163

Notes

Introduction

1. On the relation between concept and word, see Peter de Bolla, The Architecture of Concepts: The Historical Formation of Human Rights (New York: Fordham University Press, 2013), pp. 19–25. De Bolla suggests (p. 22) that a conceptual formation would permit comprehension of an individual notion, rather than necessarily designating this notion.

2. Roland Greene et. al, (eds.), The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics 4th ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), p. 1525. The entry is written by Eleanor Richards.

3. Alex Preminger, T.V.F. Brogan and F.J. Warnke (eds.), The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 1366. This entry is from Fabian Guldas with Michael Davidson.

4. I give a more detailed account of this distinction in Sounding/Silence: Martin Heidegger at the Limits of Poetics (New York: Fordham University Press, 2013), pp. 130–34, in reference to Heidegger’s account of the Gestalt of the artwork and its guiding role in his critique of figurative (bildliche, übertragende) language.

5. Given what we know about the compositional practices of poets in oral cultures, it seems anachronistic even to imagine some putative ‘voice of the poet’.

6. Interestingly, Yopie Prins in ‘Voice Inverse’ asks why ‘we insist on read-ing literally what the Victorians understood to be a metaphor?’ (‘Voice Inverse’, Victorian Poetry 42:1 (2004), pp. 43–59. p. 44), but neglects to say either exactly what ‘literally’ means, or what ‘the Victorians’ took voice to be a metaphor of.

7. In fact, Peter Elbow has parsed five different metaphorical deployments of voice: ‘(1) audible voice (the sounds in a text); (2) dramatic voice (the character or implied author in a text); (3) recognizable or distinctive voice; (4) voice with authority; (5) resonant voice or presence.’ Even ‘literal’ voice, which he describes as ‘physical’, is then complicated by its existing both inside and outside the body. ‘What do we mean when we talk about Voice in Texts?’, in K.B. Yancey (ed.), Voices on voice: Perspectives, definitions, inquiry (National Council of Teachers of English, 1994), pp. 1–35, p. 2.

8. Jean-Luc Nancy, ‘Vox Clamans in deserto’, trans. Nathalia King, in The Birth to Presence (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992), pp. 234–47, p. 235.

9. Virginia Jackson and Yopie Prins, ‘Lyrical Studies’, Victorian Literature and Culture (1999), pp. 521–30, p. 523.

10. Bob Perelman, ‘The First Person,’ Hills 6/7 (1980), pp. 147–65, p. 156.

164 Notes

11. Charles Bernstein, Content’s Dream: Essays, 1974–1985 (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1986), pp. 406–07. Although his resist-ance to ‘voice’ does not stop him advocating sound poems’ exploration of ‘vocalizations related to the human breath’ (pp. 44–45). Again, the either/or of speechsound and persona, literal and metaphorical.

12. Vanessa Place and Ron Fitterman, Notes on Conceptualisms (New York: Ugly Duckling Press, 2009), pp. 13–58, p. 47. Similarly, Craig Dworkin and Kenneth Goldsmith, in their introduction to Against Expression, tell us: ‘Instead of the rhetoric of natural expression, individual style, or voice, the anthology sought impersonal procedure.’ Craig Dworkin and Kenneth Goldsmith, Against Expression: An Anthology of Conceptual Writing (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2010), p. xliii. Here the interpre-tation of ‘voice’ seems quite consistent with T.S. Eliot’s distinction between ‘three voices of poetry’: ‘The first voice is the voice of the poet talking to himself – or to nobody. The second is the voice of the poet addressing an audience, whether large or small. The third is the voice of the poet when he attempts to create a dramatic character speaking in verse; when he is saying, not what he would say in his own person, but only what he can say within the limits of one imaginary character addressing another imagi-nary character’ (The Three Voices of Poetry’ (1949), in On Poetry and Poets (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Cudahy, 1957), p. 96). Eliot’s elision of voice and speech at this juncture is all the more disturbing given the polyphonic texture of works like The Waste Land decades earlier.

13. Mikhail Bakhtin, ‘From the Prehistory of Novelistic Discourse’ trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist, in The Dialogic Imagination ed. Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), pp. 44–45. Of Pushkin’s verse masterpiece, the fact that characters speak in ‘poetic images’ is ‘of secondary importance for the novel’; these images, far from being the ‘primary means of representation’ have become ‘the object of representation’: they indicate the way the individual characters express themselves, and thus conform to ‘the greatest novelistic images’ (p. 45). This focus on ‘images’ shows how Bakhtin thematises ‘voice’ in general: what a character says.

14. Bakhtin, ‘Discourse in the Novel’, in The Dialogic Imagination, pp. 259–422, p. 298. See also Michael Eskin, ‘Bakhtin on Poetry’, Poetics Today 21:2 (2000), pp. 379–91, p. 380. Eskin aims to salvage poetry from this fate as the monologic discourse par excellence; yet his solution to this, ‘the prosaicization of poetry’ (p. 387), seems a rather heavy price for poetry to pay.

15. Paul de Man, ‘Lyrical Voice in Contemporary Theory’, in Chaviva Hosek and Patricia Parker (eds.), Lyric Poetry: Beyond the New Criticism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985), pp. 55–72, p. 55, my italics.

16. Jacques Derrida, ‘Dialangues: entretien avec Anne Berger’, in Points de suspension (Paris: Galilée, 1992), p. 150. My italics.

17. Jacques Derrida, Speech and Phenomena and other essays on Husserl’s theory of signs trans. David B. Allison (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973). In 2011 a second translation of La voix et le phénomène was

Notes 165

published, by Leonard Lawlor, also by Northwestern University Press, entitled Voice and Phenomenon. All citations are to this second translation, even if there remains the sense of a stable door being somewhat belatedly closed.

18. See the many instances of this in Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak’s translation of De la grammatologie (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976). When Derrida says that ‘[…] le phonologisme épistémologique érigeant une science en patron suppose le phonologisme linguistique et métaphysique élevant la voix au-dessus de l’écriture […]’ (De la grammatologie, p. 151), Spivak translates: ‘the epistemological phonologism establishing a science as a master-model presupposes a linguistic and metaphysical phonologism that raises speech above writing’ (Of Grammatology, p. 103) – despite the fact that ‘phonologism’ would, precisely, be making phone and logos equivalent. And when he plays on the double meaning of entendre ‘C’est à partir de ce schéma qu’il faut entendre la voix’ (de la Grammatologie p. 236), Spivak translates: ‘One must understand speech in terms of this diagram’ (Of Grammatology, p. 166). This takes place during the preamble to Derrida’s reading of Rousseau’s Essay on the Origin of Languages, where the voice-speech crucial to the architectonics of Grammatology, and where voix is most consistently rendered as ‘speech’ (Dès lors que la non-présence vient à être ressentie dans la voix elle-même… l’écriture est en quelque sorte fis-surée dans sa valeur = From the moment that non-presence comes to be felt within speech itself… writing is somehow fissured in its value (237/166); La voix se donne toujours comme la meilleur expression de la liberté = speech always presents itself as the best expression of liberty (239/168); L’Essai sur l’origine des langues oppose la voix à l’écriture comme la présence à l’absence et la liberté à la servitude = The Essay on the Origin of Languages opposes speech to writing as presence to absence and liberty to servitude (239/168).) Given the significance of voice, and notably non-verbal inter-jections, for Rousseau’s speculative history of origins, this dissolving of the distinction is particularly troubling.

19. Derrida, Voice and Phenomenon, p. 66.20. de Bolla, The Architecture of Concepts, p. 28.21. Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word (London:

Methuen, 1982), pp. 70–72; Cavarero, For More than one Voice: Towards a Philosophy of Vocal Expression trans. Paul A. Kottmann (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005), p. 40. See also Don Idhe, Listening and Voice: A Phenomenology of Sound (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1976).

22. The term in fact comes out of a positivist strain of American structural linguistics, and is coined by the phonologists Trager and Bloch in George L. Trager and Bernard Bloch, ‘The syllabic phonemes of English’, Language 17:3 (1941), pp. 223–46, p. 224. An alternative term is ‘non-segmentals’, which is even less specific.

23. To take two examples, each from hugely influential works a generation apart: David Crystal notes that the terms ‘non-segmental’ and ‘supraseg-mental’ are ‘unfortunately negative in character’ (The English Tone of Voice; London: Edward Arnold, 1975; p. vii), and Anthony Fox argues

166 Notes

that ‘a simple dichotomy “segmental” vs. “suprasegmental” does not do justice to the richness of the phonological structure “above” the segment’ (Prosodic Features and Prosodic Structure; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000; p. 2).

24. Martin Heidegger, Being and Time trans. John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson (Oxford: Blackwell, 1962), p. 207.

25. Zumthor, Introduction à la poésie orale (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1983), p. 27.26. Nancy, ‘Vox Clamans in Deserto’, p. 245. This is a fascinating text, not

least because the two voices seem more or less interchangeable in terms of the ‘content’ of their claims about voice, implying that these are voices rather than persons – precisely the claim Nancy wishes to make about voice as anterior to the determinations of speech, subject, etc.

27. Michel de Certeau, ‘Vocal Utopias: Glossolalia’ trans. Daniel Rosenberg, Representations 56:1 (1995), pp. 29–47, p. 39.

28. Adriana Cavarero, For More than one Voice, p. 12.29. Bruce R. Smith, The Acoustic World of Early Modern England: Attending to

the O-Factor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), p. 130.30. Zumthor, Introduction à la poésie orale, p. 13.31. Nancy, ‘Vox Clamans in Deserto’, p. 247.32. Alice Lagaay, ‘Between Sound and Silence: Voice in the History of

Psychoanalysis’, e-pisteme 1:1 (2008), pp. 53–62, p. 60.33. Michel de Certeau, ‘Vocal Utopias’, p. 42. 34. Steven Connor, Beyond Words, p. 29.35. This term has a series of different valences within different contexts, and

to my knowledge is most prevalent in communications theory, where it describes time as a socio-cultural phenomenon that shapes communica-tion but can also become the vehicle through which to communicate. My use of the term owes its occasional employment in phonology and musicology. For instance, it has been used to describe vowel grouping into more than one phoneme, as in A.C. Gimson, ‘Implications of the phonemic/chronemic grouping of English vowels’ (Acta Linguistica 5:1 (1945), pp. 94–100), and has been proposed as a semiotic approach to ‘different functions of musical time as sign’. N. Gligo, ‘Die Zeit also ein beitragendes Element aur Werkdetermination in der Neuen Musik: Ansatz zu einem Aspekt der musikalischen Chronemik’, International Journal of Aesthetics and Sociology of Music 28:1 (1997), pp. 19–36, p. 35. To my knowledge the term has not been used in poetics or literary criticism before.

36. Connor, Beyond Speech, p. 126. 37. Fernando Poyatos, Paralanguage (Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John

Benjamins Publishing Company, 1993), p. 130.38. Fox, Prosodic Features and Prosodic Structure, p. 363.39. Émile Benveniste, ‘The Levels of Linguistic Analysis,’ in Problems of

General Linguistics vol. I trans. Mary Elizabeth Meek (Coral Gables, Florida: University of Miami Press, 1971), pp. 101–11, p. 109–10.

40. Yuri Tynianov, Problems of Verse Language trans. Michael Sosa and Brett Harvey (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1981), p. 49.

Notes 167

41. It will become increasingly clear as this book progresses that I do not consider ‘metaphysics’ a derogatory term.

42. Initially associated with Derrida, and his phrase ‘transcendental contra-band’, my own use of the term notably through Geoffrey Bennington’s Jacques Derrida (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), Richard Rorty, ‘Is Derrida a Quasi-Transcendental Philosopher?’ (Contemporary Literature, 1995, 36:1, pp. 173–200), and Rodolphe Gasché, The Tain of the Mirror: Derrida and the Philosophy of Reflection (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1986). See Bennington’s recent description in Interrupting Derrida (London: Routledge, 2014): ‘apparently transcendentalising terms are constantly pulled back down into the finite facticity and contingency of the texts they are also used to read’ (p. 89). See also Joshua Kates, Essential History: Jacques Derrida and the Development of Deconstruction (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2005), who argues that this quasi-transcendentalism can be traced back to Husserlian phenomenology (cf. pp. 29–31).

1 A Natural Scale

1. Norman MacKenzie (ed.), The Poetical Works of Gerard Manley Hopkins (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), p.131. The poem dates from July 1876, existing only in unfinished manuscript draft.

2. 24 September, 1863, in Humphry House (ed.), The Journals and Papers of Gerard Manley Hopkins (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959), p. 5. In this entry Hopkins speculates on various etymologies that might find their source in onomatopoeia before following various stages of association: for instance, ‘grief’ is related to ‘gruff’, ‘with a sound as of two things rubbing together’ (ibid.).

3. Johann Gottfried von Herder, ‘Treatise on the Origin of Language’, in Philosophical Writings trans. and ed. Michael Forster (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp. 65–164, p. 82. Forster translates Besonnenheit as ‘awareness’, which, as he explains, is the condition of Besinnung (‘taking-awareness’), even if their grammatical forms would suggest otherwise. For the purposes of this chapter, I will retain the German term, in order to stress its belonging to the cognates of Sinn, which, like the English ‘sense’, has both a physical and ideal dimension: ‘sensation’ and ‘meaning’, as it were.

4. To make this point all the more forcefully, Herder’s epigraph comes from Cicero: ‘all words are signs for things’ (p. 65).

5. Agamben, ‘Pascoli and the thought of the voice’, in The End of the Poem, trans. Daniel Heller-Roazen (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), pp. 62–75, p. 67.

6. Tsur, ‘The Translated Poem as Aesthetic Object: A Counterproposal to Clive Scott’, Thinking Verse I (2011), responses section (added 2013), pp. 1–35, p. 5.

7. Agamben, Language and Death: The Place of Negativity trans. Karen E. Pinkus with Michael Hardt (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1991), p. 35. Agamben’s original is in italics.

168 Notes

8. As a matter of fact, the diacritical marks are only first included in the 1990 MacKenzie edition.

9. The term is Pierre Schaeffer’s, borrowed from Pythagorean philosophy to describe a voice coming from an unidentifiable body (Traité des objets musicaux: essais interdiscisiplinaires; Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1966).

10. In Beyond Words (London: Reaktion Books, 2014), Steven Connor argues that ‘The voice is always a dream voice’ (p. 17). As a result, ‘there is no disembodied voice – no voice that does not have somebody, something of somebody’s body, in it. Yet, all too often, the voice is experienced as the more-than-body, as the body projected, perfected’ (ibid.). On this account, the ‘dream’ would lie both in the anthropomorphism of the bird’s voice and on the construction of a substitute voice in the sprung accenting and the demands the poem makes on being voiced by its reader.

11. Tynianov, Problems in Verse Language, pp. 33ff.12. Although, somewhat ironically, they are physically produced ‘below’ the

segments: in the larynx and glottis, rather than pharynx and mouth. See Fox, Prosodic Features and Prosodic Structure, pp. 3–4.

13. MacKenzie (ed.), The Poetical Works of Gerard Manley Hopkins, p. 158. The fragment is dated, somewhat approximately, to 1879.

14. Indeed, this is only the most recent of several attempts to grasp vocal organs in terms of musical instruments: in Ancient Greece the voice was likened to a flute, whilst Galen likened it to the pipes of an organ: not receiving air and then making sound out of the impulse of air, but rather producing sound through the production of air. See Thomas L. Hankins and Robert J. Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 178–220.

15. Rameau’s Treatise on Harmony (trans. Philip Gossett (New York: Dover, 1971)) was first published in 1722, although he continued to revise the theory for the next thirty years, to assimilate advances in the physical sciences.

16. Ibid., pp. 152–53. Rameau, it should be noted, is far from the first to understand musical consonance in terms of mathematic ratio (the tra-dition dates back to Pythagoras, with contributions from Kepler and Descartes in the century preceding Rameau’s own intervention); he is the first, however, to provide a system of harmony with an implied funda-mental bass, and the first to argue that melody is derived from harmony. Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz would do something similar in On the Sensations of Tone (1863).

17. In this regard see Liliane Weissberg’s ‘Language’s Wound: Herder, Philoctetes, and the Origin of Speech’, MLN 104:3 (1989), pp. 548–79.

18. Herder was basing his remarks on the brief discussion of this problem in the 1754 Discours sur l’origine et les fondements de l’inégalité parmi les hommes.

19. Herder’s German reads: ‘oder seine ganze Seele, die ganze Haushaltung seiner Natur ward geändert.’

20. Rousseau, ‘Essay on the Origin of Languages, In Which Melody and Musical Imitation are Treated’, The Collected Writings of Rousseau vol. 7,

Notes 169

trans. and ed. John T. Scott (Hanover New Hampshire: University Press of New England, 1998), pp. 289–332, p. 294. However, one cannot reproach Herder too much for having overlooked this detail, seeing as the Essai, although dating from c.1755, was only published posthumously in 1781, almost a decade after Herder’s Abhandlung.

21. Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality among Men trans. Judith R. Bush, Roger D. Masters, Christopher Kelly, Terence Marshall in The Collected Writings of Rousseau vol. 3 eds. Roger D. Masters and Christopher Kelly (Hanover New Hampshire: University Press of New England, 1992), pp. 1–95, p. 31.

22. Agamben, Language and Death, p. 35.23. Rosolato, ‘La voix: entre corps et langage’, in La relation à l’inconnu (Paris:

Gallimard, 1978), p. 37.24. The Shell and the Kernel (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), p. 127.25. Steven Connor, Dumbstruck (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 34.26. Michel de Certeau, ‘Vocal Utopias: Glossolalias’, p. 39.27. Connor, Dumbstruck, p. 31.28. William Blake, ‘The Chimney Sweeper’, W.H. Stevenson ed., The Poems

of Blake (London: Longman, 1971), p. 68. Or, in a different register, we might think of the various verbalisations of that vocal response to stim-uli, the sneeze, ‘a-choo’, ‘a-tissue’, where the sounds are taken up into a naming of the very act they themselves are. Aristotle might deny that such responses to stimuli contain ‘imagination’, and therefore constitute voice at all (De anima II.8, 421a), but their verbal content suggests that so hard-and-fast a distinction will not hold.

29. I am grateful to Anne Stillman for enlivening me to this point.30. Rosolato, ‘La voix : entre corps et langage’, p. 37.31. David Appelbaum, Voice (Albany New York: State University of New York

Press, 1990), p. 103. It is a commonplace in books on voice to mention the formative intellectual significance of observing one’s own children’s vocal experiments; I have no children, so must make do on less first-hand experience than most. Perhaps I will have reason to revise my opinions if I do eventually spawn.

32. Michel de Certeau, ‘Vocal Utopias: Glossolalias’, p. 33. 33. Julia Kristeva, ‘From One Identity to Another’, in Desire in Language:

A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art ed. Leon S. Roudiez, trans. Thomas Gora, Alice Kaplan, Leon S. Roudiez (Oxford: Blackwell, 1980), pp. 124–147, p. 136.

34. Herder, ‘Treatise on the Origin of Language’, p. 73.35. Kristeva, Revolution in Poetic Language trans. Margaret Waller (New York:

Columbia University Press, 1984), p. 79. At this juncture, Kristeva is speaking specifically about the song, dance, and poetry which accom-pany sacrifice rituals. She then distinguishes the two: ‘Whereas sacrifice assigns jouissance its productive limit in the social and symbolic order, art specifies the means – the only means that jouissance harbors for infil-trating that order’ (ibid.).

36. Kristeva, ‘From One Identity to Another’, p. 133.

170 Notes

37. Agamben, Language and Death, p. 77.38. In Rhythmic Phrasing in English Verse (London: Longman, 1992), Richard

Cureton, borrowing from generativist music theory, separates out four levels of such phrasing: metre, grouping, prolongation, and theme.

39. This is in stark contrast to the ‘Fragments on Recent German Literature’ (1767–68), for which: ‘In the language of the poet, whether he articulates sensations or images, the thought enlivens the language, as the soul enlivens the body’ (Herder: Philosophical Writings, p. 48).

40. With this comes the tantalising suggestion that each language will pro-duce a different conception of music, inextricable from the prosody of the vernacular. Could this be fleshed out speculatively to provide a distinc-tion between ictus-heavy Beethoven and Brahms and timbre colourists Debussy and Ravel? See ‘Letter on French Music’: ‘every National Music derives its principal character from the language to which it belongs, and I should add that it is principally the prosody of the language that constitutes this character’ (‘Letter on French Music’, pp. 141–174 in Scott ed. The Collected Writings of Rousseau vol. 7, p. 145).

41. Wennerstrom, The Music of Everyday Speech: Prosody and Discourse Analysis (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).

42. Henri Chopin, Poésie Sonore Internationale (Paris: Jean-Michel Place, 1979), p. 48. I say ‘mysterious’, as I have found no other source for this poem, or indeed poet.

43. Although here one is drawn to wonder whether we would follow the French nasalisation of ‘tin’ on the final line…

44. N.S. Trubetzkoy, Principles of Phonology trans. Christiane Baltaxe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), p. 24.

45. Antonin Artaud, Pour en finir avec le jugement de dieu, émission radiophonique enregistrée le 28 novembre 1947 (Paris : K éditeur, 1948), p. 21.

46. As he will be accosted moments later by a ventriloquised voice: Vous êtes fou Monsieur Artaud, et la messe? p. 23.

47. Velimir Khlebnikov, ‘Our Fundamentals’, in Charlotte Douglas and R. Vroon ed. and trans., Collected Works of Velimir Khlebnikov vol. I: Letters and Theore tical Writings (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1987), pp. 376–91, p. 383.

48. Hugo Ball, Flight out of Time: A Dada Diary by Hugo Ball trans. Ann Raimes (New York: Viking, 1974), p. 68.

49. Steve McCaffery, Prior to Meaning: The Protosemantic and Poetics (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2001), p. 165.

50. Henri Chopin, ‘Introduction’ to Henri Chopin and Paul Zumthor, Les Riches heures de l’alphabet (Paris: Edition Traversière, 1992), p. 11.

51. This is already apparent in Hopkins’ youthful diary entries, already cited.52. This is how Derrida appropriates the term in ‘Che cos’e la poesia?’ trans

Peggy Kamuf, in Kamuf ed. Between the Blinds: A Derrida Reader (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), pp. 221–237, pp. 228ff.

53. Interestingly, when Liliane Weissberg characterises Herder’s opposi-tion between the cry of sensation and the language of Besonnenheit as between ‘unarticulated’ and ‘articulated’ languages, she introduces a

Notes 171

terminology Herder himself only rarely employs, and yet in so doing she, perhaps unwittingly, places him within this longer philosophical tradi-tion. Weissberg, ‘Language’s Wound: Herder, Philoctetes, and the Origin of Speech’, p. 575. Was Herder consciously drawing on this tradition? I couldn’t say, but there are indications that he might have been. For instance: ‘What is less writable than the unarticulated sounds of nature?’ (p. 72, my italics).

54. See Leach, Sung Birds, pp. 27–33.55. Here one might think of the extraordinary lengths to which Olivier

Messiaen went in order to transcribe birdsong and subsequently incorpo-rate these lines into his works, as documented by his Traité de rythme, de couleur et d’ornithologie (Paris: Leduc, 7 vols, 1994–2001).

56. W.F. Jackson Knight, St Augustine’s De Musica: A Synopsis (London: The Orthological Institute, 1949), VI.7, pp. 96ff. Leach notes that Augustine and scholastic thought more broadly adhered to the Pythagorean ‘music of the spheres’, where the music of audible sounds was the lowest form, by virtue of its earthly provenance. Hence Augustine will see the foun-dation of music to lie in ‘judicial numbers’, which can never sound in mortal ears.

57. See Jackson Knight, St Augustine’s De Musica: A Synopsis, I.4, pp. 12–13.58. This is not restricted to the mediæval imaginary. The tradition of the

mechanical bird dates back to the wooden Dove created by Archytas (428–327 BC), by way of Hero of Alexandria’s Pneumatica (1st cen-tury CE), to the the Canard digérant [digesting duck] of Jacques de Vaucanson in the 1730s. Of this latter, Hankins and Silverman note that the projects of physiological simulacrum and anatomical analysis coincide (Instruments and the Imagination, pp. 182–84). See also Wendy Beth Hyman ‘“Mathematical experiments of long silver pipes”: The Renaissance Trope of the Mechanical Bird’, in Hyman ed., The Automaton in English Renaissance Literature (Farnham: Ashgate, 2011), pp. 145, 161, esp. pp. 147–48.

59. Leach, Sung Birds p. 48.60. Agamben, ‘Pascoli and the Thought of the Voice’, p. 69.61. Renan, De l’origine du langage (Paris: Michel Lévy Frères, 1864), p. 11.

‘Primitive language, if we could have access to it, would be exuberance itself’.

62. Cited in Leach, Sung Birds, p. 73. In an Appendix on p. 301 Leach provides a detailed comparison of Pliny’s and Aegidius’ accounts.

63. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, Kafka: Pour une littérature mineure (Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1975), pp. 35–36.

64. Richard Crashaw, ‘Musick’s Duell’, in L.C. Martin ed. The Poems English Latin and Greek of Richard Crashaw (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1957), pp. 149–153, p. 153. A more harmonious relation between stringed instrument and nightingale can be found in the story of the cellist Beatrice Hamilton, who duetted rather than duelled with the songbird, live on BBC radio, 19 May 1924. My thanks to Richard Strier for directing me to Crashaw’s poem.

172 Notes

65. J. Newsome (ed.), Pliny’s Natural History: A Selection from Philemon Holland’s Translation (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964), p. 113. Holland’s translation dates from 1601.

66. Hyman, ‘“Mathematical experiments of long silver pipes”: The Renaissance Trope of the Mechanical Bird’, pp. 149, 152. Hyman also notes that the counterfeit subjectivity of the mechanical bird subsequently comes to be associated with female archetypes as a means of eroding women’s claims to subjectivity (cf. pp. 156–57).

67. Indeed, despite the fact that the first act was written in 1908–09, and the second and third acts in 1914, and in the intervening years Stravinsky had produced The Firebird, Petrushka and The Rite of Spring, and thereby developed a signature ‘style’, the harmonic contrasts between characters remain more or less intact. I would like to thank Johanna Groot van Bluemink for drawing my attention to the relevance of Stravinsky’s opera for these questions.

68. Deleuze and Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus A Thousand Plateaus, trans. Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1987), pp. 300, 302.

69. The reliance of Deleuze and Guattari’s conception of music deterritorial-izing the refrain on late-romantic ideology of music is quite remarkable – it is not for nothing that the central points of reference in A Thousand Plateaus are Robert Schumann, and Alban Berg’s Wozzeck.

70. Poizat, The Angel’s Cry: Beyond the Pleasure Principle in Opera, trans. Arthur Denner (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992), pp. 121–22. It would be fascinating, in this regard, to compare the soprano vocal part in The Nightingale to that in Les Noces (1923), and indeed to compare this to the female voices of the Pierrot Lunaire and Sequenza III.

71. ‘Speak and Spell: Geraldine Monk’s Voiceprint’, in Scott Thurston ed., The Salt Companion to Geraldine Monk, pp. 152–177, p. 160.

72. A selection of Blonk’s études can be found on his website: http://www.jaapblonk.com/Pages/oldscores.html (last accessed 13 August, 2014). His performances of these études are, as of August 2014, available both on his website and at Penn Sound: http://writing.upenn.edu/pennsound/x/Blonk.php.

73. Herder, ‘Philoktet: Scenen mit Gesang’, in Sämmtliche Werke vol. 28 ed. Bernhard Suphan (Berlin: Weidmann, 1884) pp. 69–78, p. 73.

74. Sophocles, The Plays and Fragments, Part IV, The Philoctetes, trans. R.C. Jebb (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1890), bilingual edi-tion, pp. 120–123. Jebb renders the first aa as ‘alas’, the second as ‘ah me’, but does not even try to give a verbal English equivalent to the hexameter groan.

75. pp. 73–4.76. One reason that these lines are unfinished, one would surmise, is that

Hopkins was searching for a /k/ consonant to alliterate with ‘cry’ with which to start the line, and follow the alliterative pattern /k/—/w/; /k/—/w/.

77. This literal translation of the Russian text is given by Richard Taruskin in his Stravinsky and the Russian Traditions: A Biography of the Works through Mavra (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), pp. 466–67.

Notes 173

2 Vibration and Difference

1. Franz Kafka, ‘The Metamorphosis’ trans. Willa and Edwin Muir, in The Collected Short Stories of Franz Kafka ed. Nahum N. Glatzer (London: Penguin, 1998), pp. 89–139, p. 91.

2. See Mladen Dolar’s impeccable overview of these figures, in A Voice and Nothing More, pp. 165–88.

3. Aristotle, De Anima trans. J.A. Smith, in Richard McKeon ed., The Basic Works of Aristotle (New York: Random House, 2001), pp. 353–603, p. 573, 420b.

4. This premise is behind recent developments in controversial Voice Risk Analysis software, widely used at the time of writing not just by insurance firms when assessing claims, but also by various British local authorities for dealing with calls from benefits claimants, which purport to be able to determine the truthfulness of a claim based on fluctuations in the frequencies of speech imperceptible to the naked ear. However, if Anders Eriksson and Francisco Lacerda are to be believed, this is based on faulty science, with grave consequences for those denied insurance or social security as a result. ‘Charlatanry in forensic speech science: A problem to be taken seriously’, International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law, 14:2 (2007), pp. 169–193.

5. This then makes one wonder as to whether the monologues of Kafka’s other animals would be comprehensible to their human listeners.

6. Jacques Derrida, Voice and Phenomenon, p. 68. 7. Steven Connor, Beyond Words, p. 120. 8. Jean-Luc Nancy, Ego Sum (Paris: Flammarion, 1979), p. 161. 9. I can imagine that, far from dissolved, such embarrassment would be

only intensified for a poet reading their own work – where the ambigu-ity of the cadences’ provenance is even more muddied. The institution of poetry readings is one this book does not treat at any length, being more interested in when the person voicing the poem is not the poet, where voicing and audience are not so easily separable; yet its under-standing of the textual generation of voice has been greatly influenced by works that do treat poetry readings in detail, notably Lesley Wheeler, Voicing American Poetry (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008), and Peter Middleton, Distant Reading: Performance, Readership, and Consumption in Contemporary Poetry (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2005).

10. Interestingly, the only occasion on which Derrida shows the writer in ques-tion actually employing this figure is in ‘Qual Quelle’ (Margins of Philosophy trans. Alan Bass; University of Chicago Press, 1982, pp. 273–306) – he imputes it to Rousseau and Husserl but in neither case shows them use it (and I haven’t been able to find any instances of their doing so). Joshua Kates notes Husserl’s own insistence that when he speaks of soliloquy he has both speech and writing in mind. Essential History, p. 274, n. 33.

11. Derrida, ‘Ulysses Gramophone’ trans. François Raffoul, in Andrew J. Mitchell and Sam Slote (eds.), Derrida and Joyce: Texts and Contexts (Albany: SUNY Press, 2013), pp. 41–86, p. 52.

174 Notes

12. Poésie sonore internationale, p. 41. ‘Enters the mouth’ can be taken quite literally: Chopin was not averse to swallowing a microphone in the service of his art.

13. For more on the way cinematic voices destabilise gender categories see Kaja Silverman, The Acoustic Mirror: The Female Voice in Psychoanalysis and Cinema (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988).

14. Franz Kafka, The Castle (London: Vintage, 1999), p. 26.15. Marcel Proust, A la recherche du temps perdu (Paris: Gallimard, 1999),

p. 848. For the specifically gendered dimension of this description, and its relation to the archetypal female figure of Marcel’s grandmother, see Felicia Miller Frank, The Mechanical Song: Women, Voice and the Artificial in Nineteenth-Century French Literature (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), pp. 14–16.

16. See Jeffery Sconce, Haunted Media (Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 2000), p. 82.

17. Proust further aligns this phantom with a ‘photograph’: another record-ing device which brings us face to face with that same absence, that same death, which it claims to forestall.

18. Frank O’Hara, ‘Personism: A Manifesto’, in The Collected Poems of Frank O’Hara ed. Kenneth Koch (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), pp. 498–99, p. 499.

19. The link between recording technology and spiritualism is well docu-mented. See, for instance, Brian Rotman, Becoming Outside Ourselves (Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 2008), pp. 122ff.

20. James Gibson ed., The Complete Poems of Thomas Hardy (London: Macmillan, 1976), p. 346.

21. I am indebted to Will Rossiter and Tom Roebuck for how I understand Hardy’s poem.

22. Jean-Luc Nancy, Le partage des voix (Paris: Galilée 1982), p. 84.23. Derrida, ‘Dialangues: entretien avec Anne Berger’, p. 150. Ironically, it is

Berger rather than Derrida who introduces the term ‘differential vibra-tion’ into the dialogue: it is a phrase Derrida had used two years before in his D’un ton apocalyptique adopté naguère en philosophie (Paris: Galilée, 1983). That this phrase should immediately be drawn into a logic of cita-tion and counter-citation seems most apt for the partage of voices that this interview outlines.

24. The translators’ introductions to Grammatology and Speech and Phenomena in fact seem more attached to the term than is Derrida himself.

25. Derrida, Of Grammatology, pp. 11–12. 26. Marian Hobson, Jacques Derrida: Opening Lines (London: Routledge,

1998), p. 18. 27. Jacques Derrida, Voice and Phenomenon: Introduction to the Problem of the

Sign in Husserl’s Phenomenology trans. Leonard Lawlor, p. 72.28. Dolar, A Voice and Nothing More, p. 29.29. Caverero, For More than one Voice, 214.30. Beckett, ‘Krapp’s Last Tape’, in The Complete Dramatic Works (London:

Faber, 1986), pp. 213–223, p. 218. Connor notes a further temporal

Notes 175

slippage – this is the only time that Beckett feels moved to specify a time setting for a play: ‘a late evening in the future’ (p. 215; see Connor, Dumbstruck, p. 7).

31. For illuminating accounts of Beckett’s experiences with audiotape tech-nologies see N. Katherine Hayles, ‘Voices out of Bodies, Bodies out of Voices: Audiotape and the Production of Subjectivity’, in Adalaide Morris (ed.), Sound States (Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), pp. 74–96, esp. pp. 78, 80–81, and Emilie Morin, ‘Beckett’s Speaking Machines: Sound, Radiophonics and Acousmatics’, Modernism/Modernity 21:1 (2014), pp. 1–24.

32. David Wills, Prosthesis (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), p. 141.33. Derrida, Of Grammatology, p. 166.34. In this regard we might heed Kates’s contention that Derrida never

wholly overthrows a Husserlian account of language as expressing, and referring to, subjective intention: ‘Even at this stage… Derrida continues to respect Husserl’s views on linguistic signification. Not only does he treat the phoneme and grapheme as idealities, but they are examined with an eye to their constitution, as well as their functioning, within transcendental-phenomenological consciousness – as pure phenomenological appearances, in which the issue is the reference to the world they bear “in appearance,” not any actually worldliness, any genuine mundaneness, as such. And on this ground, and only on this ground, will Derrida finally assert the privilege within phenomenology of the “vocal” signifer or medium, of the phoneme or phone as such’ (Essential History, pp. 151–52).

35. It is here also that we can broach the question of the auditory play tak-ing place in Derrida’s own writing – as exemplified by the confluence of phonème and phénomène in the passage cited above, or his homophonic différance. Although it is worth noting that at each instance this remains at the level of the ‘vocable’, of individual phonemic or morphemic units: it is the focus on the unit which I ultimately wish to call into question, because in this a particular model of phone has already been adopted without question.

36. Derrida, Dissemination trans. Barbara Johnson (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), p. 73.

37. Jed Rasula, ‘Poetry’s Voice-Over’, in Morris (ed.) Sound States, pp. 274–316, pp. 286–87.

38. Plato, Phaedrus trans. Robin Waterfield (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 45, 259a.

39. Early in the dialogue Socrates had remarked in the background a chorus of cicadas (230c; p. 7), one element of many ways in which the set-ting of the dialogue is described in detail – something which, as many commentators have noted, sets the Phaedrus apart from other dialogues.

40. Derrida, Of Grammatology, p. 167.41. Derrida, D’un ton apocalyptique adopté naguère en philosophie, p. 70.42. Derrida, ‘Dialangues’, p. 146.43. The following pages bear the marks of Heidegger’s discussions of the ‘sound-

ing word’ throughout On the Way to Language trans. Peter Hertz with Joan

176 Notes

Stambaugh (New York: Harper and Row, 1971). However, as I have already treated this account at length elsewhere (Sounding/Silence: Martin Heidegger at the Limits of Poetics, esp. pp. 88–92), I will leave the Heideggerian influence implicit.

44. Steve Goodman, Sonic Warfare: Sound, Affect, and the Ecology of Fear (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 2009), p. 82. Goodman is taking his cue from Deleuze and Guattari’s account of virtuality.

45. Barthes, ‘The Grain of the Voice’, in Stephen Heath ed. and trans., Image-Music-Text (London: Fontana, 1977), pp. 179–189, p. 184.

46. Julia Kristeva, Revolution in Poetic Language, p. 28. Barthes overtly refer-ences Kristeva as well as Benveniste, extrapolating from her account of genotext and phenotext to distinguish between geno-song, its physical genesis, where ‘melody really works at the language’ (p. 182), and to the pheno-voice, its coded structure. For now I leave aside Kristeva’s crucially gendered depiction of the chora.

47. Lyn Hejinian, My Life and My Life in the Nineties (Middletown, Wesleyan University Press, 2013), p. 67.

48. Bernard Noël, Le Reste du voyage (Paris: POL, 2008), pp. 153–167, p. 166: ‘we know presence and absence / but not that our life is between them / like a path of drops of air’.

49. Jacques Derrida, Monolingualism of the Other; or, The Prosthesis of Origin trans. Patrick Mensah (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), p. 48.

50. Jean-Luc Nancy, ‘Vox Clamans in Deserto’, pp. 235, 245.51. Hence his fascination in the figure of John the Baptist’s voice calling

out in the wilderness, heralding the coming of the son of God but incomprehensible to contemporary ears which hear nothing but noise.

52. Jean-Luc Nancy, The Muses II: Multiple Arts ed. Simon Sparks, trans. Leslie Hill (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006). 17–18.

53. The term ‘vocal folds’ replaced ‘vocal cords’ within physiological accounts of phonation in the early twentieth century (the first refer-ence to the term I have found dates from 1907), yet the jury is still out as regards terminology. Philip Lieberman and Sheila Blumstein, for instance, argue that the sound-producing organs might look as though they are infolding, but they function much more in the manner of cords, precisely as Antoine Ferrein had suggested in 1741. Speech Physiology, Speech Perception, and Acoustic Phonetics (Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 11.

54. Noël, Le Reste du voyage, pp. 169–182, p. 172.55. Nancy, ‘Vox Clamans in Deserto’, pp. 245, 246.56. Plato, ‘Apology’ in G.M.A. Grube ed., Five Dialogues, pp. 21-44, p. 36 (31d).57. Heidegger, Being and Time, p. 277.58. Here Heidegger is playing, as Nietzsche did before him in the Genealogy

of Morals, on how Schuld as ‘guilt’ arises from Schuld as ‘debt’ and ‘lack’.59. Derrida, ‘Dialangues’, p. 150. We will approach this from a different

angle in chapter four, looking at Rachel Blau duPlessis’s discussions of the muse-figure.

Notes 177

60. By the end of the speech, these dithyrambs will have graduated into ‘epic verse’ (241e; p. 22).

61. Cavarero, For more than one voice, p. 102.62. This points to a different Socratic tradition, traced by Bakhtin and

later Kristeva who turn to Menippean discourses as an early instance of the carnivalesque taking place in philosophical argumentation. See Kristeva, ‘Word, Dialogue, and Novel’, in Leon S. Roudiez (ed.), Desire and Language, pp. 64-91, esp. pp. 81ff.

63. William Wordsworth, ‘Preface’ to the Second Edition of the Lyrical Ballads (1800), in Thomas Hutchinson (ed.) William Wordsworth: Poetical Works (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1936), pp. 734-41, p. 739.

64. This is a classic double-bind in lyric apostrophe more generally, as Jonathan Culler has noted discussing Lamartine’s delicious address, Objets inanimés, avez-vous donc une âme?—where it is the donc which becomes focus of the irony (Culler, ‘Apostrophe’, in The Pursuit of Signs: Semiotics, Literature, Deconstruction (London: Routledge, 1981), pp. 135-54, p. 141).

3 Turnings of the Breath

1. Eric Griffiths, The Printed Voice of Victorian Poetry (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), p. 60.

2. ‘When I have fears’, in Miriam Allott (ed.), The Poems of John Keats (London: Longman, 1970), p. 297, ll. 9–14.

3. By way of context, the previous ‘when’ had (unlike the first two) been placed in a stressed position (‘And when’), gesturing at increased metrical prominence for these structuring adverbs as the poem progresses.

4. Blasing, Lyric Poetry: The Pain and Pleasure of Words (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007), p. 5.

5. Laurence Lipking, The Life of the Poet: Beginning and Ending Poetic Careers (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. 181.

6. Das Fremde, the foreign: a painfully charged term for Celan, as a survi-vor of the Shoah, writing in German, addressing, as a non-German but Germanophone Jew, a German audience that has recognised him as a major German poet.

7. Barbara Johnson, ‘Apostrophe, Animation, Abortion’, Diacritics 16:1 (Spring 1986), pp. 28–47, p. 31.

8. This provides much of the force to Johnson’s focus on abortion, where the address to a child dead before birth undermines both apostrophe’s claim to animate, and this infantile linguistic stage which the unborn child will never reach.

9. Blasing, Lyric Poetry, p. 13.10. Rosolato, La relation à l’inconnu, p. 150.11. Abraham and Torok, The Shell and the Kernel, pp. 128–29.12. I call this post-romantic given that it seems quite difficult to square with,

inter alia, Wordsworth’s long reflection on what it means to ‘recollect’ such overflow, and what such recollection exacts of verse technique, as well as

178 Notes

the large majority of poems in the Lyrical Ballads. In the introduction to The Lyric Theory Reader (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014), Virginia Jackson and Yopie Prins outline a model of ‘lyric reading’ in which the present dominance of ‘lyric’ as the preferred mode of poetry is anachronistically ‘projected’ back on to a tradition to which such models of lyric are alien. Maybe something similar could be said for the straw-mannish ‘romantic lyric’: that it is not a feature of lyrics written during Romanticism, but an invention of contemporary literary criticism and polemic, anachronistically grafted on to these romantic lyrics in reading?

13. W.R. Johnson, The Idea of Lyric (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), p. 8. He goes so far as to term this a ‘lyric catastrophe’.

14. John Stuart Mill, ‘What is Poetry?’ (1833), in Thomas J. Collins and Vivienne J. Rundle (eds.), The Broadview Anthology of Victorian Poetry and Poetic Theory (Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press, 1999), pp. 1212–27, p. 1216.

15. T.S. Eliot, ‘The Three Voices of Poetry’, p. 96. 16. Grossman, ‘Summa Lyrica’, in The Sighted Singer (Johns Hopkins University

Press: 1992), pp. 205–375, p. 247.17. G.W.F. Hegel, Aesthetics vol. I trans. T.M. Knox (Oxford: Clarendon Press,

1975), p. 1027.18. This is in accordance with his notorious ‘death of art’ thesis, where the

sensuous particularity the artworks gives way to supersensuous spirit.19. Charles Baudelaire, ‘Thédore de Banville’, in Claude Pichois ed. Œuvres

complètes vol. II (Paris: Gallimard, 1975), p. 165.20. L’art moderne a une tendance essentiellement démoniaque… Mais

Théodore de Banville refuse de se pencher sur ces marécages de sang, sur ces abîmes de boue. Comme l’art antique, il n’exprime que ce qui est beau, joyeux, noble, grand, rythmique. Aussi, dans ses œuvres, vous n’entendrez pas les dissonances, les discordances des musiques du sabbat, non plus que les glapissements de l’ironie, cette vengeance du vaincu.

21. Baudelaire, ‘Le Cygne’, Œuvres complètes vol. I, pp. 85–6. 22. The model of lyric as ‘event’ has been given its most concerted elabora-

tion by Jonathan Culler, and the following analysis is deeply indebted to Culler’s account. See ‘Why Lyric?’, PMLA 123:1 ( Jan 2008), pp. 201–6.

23. ‘say it, beautiful witch, if you know’. 24. ‘On your island, O Venus, I found standing nothing but a symbolic

corpse where my image hung... —Ah! Lord! give me the force and the courage to contemplate my heart and my body without disgust!’

25. Jonathan Culler, ‘Apostrophe’, in The Pursuit of Signs, pp. 135–54, p. 139.26. Culler, ‘Lyric, History and Genre’, in New Literary History 40:4 (2009),

pp. 879–99, p. 889.27. Culler, ‘Apostrophe’, p. 146.28. ‘O pain! O pain! time is eating up life’. 29. See Michel Henry, Genealogy of Psychoanalysis trans. Douglas Brick

(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993), on this front.30. Paul Celan, 26 March 1969, in Collected Prose trans. and ed. Rosemarie

Waldrop (New York: Routledge, 2003), p. 28.

Notes 179

31. cf. Jonathan Culler, ‘Why Lyric?’: ‘stress on the reconstruction of the dramatic situation deprives rhythm and sound patterning of any con-stitutive role (at best they reinforce or undercut meaning); it devalues intertextual relations, except when they can be assimilated to allusions made by the consciousness dramatized; and it ignores the characteristic extravagance of lyric, which frequently engages in speech acts without a real-world counterpart’ (p. 202).

32. Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria trans. H.E. Butler (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Loeb Classical Library, 1920), Book IV Chapter 1, p. 41.

33. ‘O you, be witness that I have done my job like a perfect chemist and a saintly soul. For from every thing I have extracted the essence, you gave me your mud and I turned it into gold.’

34. J. Mark Smith, ‘Apostrophe, or the Lyric Art of Turning Away’, Texas Studies in Literature and Language 49:4 (2007), pp. 411–37, p. 414.

35. ‘O beauty, hard plague of souls, you want to!’36. Claude Pichois thinks it impossible to tell (Œuvres complètes, p. 301), Léon

Bopp suggests Marie Daubrun (Psychologie des Fleurs du mal IV (vol. 1) (Geneva: Droz, 1969), p. 174), others have found a ‘Marguerite Bellegarde’ in Baudelaire’s journals – the consensus view according to Jean-Michel Adam and Ute Heidmann (‘Entre recueil et intertextes : le poème. Autour de l’insertion de « Sonnet d’automne » dans Les Fleurs du Mal de 1861’, in SEMEN: Revue de sémio-linguistique des textes et discours 24 (2007), pp. 123–44, p. 134). Barbara Johnson remarks a similar search for the ‘Agathe’ of ‘Moesta et Errabunda’: ‘a painfully stark example of the inevitable circularity of biographical criticism’, she concludes (‘Apostrophe, Animation, Abortion, p. 30). Adam and Heidmann conclude that it is an intertextual reference to Margarete, using as circumstantial evidence that Gounod’s opera was first performed in Paris in 1859, the year of the sonnet’s composition (p. 135). Indeed, they suggest that the ‘Crime, horreur et folie!’ that starts the final tercet is a reference to Mephistopholes’ driving Margarete/Gretchen to drown her newborn child, and so is dependent entirely on extratextual allu-sion – despite the fact we are told that Cupid, in his hiding place, has just pulled back his fatal bow’ [‘L’amour, dans sa guérite / Ténébreux, embusqué, bande son arc fatal’], which provides a ready explanation for this outburst.

37. Celan, Selected Poetry and Prose trans. Waldrop, p. 47.38. Michael Hamburger ed. and trans., Paul Celan: Collected Poems

(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1996), p. 186.39. Hamburger’s translation runs: ‘You prayer-, you blasphemy-, you / prayer-

sharp knives / of my silence. // You my words being crippled / together with me, you / my hale ones. // And you: / you, you, you / my later or roses / daily worn true and / more true –: // How much, O how much / world. How many / paths. // You crutch, you wing. We – – // We shall sing the nursery rhyme, that one, / do you hear, that one / with the hu, with the man, with the human being, the one / with the scrub and with / the pair of eyes that lay ready there as / tear-upon- / tear’ (p. 187).

40. See in this regard Christopher Fynsk, Language and Relation (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996), esp. pp. 61–65, 71–74, 89–93.

180 Notes

41. Celan, ‘The Meridian’, p. 50.42. Celan, ‘Psalm’, p. 178. Hamburger’s translation: ‘A nothing / we were, are,

shall / remain, flowering: / the nothing-, the / no one’s rose’.43. Smith, ‘Apostrophe’, pp. 429–30. 44. Celan, ‘The Meridian’, p. 49.45. Culler, ‘Lyric, History and Genre’, p. 887.46. ‘Water, so when will you rain?’47. ‘Accursed being to whom, from the profoundest abyss to the heights of

the heavens, nothing, except me, replies.’48. ‘O worms, black companions with neither ear nor eye, see come to you

a free and joyous dead man; living philosophers, sons of decay, pass through my ruin without remorse, and tell me if there remains any torture for this old soulless body and dead among the dead!’

49. Culler, ‘Apostrophe’, p. 149.50. ‘A flash… then night! Fugitive beauty whose gaze made me suddenly

reborn, will I not see you again but in eternity? Elsewhere, far from here! too late! never, perhaps! For I don’t know where you flee, you don’t know where I go, O you who I would have loved, O you who knew it!’

51. Ross Chambers argues that ‘Un éclair… puis la nuit’ does not ‘record the shock itself, which is identified in the ellipsis as having occurred in the sonnet’s turn’ but rather constitutes a ‘retrospective, aftermath narrative of that undescribed shock’, a ‘mise en abyme of the poem’s narrative inad-equacy and incompleteness’. ‘Heightening the Lowly (Baudelaire: Je n’ai pas oublié and À une passante)’, 19th Century French Studies 37/1–2 (2008), pp. 43–51, p. 49.

52. ‘Let us love gently. Cupid in his hiding-place, shadowy, lying in wait, extends his fatal bow. I know the mechanisms of his old arsenal: Crime, horror, and madness! O pale daisy! Like me are you not an autumnal sun, O my so white, O my so cold Daisy?’

53. See David Evans, Rhythm, Illusion and the Poetic Idea: Baudelaire, Rimbaud, Mallarmé (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2004), p. 43. This is not the only time Baudelaire uses anaphora in order to propel an alternative metrical set: in ‘Que diras-tu ce soir, pauvre âme solitaire’, he asks his soul what it would say ‘À la très-belle, à la très-bonne, à la très-chère’, a syncopation high-lighted by the way the poem’s two opening lines are organized around the medial caesura.

54. See Ong, Orality and Literacy, esp. pp. 60–62. Ong cites from extensive ethnographic research, from Ruth Finnegan, Jack Goody, Jeffrey Opland, and others, which demonstrates the notion of ‘verbatim’ memorisation is a construction of literate cultures, which conceive of a source text as composed in advance of performance, its stability as an entity secured by being written. Opland notes that on word-for-word terms, each per-formance of South African oral epic (one of the few remaining purely oral epics which can be studied up close) has at best a 60% accuracy rate, although in Somali oral epic, as studied by John William Johnson, verbatim memorisation is much more prevalent.

55. Such is the argument given by Williams in the introduction to his translation of Carmina Liber 3: The Third Book of Horace’s Odes (Oxford:

Notes 181

Clarendon Press, 1969), pp. 6–7. He situates this moment in the fourth and third centuries bce for Greek poetry. The imaginative structure applies not only to the poems’ addresses, but also, in Horace’s odes at least, to the depiction of poetic utterance. Says Williams: Horace ‘repre-sents himself as singing his poetry, often to the accompaniment of the lyric; this is a pure fiction, derived from the fact that the early Greek lyric poets whom he most immediately used as his models, like Sappho and Alcaeus, wrote their poetry for musical performance’ (p. 8). One might also think of Gregory Nagy’s account of Panhellenisation, which also serves to distance the poet from the ritual of performance. Nagy’s focus also is less on ritual than on the establishment of the poet-figure: ‘Once the factor of performance slips out of the poet’s control, even if the performers have a tradition of what to say about the poet as a com-poser, nevertheless, the poet becomes a myth; more accurately, the poet becomes part of a myth, and the mythmaking structure appropriates his identity’ (Pindar’s Homer: The Lyric Possession of an Epic Past (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1990), p. 433).

56. Waters, Poetry’s Touch: On Lyric Address (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2003), pp. 9–10.

57. Culler, ‘Why Lyric’, p. 205.

4 ‘The Multitudinous Tongue’

1. William Shakespeare, Coriolanus ed. Lee Bliss (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 190. All line references are to this edition.

2. In its registering a shift from the a political and legal system, but also eth-ics of honour and structures for social interaction, based around family to one based around the state, Coriolanus fits the description given by Hegel of Antigone in the Phenomenology of Spirit trans. A.V. Miller (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), pp. 284–94.

3. Jacques Rancière, Disagreement: Politics and Philosophy trans. Julie Rose (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004), p. 25.

4. ‘Counting’ is in fact crucial to Rancière’s argument: ‘logos is never sim-ply speech, because it is always indissolubly the account that is made of this speech: the account by which a sonorous emission is understood as speech, capable of enunciating what is just, whereas some other emis-sion is merely perceived as a noise signalling pleasure or pain, consent or revolt’ (pp. 22–23). Here Rancière plays on the semantics of the French verb compter: not only in the sense of being able to give an account of oneself, but also in the sense of being something that counts, and is taken to count: ‘Politics exists because those who have no right to be counted as speaking beings make themselves of some account’ (p. 27). This also retains the post-history of the Greek logos, as language and as a logic which ‘counts’ in terms of equivalences, such that each body is of equal value to any other.

5. bell hooks, Talking Back: Thinking Feminist, Thinking Black (London: Sheba Feminist Press, 1989), p. 9.

182 Notes

6. Édouard Glissant, ‘Natural Poetics, Forced Poetics’, in Caribbean Discourse trans. J. Michael Dash (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1989), pp. 123–24. To my knowledge, neither Rancière nor Glissant have ever discussed the other’s work, despite the striking overlaps in concerns and literary influence: both write on Baudelaire, Rimbaud and Mallarmé. As Hugues Azérad observes: ‘Both thinkers—who shared a fascination with Mallarmé and sought to shake up the foundations of inequality—think of poetics in terms of emancipation and of redistribu-tion of the sensible […] Both L’Intention poétique and Rancière’s works ges-ture toward the emancipatory power of aesthetics and a renewal of a truly democratic politics’ (‘“Mesure parfaite et réinventée”: Édouard Glissant reinvents Nineteenth Century French Poetry’, in Joseph Acquisto ed., Thinking Poetry: Philosophical Approaches to Nineteenth Century French Poetry (New York: Palgrave, 2013),pp. 203–20, pp. 213–14).

7. Rancière, Disagreement, p. 2. 8. Rancière, The Distribution of the Sensible, p. 13. 9. ibid., p. 37. Although one can see the link being made in the following

discussion of the ‘literariness’ of politics: ‘Political statements and liter-ary locutions produce effects in reality. They define models of speech or action but also regimes of sensible intensity. They draft maps of the visible, trajectories between the visible and the sayable, relationships between modes of being, modes of saying, and modes of doing and mak-ing. They define variations of sensible intensities, perceptions, and the abilities of bodies. They thereby take hold of unspecified groups of peo-ple, they widen gaps, open up space for deviations, modify the speeds, the trajectories, and the ways in which groups of people adhere to a con-dition, react to situations, recognise their images. They reconfigure the map of the sensible by interfering with the functionality of gestures and rhythms adapted to the natural cycles of production, reproduction, and submission. Man is a political animal because he is a literary animal who lets himself be diverted from his ‘natural’ purpose by the power of words. This literarity is at once the condition and the effect of the circulation of ‘actual’ literary locutions.’ (p. 39).

10. I am grateful to Krzysztof Ziarek for formulating this distinction – albeit in relation to Heidegger rather than to Rancière.

11. Rancière, The Distribution of the Sensible trans. Gabriel Rockhill (London: Continuum, 2004), p. 13.

12. Rancière is hardly alone in this. See Carla Kaplan’s description of a ‘feminist politics of voice’: ‘Recognizing the numerous mechanisms that either deny voice to women or render their discourse meaningless, a feminist politics of voice often aims to rescue what has been silenced or disregarded’ (Kaplan, The Erotics of Talk: Women’s Writing and Feminist Paradigms; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996; p. 12). So voice is equated with ‘discourse’, but the auditory trope of being ‘silenced’ is apparently interchangeable with the visual one of being ‘disregarded’. Kaplan’s counterproposal is an ‘erotics of talk’ which now incorporates audition into the metonymy of voice as speech: ‘the search not for a

Notes 183

voice, but for a listener capable of hearing that voice and responding appropriately to it’ (p. 15).

13. Bataille, The Accursed Share: An Essay on General Economy (New York: Zone Books, 1988), pp. 27ff.

14. hooks, Talking Back, p. 6.15. Perhaps a reason for the divergence of Glissant’s account to that of

Rancière lies in its historical moment – not simply given the fraught rela-tion Glissant’s generation had with négritude, but also with his attempt to establish a myth of creolization as counter-colonialism in Martinique, an island which remains to this day a département of France and would never know decolonisation.

16. Sean Bonney, The Commons (London: Openned Press, 2011), p. 12. 17. Glissant, Caribbean Discourse, p. 99–100, translation modified.18. To a degree. Dante does not extend such magnanimity to the Romans,

who are possessed not of a ‘Vulgar Tongue’ but rather a ‘hideous jar-gon, […] the ugliest of all the Italian dialects’. He continues: ‘nor is this surprising, since they appear in their morals also, and in the depravity of their customs, to stink worse than all the rest’. De Vulgari Eloquentia trans. A.G. Ferrers Howell (London: Kegan Paul, 1890), p. 26.

19. Dante, De Vulgari Eloquentia, p. 38.20. Gerald Warner, ‘Time for a Disaffection from Literary Slumming’,

Sunday Times, 25 September 1994, p. 8. Simon Jenkins, ‘An Expletive of a Winner,’ The Times, 15 October, 1994, p. 20. The issue of swearing is particularly significant given the reception of Kelman’s novel – there are said to be over four thousand in the novel (approximately eleven per page). See Geoff Gilbert, ‘Can Fiction Swear? James Kelman and the Booker Prize,’ in Rod Mengham ed., An Introduction to Contemporary Fiction (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1999), pp. 219–34, especially pp. 229–30.

21. James Kelman, How Late it was, how late (London: Vintage, 1994), p. 160. The word ‘cunt’ drew particular attention, yet in Sammy’s idiolect, the word does not necessarily indicate the intention to offend, as when he says, during an interior monologue, ‘He had aye been a bit stupit. And there’s nay cunt to blame for that except yerself’ (p. 15).

22. E.M.W. Tillyard’s The Elizabethan World Picture (New York: Random House, 1942) is perhaps the most famous exponent of the ‘conservative’ reading; recent criticism has tended to play up Shakespeare’s left-liberal credentials: see Oliver Arnold, ‘Worshipful mutineers: from Demos to electorate in Coriolanus, in his The Third Citizen: Shakespeare’s Theatre and the Early Modern House of Commons (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007). Barbara Parker (Plato’s Republic and Shakespeare’s Rome; Newark, Delaware: University of Delaware Press, 2004) even sees its anti-oligarchic message to prefigure the trial of James I’s successor, Charles I.

23. James Kelman, ‘Elitist Slurs are Racism by Another Name’: Booker Acceptance Speech. Reprinted in Scotland on Sunday, Spectrum Supplement, 16 October, 1994, p. 2.

24. Linton Kwesi Johnson, Mi Revalueshanary Fren: Selected Poems (Harmondsworth: Penguin 2002), pp. 27–29.

184 Notes

25. Johnson, in fact, started recording and performing these poems with a reggae backing band in the late 1970s.

26. Cited in ‘In his own words: An interview with Theo Tait’, The Guardian Review, 12 April 2008, p. 12. hooks also speaks of being asked, during Creative Writing classes at university, to employ her ‘authentic voice’, something not asked of white students. ‘Such comments seemed to mask racial biases about what my authentic voice would or should be,’ she observes (Talking Back, p. 11).

27. Anthony Joesph, Teragaton (London: poisonenginepress, 1997), p. 18.28. hooks, Talking Back, p. 6.29. Rachel Blau duPlessis, ‘Manifests’, Diacritics 26:3/4 (1996), pp. 31–53,

p. 34.30. Lisa Robertson, Debbie: An Epic (Vancouver: New Star Books, 1997),

unpaginated; ll. 126–27.31. Wallace Stevens, ‘The Idea of Key West’, in Collected Poems (London:

Faber, 1960), pp. 110–11.32. Elizabeth Tolbert, ‘The Enigma of Music, the Voice of Reason: “Music,”

“Language,” and Becoming Human’, New Literary History 32 (2001), pp. 451–65, p. 463.

33. There is a certain overlap here with Judith Butler’s worry that the frag-mentation of selfhood that is identified with the critique of the subject conflicts with emancipatory politics, which not only posits ‘the norma-tive model of an integrated and unified self’, but aspires to achieve such selfhood for those denied it by oppression. This, as Butler notes, is closely related to the problem of a female ‘identity’, and whether such an iden-tity is required if only strategically. ‘Gender Trouble, Feminist Theory, and Psychoanalytic Discourse’, in Linda Nicholson (ed.), Feminism/Postmodernism (New York: Routledge, 1990), pp. 324–40, p. 328. Or as she puts it in Gender Trouble: ‘Apart from the foundationalist fictions that support the notion of the subject ... there is the political problem that feminism encounters in the assumption that the term women denotes a common identity’. Gender Trouble: Feminism: and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990), p. 6.

34. However, Blau duPlessis goes further to suggest that the feminisation of the Muse serves to neutralise a male poet’s effeminacy in being possessed, and dispossessed, by logos, as logos is regendered and domesticated within the poem’s figuring of its own inspiration: ‘Muses are vibrant, but mainly silent, or gnomic; unsophisticated, yet unconsciously creative or ethical; desirable, yet appropriated; givers, but not owners’ (p. 35).

35. Rancière, The Distribution of the Sensible, p. 40.36. See for instance ‘Bayou’, in the 1993 collection Les grands chaos. Glissant,

Poèmes complets (Paris: Gallimard, 1994), pp. 397–406.37. Bonney provides a list of ‘Selected Resources’. The Commons, p. 79.38. Bonney, ‘Letter on Poetics (After Rimbaud)’, in Happiness: Poems after

Rimbaud (London: Unkant, 2011), p. 64.39. Bonney, Baudelaire in English (London: Veer, 2008), p. 85.40. Blau duPlessis, ‘Manifests’, p. 39.

Notes 185

41. Sean Bonney, The Commons, p. 10.42. T.W. Adorno, Negative Dialectics trans. E.B. Ashton (London: Routledge,

2004), p. 57.43. W.H. Auden, ‘In Memory of W.B. Yeats’, in The English Auden (London:

Faber, 1977), p. 242.44. W.E.B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (New York: Barnes and Noble,

2003), p. 178.45. Whether ‘the Negro folk-song’ would have answered to Schiller’s own

aesthetic taste is neither here nor there, nor the fact that each faculty for judging beauty is necessarily determined by historical circumstance and thus possessed of blindspots and complicit in subjugation of one group or another; what should give us far more pause is the fact that thinkers operating with divergent norms of what is beautiful could nevertheless conceptualise beauty itself in ways that cohere uncannily. That said, du Bois does tell of an African American brought to aesthetic rapture watch-ing a performance of Wagner’s Lohengrin – before being ejected from the opera house on account of his race.

46. Kelman, How Late it was, how late, p. 285. 47. hooks, Talking Back, p. 6.48. Rancière, Mute Speech, p. 20. 49. For Rancière’s discussion of this, see The Politics of Literature, pp. 10–1.50. Adorno, ‘Commitment,’ trans. Frances McDonagh, in Terry Eagleton and

Drew Milne (eds.), Marxist Literary Theory: A Reader (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), pp. 187–203, p. 202. Adorno said of Baudelaire, Flaubert’s con-temporary (and who, in the same year as Flaubert fell foul of Parisian obscenity laws – the same prosecutor, Ernest Pinard, oversaw both cases), that his ‘poetry gives a slap in the face not only to the juste milieu but also to all bourgeois social sentiment’, but ‘nevertheless […] was truer to the masses, toward whom he turned his tragic, arrogant mask than any “poor-people’s” poetry’ (‘On Lyric Poetry and Society’, trans. Shierry Weber Nicholsen, in Rold Tiedemann ed. Notes to Literature; New York: Columbia University Press; pp. 37–54, pp. 45–46).

51. Bonney, ‘Letter on Poetics: After Rimbaud’, in Happiness, p. 65.52. Again, the political economy of intellectual labour might have some-

thing to do with this – a soft Leftism comfortable with its privilege is not necessarily motivated to demand seriously that we think the world otherwise, with all this might entail. Far better to dismiss this attempt as ‘ideological’, using the conceptual vocabulary of Marxism against any radical emancipatory politics.

5 Getting the Measure of Voice

1. Martin Heidegger, ‘…poetically man dwells…’, in Poetry, Language, Thought trans. Alfred Hofstadter (New York: Harper & Row, 1971; 2001 reprinting), pp. 211–27.

2. John Donne, ‘The Triple Fool’, in The Complete English Poems ed. A.J. Smith (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), p. 81, ll. 8–9.

186 Notes

3. Indeed, in its unpredictability and opening up of plural directions at one time, it comes to resemble the dialectic as traced by Hegel in the Phenomenology of Spirit, something our habitual discussions of ‘dialectics’ neglect to mention.

4. It is possible to read the line beginnings ‘Then as th’earth’s inward…’, ‘And, by delighting many…’, and ‘Both are increased…’ as ‘trochaic inversions’, albeit with more ambiguity.

5. Cited in Yopie Prins, ‘Voice Inverse’, Victorian Poetry 42:1 (2004), pp. 43–59; p. 48. The recording is available through the British Library (audio CD: ‘The Spoken Word: British Poets’, 2010).

6. Yopie Prins, ‘Voice Inverse’, p. 49. 7. Plato, Ion trans. Trevor J. Saunders, in Saunders ed. Early Socratic Dialogues

pp. 47–65. 8. Walter Ong, Orality and Literacy, esp. pp. 31–32; Eric Havelock, Preface

to Plato (Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1963), pp. 134ff.

9. The belief that metre is an ‘abstraction’ is a central tenet of the New Criticism, reaching its dogmatic pinnacle with W.K. Wimsatt and A. Beardsley’s ‘The Concept of Meter: An Exercise in Abstraction’ (PMLA 74 (1959), pp. 585–98). Paul Fussell notes the unquestioned Platonism of this position, relating the positing of an ideal, abstract metrical template to another ‘Platonic’ tendency which I imagine Prins would excoriate: poetry’s elevation of the commonplace through formal pattern (Poetic Meter and Poetic Form, pp. 16–17).

10. Charles Olson, ‘Projective Verse’, in Collected Prose eds. Donald Allen and Benjamin Friedlander (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), pp. 239–49, p. 245.

11. Steven Connor, ‘Photophonics’, Sound Effects 3:1–2 (2013), pp. 137–52, esp. p. 142.

12. Gerard Manley Hopkins, Letter to Robert Bridges, 13 and 21 May 1878, in Selected Letters, ed. Catherine Phillips (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 95–97, p. 97.

13. Letter to Everard Hopkins, 5 November 1885, Selected Letters pp. 216–21, p. 221.

14. Although, of course, if Edison had indeed been able to summon up the voices of the dead with his phonograph, or Marconi to tune into them on his wireless, then perhaps we would be able to re-create this tradition retroactively.

15. Garrett Stewart, Reading Voices: Literature and the Phonotext (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), p. 3.

16. David Wills, Prosthesis, p. 137.17. Benveniste, ‘The Semiology of Language’ trans. Genette Ashby and

Adelaide Russo, Semiotica, 37:1 supplement (1981), pp. 5–23; ‘The Levels of Linguistic Analysis’ (op. cit.).

18. Although to my knowledge the methods of linguistics do not allow for this possibility (notably through the practice of getting participants in an experiment to read target sentences aloud).

Notes 187

19. Hopkins, Letter to Robert Bridges, 21 August 1877, in Selected Letters pp. 89–91, p. 91. Immediately before this, Hopkins had emphasised the relation of sprung rhythm to prose speech: ‘Why do I employ sprung rhythm at all? Because it is the nearest to the rhythm of prose, that is the native and natural rhythm of speech, the least forced, the most rhetorical and emphatic of all natural rhythms’.

20. Meredith Martin, ‘Hopkins’s Prosody’, Victorian Poetry 49:2 (2011), pp. 1–30, p. 6. Martin has Michael Hurley’s essay ‘The Audible Reading of Poetry Revisited’, British Journal of Aesthetics 44:4 (2004), pp. 393–407.

21. Sprinker, A Counterpoint of Dissonance: The Aesthetics and Poetry of Gerard Manley Hopkins (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), p. 76.

22. Jacques Derrida, ‘La Parole soufflée’, in Writing and Difference trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), pp. 212–45, p. 241.

23. Cédric Jamet, ‘Limitless Voice(s), Intensive Bodies: Henri Chopin’s Poetics of Expansion’, Mosaic 42/2, 2009, pp. 135–51, p. 139.

24. Martin, ‘Hopkins’s Prosody’, p. 3.25. Clive Scott, The Poetics of French Verse (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986),

p. 130. The effect, Scott argues, is that ‘Hopkins’s rhythms […] seem caught rather awkwardly between the metrical and the non-metrical, a conventionalised rhythm and a rhythm of immediate utterance, an accentual pattern unjustified by sense and an occurrence of accent dic-tated by sense’. In fact, Peter L. Groves has suggested that even these ‘sprung’ rhythms should be seen as a means of ‘opening the pentam-eter’ (‘“Opening” the Pentameter: Hopkins’s Metrical Experimentation’, Victorian Poetry 49:2 (2011), pp. 93–110).

26. Included in MacKenzie, p. 144.27. For instance, in the subordination of ‘level’ to relative unstress, alongside

its divergence from prose pronunciation, is the suppression of the asso-nant /ε/ phonemes that reaches its culmination in ‘ecstasy!’ (level, steady, air, there... and after ‘ecstasy’: then, bend – again, unstressed).

28. James Wimsatt, Hopkins’s Poetics of Speech Sound: Sprung Rhythm, Lettering, Inscape (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006), p. 42.

29. Joshua King, ‘Hopkins’ Affective Rhythm: Grace and Intention in Tension’, Victorian Poetry 45:3 (2007), pp. 209–37, p. 223.

30. Gerard Manley Hopkins, ‘Poetry and Verse’, in House (ed.), The Journals and Papers of Gerard Manley Hopkins, pp. 289–90, p. 289.

31. Immanuel Kant, Critique of Judgement trans. Werner Pluhar (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1986), p. 84.

32. John Wilkinson, Down to Earth (Cambridge: Salt, 2008), p. 1.33. Simon Jarvis, ‘Unfree Verse: John Wilkinson’s The Speaking Twins’,

Paragraph 33:2 (2010), pp. 280–95, p. 282.34. Ben Etherington, ‘Cellular Scansion’, Thinking Verse III (2013), pp. 188–210,

p. 195. 35. As I understand it, this has no overt link to ‘generative’ in the Chomskyan

sense, and indeed in its refusal to abstract away a ‘competence’ from the particularities of performance, would be resistant to Chomsky’s

188 Notes

own approach and its applications to metre by Halle, Keyser, Kiparsky, Hanson, etc.

36. Etherington here is following Gordon Rohlehr’s account of a ‘continuum’ between creole and standard speech forms (p. 190).

37. It is not for nothing that Andrea Brady, in a recent essay, has treated the collection as a single poem (‘The Subject of Sacrifice in John Wilkinson’s Down to Earth’, Textual Practice 28:1 (2014), pp. 57–78).

38. Olson, ‘Projective Verse’, pp. 240, 247.39. Scott, The Poetics of French Verse, p. 127. Indeed, Scott does not seem to

this nightmarish at all.40. St Augustine, The Confessions trans. R.F. Pine-Coffin (Harmondsworth:

Penguin, 1961), XI.1; p. 253.41. Pine-Coffin’s translation runs: ‘You, my father, are eternal. But I am

divided between time gone by and time to come’ (p. 279); the transla-tion I use comes from Charlotte Gross, ‘Augustine’s Ambivalence about Temporality: His Two Accounts of Time’, Medieval Philosophy and Theology 8 (1999), pp. 129–48, pp. 142, 148. Augustine’s Latin runs: ‘pater meus aeternus es; at ego in tempora dissilui’.

42. Gerard O’Daly, ‘Time as distentio and Augustine’s exegeses of Philippians 3:12–14’, Revue des études augustiniennes 23, (1977), pp. 265–71, p. 266.

43. See, for instance, Charlotte Gross, ‘Augustine’s Ambivalence about Temporality: His Two Accounts of Time’, Medieval Philosophy and Theology 8 (1999), pp. 129–48, and Jason W. Carter, ‘St. Augustine on Time, Time Numbers, and Enduring Objects’, Vivarium 49 (2011), pp. 301–23.

44. In this regard, Augustine anticipates the metrical theory of, amongst others, Coventry Patmore and Reuven Tsur.

45. Charles Baudelaire, ‘Correspondances’, Œuvres complètes I, p. 11. I say ‘less straightforward’, for it would be a misnomer to say there is no theological thinking taking place in Baudelaire. Joseph Acquisto, in The Fall out of Salvation: Baudelaire and Beyond identifies a compelling ‘asote-riological’ theology pervading Baudelaire’s poetry and poetics (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014). The religious, if pagan, imaginary of this poem is made clear in its opening statement: ‘La nature est un temple’.

46. Michel Deguy, ‘L’infini et sa diction ou, de la diarèse’, p. 30.47. [La pause, ou blanc… introduit la distentio animi, ou temps, dans la

substance phonique de ce métronome qu’est une phrase rythmée, ou vers, et en fin de compte un poème, par où le temps passe, prend figure de mesure… Dans la cadence rythmique… l’infini prend une mesure. Le vers est ce défilé où l’infini prend finition et le fini s’infinitise. Le vers est cette chose ayant sa limitation métrée qui est travaillé par la distension, l’extensibilité – expans-i-on de chose infinie.] I do not know why Deguy opted for the singular form of ‘chose’ here.

48. A few examples, each from the opening to paragraphs: ‘Why is this so, O Lord my God?’ (XI.8; p. 259); ‘He is the Beginning, O God, in which you made heaven and earth’ (XI.9; p. 260); ‘These are tentative theories, Father, not downright assertions. O God, be my Judge and my Guide’

Notes 189

(XI.17; p. 266); ‘O Lord, my Hope, allow me to explore further. Do not let me grow confused and lose track of my purpose’ (XI.18; p. 267); ‘My mind is burning to solve this intricate puzzle. O Lord my God, good Father, it is a problem at once so familiar and so mysterious’ (XI.22; p. 270); ‘Be resolute, my soul. Onward with all your endeavour’ (XI.27; p. 275). ‘O Lord my God, how deep are your mysteries!’ (XI.31; p. 279).

49. I employ this highly literal and somewhat mannered translation, as pro-posed by Jean-Luc Marion and his translator Jeffrey L. Kosky, in place of the Stephen McKenna translation, because it retains the specific Latin terms that Augustine is working with. McKenna’s rendering of this pas-sage can be found in On the Trinity ed. Gareth B. Matthews (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 24. The reference is to Philemon 3:13–15.

50. For Pine-Coffin: ‘I am intent upon this one purpose, not distracted by other aims’ (p. 278).

51. Jean-Luc Marion, In the Self’s Place: The Approach of St Augustine trans. Jeffrey L. Kosky (Stanford University Press, 2012), p. 227.

52. And two different experiences of motion: as J.W. Carter has noted, Augustine makes a distinction between ‘the formal motion which is a necessary condition of time’ and ‘physical motion’. (Carter, ‘St. Augustine on Time, Time Numbers, and Enduring Objects’, p. 313). He returns to this point later: ‘In the first respect, time is the ordo of change that takes place in fallen creation. However, in a second respect, time will for Augustine become the ordo of endurance in redeemed creation, when it allows for substantial possession without accidental loss or gain, as well as motion without change into otherness’ (p. 323).

53. MacKenzie, The Poetical Works of Gerard Manley Hopkins, p. 201.54. We might note a metrical echo two lines later in the imperative ‘See’,

another deictic marker which the iambic metre would also deprive of stress.

55. Such play with pronouns is also clear in another of Hopkins’s late poems, ‘Spelt from Sybil’s Leaves’ (p. 191): ‘Óur tale, O óur oracle! Lét life, wáned, ah lét life wínd / Off hér once skéined stained véined varíety upon, áll on twó spools’ (ll. 10–11). Again the exclamations are unstressed but juxta-posed with stressed personal pronouns: of us and of life. Here, however, the vocative ‘let’ is pointedly stressed.

56. One could imagine a similar series of questions being asked of the line ‘Defeat, thwart me? Oh the sots and thralls of lust’, regarding the stresses or denial of stress to both ‘me’ and ‘Oh’, the internal echoes between ‘thwart’ and ‘thrall’, etc.

57. Gerard Manley Hopkins, ‘When Kingfishers Catch Fire’, in MacKenzie ed. The Poetical Works of Gerard Manley Hopkins, p. 141, ll. 5–8.

190

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199

Abraham, Nicolas, 17, 27–9, 47, 83Abramovic, Marina, 42Acquisto, Joseph, 188nAdam, Jean-Michel, 179nAdorno, Theodor, 132, 134–5, 185nAgamben, Giorgio, 16–17, 25–6,

31–4, 36–8, 144, 159Allison, David B., 5Andersen, Hans Christian, 40, 132Appelbaum, David, 29Arnold, Oliver, 183nArtaud, Antonin, 10, 35–6, 127, 147,

170nAuden, W.H., 132St Augustine, 37, 157–61, 171nAzérad, Hugues, 182n

Bakhtin, Mikhail, 5, 75, 128, 164nBall, Hugo, 35Banville, Théodore de, 87–9, 91Barthes, Roland, 63–4, 66–7, 76, 176nBataille, Georges, 114, 131Baudelaire, Charles, 87–101, 122,

155, 158, 179n, 180n, 188nBeardsley, Monroe, 150Beckett, Samuel, 57–8, 174–5nBenjamin, Walter, 113Benveniste, Émile, 11–12, 63, 66,

144, 176nBerio, Luciano, 10, 33Bernstein, Charles, 5Blake, William, 28Blasing, Mutlu Konuk, 79, 82Blau duPlessis, Rachel, 123–7, 130,

184nBloch, Bernard, 165nBlonk, Jaap, 42, 142–3, 147Blumstein, Sheila, 176n

Bonney, Sean, 7, 116, 127–31, 135, 184n

Brady, Andrea, 188nBrathwaite, Edward, 153Browning, Robert, 140Butler, Judith, 184n

Carter, Jason W., 188nCatullus, 85Cavarero, Adriana, 7, 9, 10, 56, 71Celan, Paul, 1, 81–2, 91, 94–7, 102,

155, 177n, 179n, 180nCerteau, Michel de, 9, 10, 28, 29Chambers, Ross, 180nChomsky, Noam, 187–8nChopin, Henri, 1, 34–6, 51, 57–8,

140, 143, 147, 174nCondillac, Étienne Bonnot de, 17,

21, 24–5, 27, 29, 47, 100Connor, Steven, 10–11, 27–8, 47, 49,

51, 141, 168n, 174nCrashaw, Richard, 39–41Crystal, David, 165nCuller, Jonathan, 90, 97–100, 103–4,

116, 177n, 178n, 179n

Dante Alighieri, 117, 119, 183nDaubrun, Marie, 179nDavis, Betty, 129de Bolla, Peter, 6–7, 163nde Man, Paul, 5Deguy, Michel, 158–9, 188nDeleuze, Gilles, 39, 41, 42, 172n,

176nDerrida, Jacques, 5–6, 13, 49–51,

53–62, 64, 66–7, 69–70, 91, 112, 140, 141, 146, 159, 164–5n, 165n, 167n, 170n, 173n, 174n

Author Index

Note: ‘n’ after a page reference denotes a note on that page.

200 Author Index

Descartes, René, 50, 85, 168nDolar, Mladen, 56, 59, 68, 173n,

174nDonatus, 37Donne, John, 7, 138–40Dostoevsky, Fyodor, 5Du Bois, W.E.B., 132, 185nDworkin, Craig, 164n

Edison, Thomas, 52, 186nElbow, Peter, 163nEliot, T.S., 164nEriksson, Anders, 173nEskin, Michael, 164nEtherington, Ben, 153–4, 187nEvans, David, 180n

Ferrein, Antoine, 22, 176nFitterman, Ron, 164nFlaubert, Gustave, 135, 185nFox, Anthony, 11, 165–6nFussell, Paul, 186nFynsk, Christopher, 179n

Galás, Diamanda, 10Galen, 168nGilbert, Geoff, 183nGimson, A.C., 166nGlissant, Édouard, 110–12, 114–17,

121, 127, 135, 182n, 183nGoethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 94Goldsmith, Kenneth, 164nGoode, Chris, 42Goodman, Steve, 62, 176nGriffiths, Eric, 77, 177Gross, Charlotte, 188nGrossman, Allen, 85–7, 103, 123, 125Guattari, Félix, 39, 41, 42, 172n, 176n

Hamilton, Beatrice, 171nHardy, Thomas, 53–4, 73–7, 80–1,

89, 100, 155Hayles, N. Katherine, 175nHegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich,

85–6, 103, 181n, 186nHeidegger, Martin, 8–9, 58, 68–70,

73, 91, 95, 137–8, 163n, 175–6n

Heidmann, Ute, 179nHejinian, Lyn, 7, 63–4, 67Helmholtz, Hermann Ludwig

Ferdinant von, 168nHenry, Michel, 178nHerder, Johann Gottfried von,

16–17, 21–5, 27, 29–32, 43–4, 47, 64, 88, 91, 97, 100, 155, 167n, 168–9n, 170n, 171n

Hölderlin, Friedrich, 137hooks, bell, 109, 112, 115–16, 122,

133–4, 184nHopkins, Gerard Manley, 1, 15–23,

28, 45–7, 50, 95, 139, 142, 145–50, 156–7, 161–2, 187n, 189n

Horace, 85, 103, 180–1nHyman, Wendy Beth, 40, 172n

Jackson, Virginia, 4, 178Jakobson, Roman, 82Jamet, Cédric, 147Jarvis, Simon, 152Jenkins, Simon, 118, 183nJohnson, Barbara, 82, 84, 91, 177n,

179nJohnson, John William, 180nJohnson, Linton Kwesi, 120–2, 135Johnson, W.R., 85, 87, 89, 178nJoseph, Anthony, 121–2

Kafka, Franz, 48–50, 52–3, 173nKant, Immanuel, 24, 150Kaplan, Carla, 182nKates, Joshua, 167n, 173n, 175nKeats, John, 78–81, 85, 89, 97, 100,

102Kelman, James, 118–21, 133, 183nKhlebnikov, Velimir, 35–36King, Joshua, 149Kosky, Jeffrey L., 189nKristeva, Julia, 27, 29, 31–2, 47, 63,

66, 84, 169n, 176n, 177n

Lacan, Jacques, 10Lacerda, Francesco, 173nLagaay, Alice, 10Lawlor, Leonard, 164–5n

Author Index 201

Leach, Elizabeth Eva, 37, 171nLeibniz, Gottfried, 22Lieberman, Philip, 176nLipking, Lawrence, 80Livy, 107

MacKenzie, Norman, 148, 157, 168nMallarmé, Stéphane, 85, 135, 182nMalle, Durand de la, 34, 39Marconi, Guglielmo, 53, 186nMarion, Jean-Luc, 160, 189nMartin, Meredith, 147, 187nMcCaffery, Steve, 36Messiaen, Olivier, 171nMiddleton, Peter, 173nMill, John Stuart, 85Miller Frank, Felicia, 174nMilton, John, 130Mitusov, Stepan, 46–7Morin, Émilie, 175n

Nagy, Gregory, 181nNancy, Jean-Luc, 9–10, 49–50, 54,

64–48, 73, 76, 86, 95, 166n, 176nNeuberger, Julia, 118Nietzsche, Friedrich, 176nNoël, Bernard, 64, 67, 75–6, 81, 102,

176n

O’Daly, Gerard, 158O’Hara, Frank, 53Ong, Walter, 7, 103, 141, 180nOliveros, Pauline, 10Olson, Charles, 141–3, 155

Parker, Barbara, 183nPascoli, Giovanni, 38–9Perelman, Bob, 4–5Pichois, Claude, 179nPinard, Ernest, 185nPine-Coffin, R.S., 188nPlace, Vanessa, 164nPlato, 60, 68–73, 85, 140, 175nPliny, 39–40, 171nPlutarch, 107Poizat, Michel, 41, 172nPope, Alexander 8

Poyatos, Fernando 11Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and

Poetics, 2, 163Prins, Yopie, 4, 140–1, 143, 150,

178n, 186nPriscian, 37Proust, Marcel 52–3, 174nPythagoras, 168nPushkin, Alexander 5, 164n

Quintilian, 92, 95

Rabelais, François 5Rameau, Jean-Philippe, 22, 27, 37,

168nRancière, Jacques, 87, 107–10,

113–16, 119, 127, 133–5, 181n, 182n, 183n

Rasula, Jed, 60Renan, Ernest, 38Rilke, Rainer Maria, 90Rimbaud, Arthur, 36, 88, 128Robertson, Lisa, 1, 123–7, 130–1, 135Rosolato, Guy, 17, 27, 29, 47, 64, 83Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 17, 21,

24–7, 29, 32–4, 47, 59, 64, 109, 165n, 173

Schaeffer, Pierre, 168nSchoenberg, Arnold, 33Scott, Clive, 147, 157, 187n, 188nSerres, Michel, 11Shakespeare, William, 1, 7, 78, 105–8,

110–11, 113, 119, 129–30, 181nSilverman, Kaja, 174nSmith, Bruce R., 9Smith, J. Mark, 93, 96–7Sophocles, 43–4, 172nSpivak, Gayatri Chakravorty, 165nSprinker, Michael, 146Stevens, Wallace, 123, 132Stewart, Garrett, 142, 144Stafford, William, 4–5Stravinsky, Igor, 40–1, 45–7, 172

Taruskin, Richard, 172nTillyard, E.M., 183n

202 Author Index

Tolbert, Elizabeth, 124Torok, Maria, 17, 27–9, 47, 83Trager, George L., 165nTrubetzkoy, Prince Nikolai

Sergeyevich, 35Tsur, Reuven, 16, 188nTynianov, Yuri, 12, 19

Virgil, 123, 125–6

Warner, Gerald, 118Waters, William, 103Weissberg, Liliane, 168n, 170–1n

Wennerstrom, Ann, 33Wheeler, Lesley, 173nWilkinson, John, 150–6, 161Williams, Gordon, 103Wills, David, 58, 140, 143Wimsatt, James, 149–50Wimsatt, W.K., 186nWishart, Trevor, 10Wordsworth, William, 72–3, 133,

177n

Zamora, Johannes Aegidius de, 39Zumthor, Paul, 9