand 12, 30, 137 Russia see under Soviet Union

sacred objects and Nationalism 94,95,132

sacrifice for Marxist cause 63, 66, 71 and Nationalism 97 and nature of religion 2 and quasi-religions 121

Sagan, Carl 37 salvation 122

Marxism 74 and Nationalism 93 see also deliverance

Sandburg, Carl 20 Santayana,George 6,20,28,34 Sartre, Jean-Paul 56 Schneider, Herbert W. 33 science 121, 141

faith in 93 and Humanism 30, 41, 43, 44,

124; as basis of 28, 38; and evolution 16; and human problems 17, 42; as neutral 25; as ultimate allegiance 40

Marxism on 59-60 and Nationalism 130

Scientific Humanism 30 see also Humanism

secularism 8, 9-10 and Humanism 31, 32, 33

self-consciousness and Marxism 49 self-criticism

and Marxism 76,77 Nationalism 118, 120 of traditional religions 13, 14,

120,132 self-determination

and Humanism 31, 32 and state 116

self-fulfilment 122 and Marxism 52 and Nationalism 118, 119

Sellars, Roy Wood 11 Serbia 88, 134 Servetus, Michael 20 sexuality and Humanism 28-9

Shakespeare, William 20-1 shrines see idolatry; symbolism Silone, Ignazio 45, 63,70-2, 77 sin 124

see also evil/s Slovenia 88 social sciences and Humanism 43 Socrates 18-19, 30, 119 Somalia 88 Sophocles 20 soulofnation 132,141 South Africa, Nationalism 85 Soviet Union 88

Communism 67, 101, 104, 117; shortcomings of 45-6, 74, 75, 130

mission of Russia 99 nationalloyalties 140 Soviet-Nazi Pact 75, 76

Spanish Civil War 78, 81 Koestler and 69-70

species-being 54, 57, 138 Spender, Stephen 77-8 spiritualism 21-2 Stalin, J. 27

aggression 75, 81 Nationalism 100, 101, 104, 115,

117 statues of 130

Steinmetz, S.R. 98 Stiles, Ezra 103 supernatural 93

and definition of religion 24-5 and Humanism 19, 40, 125;

non-existence of 16, 18, 22-3; opposition to 20, 21, 42, 44; as part of religion 11, 32, 33, 126

supreme being see ultimate allegiance /being

symbolism Christianity 131-2 and idolatry 131-2 Marxism 68-9, 129, 130, 131;

Mao 69, 130, 131 Nationalism 93-5, 101, 105, 106,

131

teaching of theology and Nationalism 96

154 Index

Thomas Aquinas 15 Tillich, Paul 38, 101-2

Protestant Principle 13 on religions and quasi-religions

9 ultimate concern 1-2, 12, 74, 140

traditional religions common patterns 3-7, 122-3 compared with religious

experience 1-2 contemporary shortcomings of

9, 13 functions of 4-5, 121 see also quasi-religions; religion

traitors and heretics 96-7 Marxism 73 Nationalism 95-7, 98, 120

Trotsky, Leon 46,66

ultimate allegiance/being and failings of people 122 as finite, and corruption 121 in historical religions 2 and Humanism 21, 40 as infinite 7 Marx on 55 and Nationalism 130 and quasi-religions 10, 121, 123 and self-deception 135

ultimate concern 1-2, 12, 74, 122, 140

Unitarianism 20 United States 98

flag 94 McCarthy Era 95-6

national identity 90 national mission 100, 101; and

power 102-4 Nationalism 83, 91

universal mind 116-17, 143 universe, Humanism and theory

of 22-3 see also creation

Van Praag, J.P. 30-1,32, 137 Vedanta 2, 3, 44 Voltaire, F. de 21, 108, 135 Von Treitschke, H. 142

war Hegel on 116 and Nationalism 98-9, 131 religious 119

Williams, Gardner 34 Wilson, Woodrow 103 world order and Humanism 17,

18,42 world religions see traditional

religions world spirit 116-17, 118 worship 2

and Humanism 26, 40 and Nationalism 106, 107

Wright, Richard 63, 72-3, 78, 139

Yugoslavia 88

Zaehner, R.C. 4, 5-6, 122-3 Zen Buddhism and Humanism

34-6 Zeus 121-2