Notes

1 Reconstructing Perception and Experience I: Evidence

1. Ludmilla Jordanova, History in Practice (London: Arnold, 2000), p. 203,‘Cultural History and the history of intellectual traditions ... provide insightsinto the way the world is experienced.’

2. See Chapter 2.3. Jordanova, History, pp. 91 and 108.4. Jordanova, History, p. 109.5. Keith Jenkins, Refiguring History: New Thoughts on an Old Discipline (London,

New York: Routledge, 2003), p. 7; also, Keith Jenkins, Re-thinking History,2nd edn, with a new preface and conversation with the author by AlunMunslow, first published in 1991 (London, New York: Routledge, 2003).

6. Jenkins, Refiguring History, p. 2.7. Roger Chartier, Cultural History: Between Practices and Representations, trans.

L.G. Cochrane (Cambridge, Oxford: Polity Press with Basil Blackwell, 1988),pp. 1–3, for a consideration of the fermentation between the Annales School,social science, and l’historie des mentalités.

8. Chartier, Cultural History, p. 4.9. Michel Vovelle, Ideologies and Mentalities, trans. E. O’Flaherty, first published

in French in 1982 (Cambridge: Polity Press with Basil Blackwell, 1990), p. 2,for a discussion of the difficulty of defining mentality; also Jordanova,History, p. 214.

10. Vovelle, Ideologies and Mentalities, p. 6; see also Chartier, Cultural History,pp. 27–8.

11. Robert Darnton, The Kiss of Lamourette: Reflections in Cultural History(London: Faber, 1990), p. 213. See also, Keith Thomas, ‘History andAnthropology’, P&P, 24 (1963), 3–24.

12. Chartier, Cultural History, p. 5.13. Darnton, Kiss of Lamourette, pp. 195 and 213.14. For a consideration of such approaches, see John L. Watts, ‘Conclusion’, in

The End of the Middle Ages? England in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, TheFifteenth Century Series, 6, ed. J.L. Watts (Stroud: Sutton, 1988), pp. 266–7.

15. Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, trans. R. Nice (Cambridge:CUP, 1977).

16. See, for example, Michel de Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life, trans.S. Randall (Berkeley, London: UCalP, 1984).

17. Ferdinand Braudel, The Structures of Everyday Life: Civilization & Capitalism15th–18th Century, Vol. 1, trans. S. Reynolds (London: Phoenix Press, 1981).

18. Alun Munslow, Deconstructing History (London and New York: Routledge,2003), pp. 7 and 16, for the proposition that: ‘Because today we doubt theseempiricist notions of certainty, veracity, and a socially and morally inde-pendent standpoint, there is no more history in the traditional realistsense ...’

171

19. Munslow, Deconstructing History, pp. 15 and 20, for Geoffrey Elton’s idea thathistorians should engage in ‘rational, independent, and impartial investigation’.

20. G.R. Elton, The Practice of History (London: Collins, 1967), pp. 72–3.21. Munslow, Deconstructing History, p. 22.22. Munslow, Deconstructing History, p. 20.23. Elizabeth Tonkin, Narrating our Pasts: the Social Construction of Oral History,

Cambridge Studies in Oral and Literate Culture 22 (Cambridge: CUP, 1992),Chapter 5, esp. p. 85 for a critique of Marc Bloch’s ‘objective’ approach tointerpretation which Tonkin likens to thoughts being ‘preserved throughtime like flies in amber’.

24. Munslow, Deconstructing History, p. 21.25. See, for example, the three categories proposed in Munslow, Deconstructing

History, pp. 18 and 19–26. On ‘History’ and ‘Textual Criticism’ in relation tonew historicism see, Lisa Jardine, Reading Shakespeare Historically (London:Routledge, 1996), p. 15.

26. For example, Jenkins, Refiguring History, p. 69; also, Jenkins, Re-thinkingHistory, pp. 34–9 and 69.

27. Jenkins, Refiguring History, pp. 5 and 45. See also Munslow, DeconstructingHistory, pp. 32–4 on White and Foucault as deconstructionist historians.

28. Jenkins, Re-thinking History, pp. 46–7.29. Thomas, ‘History and Anthropology’, 5. Seminal works by Keith Thomas

are also influential on the approach taken in this book, for example, Religionand the Decline of Magic: Studies in Popular Beliefs in the Sixteenth- andSeventeenth-century (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973).

30. Thomas, ‘History and Anthropology’, 6.31. See, for example, Jordanova, History, p. 203.32. David Aers, ‘A Whisper in the Ear of Early Modernists’, in Culture and History

1350–1600: Essays on English Communities, Identities and Writing, ed. D. Aers(New York, London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1992), pp. 178 ff., for a relateddiscussion of ‘systematic amnesia’ in ‘new criticism’, ‘cultural materialism’and ‘new historicism’.

33. James Clifford, ‘Introduction’, in Writing Culture: the Poetics and Politics ofEthnography, ed. J. Clifford and G. Marcus (Berkeley, London: University ofCalifornia Press, 1986), p. 6.

34. Jardine, Reading Shakespeare Historically, p. 17.35. Clifford, Writing Culture, pp. 11 and 14.36. Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays, first published in

1973 (London: Fontana Press), p. 7.37. Geertz, Interpretation of Cultures, pp. 19 and 20.38. Clifford, Writing Culture, p. 12. One example is the ‘dialogic encounter’, see

Johannes Fabian (with narrative and paintings by Tshibumba KandaMatulu), Remembering the Present: Painting and Popular History in Zaire(Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: UCalP, 1996).

39. Clifford, Writing Culture, p. 15.40. Michael Shanks and Christopher Tilley, Re-constructing Archaeology. Theory

and Practice (London, New York: Routledge, 1992), pp. 254–6; Ian Hodder,The Archaeological Process: an Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999), pp. 80–104,for ‘reflexivity’ and material culture.

172 Notes

41. Clifford, Writing Culture, pp. 15 and 22.42. Clifford, Writing Culture, p. 1.43. ‘Feeding London’, Metropolitan History Centre, IHR, Project Report 1998.44. See Chapter 2 on relationships between places and cultural creativity.45. Thomas, ‘History and Anthropology’, 7.46. Ibid., 9.47. Munslow, Deconstructing History, pp. 10–13.48. Vovelle, Ideologies and Mentalities, pp. 232–45; p. 239 on case studies and the

‘rediscovery of individual experiences’.49. Clifford, Writing Culture, p. 25.50. Darnton, Kiss of Lamourette, p. 260, on the problems of Richard Cobb’s

insistence on the uniqueness of his cases.51. Catherine Gallagher and Stephen Greenblatt, Practising New Historicism

(Chicago and London: UChP, 2000), p. 49, for this misunderstanding.52. On microhistory, see Carlo Ginzburg, ‘Microhistory: Two or Three Things

I Know About It’, Critical Inquiry, 20(1) (1993), 10–35. For Annales approachesto private life, see for example, Revelations of the Medieval World, ed. G. Duby,and Passions of the Renaissance, ed. Roger Chartier, Vols 2 and 3 in the series,A History of Private Life, 5 Vols, gen. eds P. Ariès and G. Duby (Cambridge,Mass., London: HUP, 1988).

53. Carlo Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms: the Cosmos of a Sixteenth-centuryMiller, trans. J. and A. Tredeschi (London, Henley: Routledge and Kegan Paul,1981).

54. See, for example, Eileen Power, Medieval People, first published in 1924(Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1951) for an early example. For Marxistapproaches see Rodney H. Hilton, The English Peasantry in the Later MiddleAges (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975); also Rodney H. Hilton, ‘Lords,Burgesses and Hucksters’, P&P, 97 (1982), 3–15; Christopher Dyer, Standardsof Living in the Later Middle Ages: Social Change in England, c. 1200–1520,2nd edn (Cambridge: CUP, 1989); Zvi Razi, ‘Family, Land and the VillageCommunity in Later Medieval England’, P&P, 93 (1981), 3–36; for a contro-versial approach, see Allan Macfarlane, The Origins of English Individualism(Oxford: Blackwell, 1978). For new historicism and the individual, seeGallagher and Greenblatt, Practising, pp. 9–10, 16, 20, 49–50, 60.

55. Paul Braunstein, ‘Toward Intimacy: the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries’,in Revelations of the Medieval World, p. 536, for the temptation of abolishing a‘distance that stands between us and a lost world’.

56. Gallagher and Greenblatt, Practising, p. 16.57. Jardine, Reading Shakespeare Historically, p. 6.58. I would like to thank Felicity Riddy for a recent discussion regarding the issue

of fragmentary evidences.59. For the idea that, ‘the ways in which an individual or a group appropriates an

intellectual theme or a cultural form are more important than the statisticaldistribution of that theme or form’, see Chartier, Cultural History, pp. 5 and35; see also Ginzburg, Cheese and Worms, p. xxii; Darnton, Kiss of Lamourette,pp. 195 and 213.

60. Darnton, Kiss of Lamourette, p. 277.61. Gallagher and Greenblatt, Practising, p. 50.

Notes 173

62. Gallagher and Greenblatt, Practising, p. 81; and David Aers, ‘New Historicismand the Eucharist’, JMEMS, 33(3) (2003), 241–59, especially 255–6, for a cri-tique of Gallagher and Greenblatt’s use of inappropriate ‘binaries’ for analysis.

63. Gallagher and Greenblatt, Practising, p. 81.64. Peter Burke, ‘Res et Verba: Conspicuous Consumption in the Early Modern

World’, in Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. J. Brewer and R. Porter(London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 150–1; The Age of Transition: the Archaeology ofEnglish Culture, 1400–1600, ed. D. Gaimster and P. Stamper (Oxford: Oxbow,1997), p. x; Hodder, Archaeological Process, p. 131.

65. Sarah Pearson, Medieval Houses of Kent: an Historical Analysis (London: HMSO,1994), p. 1; Matthew Johnson, Behind the Castle Gate: From Medieval toRenaissance (London, New York: Routledge, 2002); and for criticism of Dyer’sattitude, see Matthew Johnson, ‘Review of Everyday Life in Medieval England,C. Dyer’, Medieval Archaeology, 40 (1996), 354–6, 355.

66. Michael T. Clanchy, From Memory to Written Record: England 1066–1377,2nd edn (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993). Other studies include, Jo-Ann Hoeppner-Moran, The Growth of English Schooling, 1340–1548: Learning, Literacy, andLaicization in Pre-Reformation York Diocese (Princeton: PUP, 1985); Heresy andLiteracy, 1000–1530, ed. Peter Biller and Anne Hudson (Cambridge,New York: CUP, 1994); also, J.W. Adamson, ‘The Extent of Literacy inEngland in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries’, The Library, 4th Series, 10(1930), 162–93.

67. For a discussion of these concepts, see Brian V. Street, Literacy in Theory andPractice, Cambridge Studies in Oral and Literate Culture (Cambridge: CUP,1984), pp. 110–25.

68. See Chapter 7.69. LMA ACS 2/84.70. On the need to examine the ‘mental world’ of the non-élite to understand

their choices of literature, see Margaret Spufford, Small Books and PleasantHistories: Popular Fiction and its Readership in Seventeenth-century England(Cambridge: CUP, 1981); on the interactions between the more élite literarytextual culture and the oral culture of popular literature, see Adam Fox,Oral and Literate Culture in England, c. 1500–1700 (Oxford: OUP, 2000); andIan Green, Print and Protestantism (Oxford: OUP, 2000), esp. 554.

71. CKS DRb. Pwr. 7/258.72. NA PROB 11/18/33/252.73. NA PROB 11/32/10/ 78v–9r.74. On the quantitative analysis of inventories, see Lorna Weatherill, Consumer

Behaviour and Material Culture in Britain, 1660–1760 (London: Routledge,1988), pp. 2–5; Anton Schuurman and Gabriel Pastoor, ‘From Probate Inventoriesto a Data Set for the History of Consumer Society’, History and Computing,7(3) (1995), 126–34. On lay subsidies, see for example, W.G. Hoskins, The Ageof Plunder: the England of Henry VIII 1500–1547 (London, New York:Longman, 1976), pp. 22–4 and 46; Marjorie K. McIntosh, A CommunityTransformed: the Manor and Liberty of Havering, 1500–1620 (Cambridge: CUP,1991), pp. 165–75; John Sheail, The Regional Distribution of Wealth in Englandas Indicated in the 1524–5 Lay Subsidy Returns, List and Index Society SpecialSeries, 28 and 29, R.W. Hoyle ed. as Vols 1 and 2 (1998).

174 Notes

75. On the importance of ‘social variability’ over quantity, see Ginzburg, Cheese andWorms, p. xxii. Also, Judith Ford, ‘A Study of Wills and Will-making in the Period1500–1533 with Special Reference to the Copy Wills in the Probate Registers ofthe Archdeacon of Bedford 1483–1533’ (unpublished PhD thesis, OpenUniversity, 1992), p. 224 for her conclusion that ‘the frequently simplistic view ofthe Canonical will taken by many historians and the reduction of informationderived from wills into a statistical form has sometimes led to the distortion andmisuse of the evidence which this abundant documentary source may contain’.

76. Robert G.A. Lutton, ‘Heterodox and Orthodox Piety in Tenterden,1420–1540’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Kent, 1997); Mark Merry,‘The Construction and Representation of Urban Identities: Public and PrivateLives in Late Medieval Bury St Edmunds’ (unpublished PhD thesis,University of Kent, 1998); Paul Lee, ‘Monastic and Secular Religion andDevotional Reading in Late Medieval Dartford and West Kent’ (unpublishedPhD thesis, University of Kent, 1998).

77. Lutton, ‘Heterodox and Orthodox Piety’, p. 9; also, Robert G.A. Lutton,Lollardy and Orthodox Religion in Pre-Reformation England: Reconstructing Piety,Royal Historical Society Studies in History (London: forthcoming 2006).

78. See Chapter 2 for further discussion of issues associated with ‘appropriation’.79. Natalie Z. Davis, Fiction in the Archives: Pardon Tales and their Tellers in

Sixteenth Century France (Oxford: OUP, 1987), p. 4.80. Ibid., p. 4.81. Ibid., p. 5.82. See Chapter 2.83. Andrew F. Butcher, ‘The Functions of Script in the Speech Community of a

Late Medieval Town, c. 1300–1550’, in The Uses of Script and Print, 1300–1700,ed. A. Walsham and J. Crick (Cambridge: CUP, 2004).

84. NA PROB 11/21/15/119 (codicil) 11/21/27/ 208 (will).85. Margaret Spufford, Contrasting Communities: English Villagers in the Sixteenth

and Seventeenth Centuries (Cambridge, New York: CUP, 1974), pp. 55–6;Lutton, ‘Heterodox and Orthodox Piety’, p. 9; and for a negative view ofusing wills to assess religiosity, Christopher Marsh, ‘In the Name of God?Will-making and Faith in Early Modern England’, in The Records of the Nation,ed. G.H. Martin, and P. Spufford (Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 1990),esp. 216–8, pace 248–9.

86. Clive Burgess, ‘ “For the Increase of Divine Service”: Chantries in the Parishin Late Medieval Bristol’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 36 (1985), 46–7.

87. Janet Hoskins, Biographical Objects: How Things Tell the Stories of People’s Lives(New York, London: Longman, 1998), pp. 7–9.

88. NA PROB 11/27/5/ 222.89. LMA ACS 4/172.90. LMA ACS 5/224.91. LMA ACS 5/76.92. CKS DRb. Pwr. 5/363. The shrine is presumably ‘Wilsnack’.93. See Chapter 2 for further discussion of the construction of identity and

ethnicity as a self-conscious manipulation of multifaceted elements.94. On the practical application of Derridean theory, see David Aers, ‘Introduction’,

Culture and History, p. 3.

Notes 175

95. David Parkin, ‘Ritual as Spatial Direction and Bodily Division’, inUnderstanding Rituals, ed. D. de Coppet (New York, London: Routledge,1992), p. 23.

96. See Chapter 2 for further discussion on issues of contextualising culturalrepresentation and the performance of identity.

97. Michelle Rosaldo, ‘I Have Nothing to Hide: the Language of Ilongot Oratory’,Language in Society, 3 (1973), esp. 194; also, Don Kulick, Language Shift andCultural Reproduction: Socialization, Self, and Syncretism in a Papua New GuineanVillage (Cambridge: CUP, 1992), pp. 19–25; and Watts, End of the MiddleAges?, pp. 266–7, on the subject of Jean-Phillippe Genet’s (quantitative)analysis of changing political language.

2 Reconstructing Perception and Experience II:Vocabularies

1. On the uses of anthropological approaches in general, see Keith Thomas,‘History and Anthropology’, P&P, 24 (1963), 3–24, esp. 10.

2. Kurath & Kuhn, E/F, ffechewes is probably ‘ficheux’, or the fur of the pole cat.3. Kurath & Kuhn, C/D, cauntelles is probably ‘cantels’, defined as chunks,

pieces, or a share of the whole.4. Kurath & Kuhn, E/F, ffoyne is probably ‘foin’, or the fur of the beech marten.5. See Chapter 1 on interpreting the last will and testament.6. Frederik Barth, Process and Form in Social Life, Selected Essays of Frederik

Barth, Vol. 1 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981), pp. 198–227.7. On formulaic construction see Chapter 1.8. The spelling of this name varies throughout the text. Internal evidence

strongly suggests the two names refer to one daughter.9. On the self-conscious construction of identity see, Anthony P. Cohen, Self

Consciousness: an Alternative Anthropology of Identity (London, New York:Routledge, 1994), pp. 1–17, especially p. 11 and pp. 14–15; Anthony P.Cohen, The Symbolic Construction of Community (Chichester: Ellis Horwood,1985). Using this approach see, for example, Mark L. Merry, ‘TheConstruction and Representation of Urban Identities: Public and PrivateLives in Late Medieval Bury St Edmunds’ (unpublished PhD thesis,University of Kent, 1998), pp. 32–4.

10. Marilyn Strathern, The Gender of the Gift: Problems with Women and Problemswith Society in Melanesia (Berkeley: UCalP, 1988), p. 8.

11. Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, trans R. Nice (Cambridge,New York: CUP, 1977), p. 78.

12. On Bourdieu’s regression from the ‘implications of his otherwise excellentstress on praxis to the old individual/social dichotomy’, see ElizabethTonkin, Narrating our Pasts: the Social Construction of Oral History, CambridgeStudies in Oral and Literate Culture 22 (Cambridge: CUP, 1992), p. 107.

13. Cohen, Self Consciousness, p. 10.14. See Han Vermeulen and Cora Govers, ‘Introduction’, and Anthony P. Cohen,

‘Boundaries of Consciousness, Consciousness of Boundaries. Critical Questionsfor Anthropology’ in The Anthropology of Ethnicity: Beyond ‘Ethnic Groups andBoundaries’, ed. H. Vermeulen and C. Govers (Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis, 1994).

176 Notes

15. Vermeulen and Govers, Anthropology of Ethnicity, p. 5.16. Vermeulen and Govers, Anthropology of Ethnicity, p. 1.17. Frederik Barth, ‘Enduring and Emerging Issues in the Analysis of Ethnicity’,

in Anthropology of Ethnicity, p. 15.18. Vermeulen and Govers, Anthropology of Ethnicity, p. 5.19. Anthony P. Cohen, Self Consciousness, pp. 8–11.20. Such processes are the subject of a recent issue of JMEMS: The Cultural

Processes of ‘Appropriation’, JMEMS, Special Issue, 32(1) (2002), ed. K. Ashleyand V. Plesch; see particularly Claire Sponsler, ‘In Transit: Theorizing CulturalAppropriation in Medieval Europe’, 17–39; 19, on examining ‘acts’, ratherthan salvaging the origins of appropriative acts.

21. Sponsler, ‘In Transit’, p. 21; pace, Ashley and Plesch, ‘Appropriation’, 6, withthe revealing statement that ‘cases in which individuals deliberatelyconstructed their own identities’ are, ‘anachronistic for the medieval period’.

22. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth Century Ethnography,Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass., London: HUP, 1988), pp. 1–17, espe-cially pp. 8 and 11. For a review of approaches to appropriation, see Ashleyand Plesch, ‘Appropriation’, esp. 3–4.

23. Judith P. Butler, Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex (New York:Routledge, 1993), p. 13, and n. 9 for a summary.

24. On the uses of speech-act theory, see Michelle Rosaldo, ‘Things We DoWith Words: Ilongot Speech Act Theory in Philosophy’, Language in Society,11 (1982), 203–37, 212–22.

25. On citation, see Jacques Derrida, ‘Signature, Evénement, Contexte’, inLimited Inc., trans. E. Weber (Paris: Galilée, 1990), especially pp. 45–7; andButler, Bodies that Matter, pp. 1–23, especially p. 11. See also David Aers,‘A Whisper in the Ear of the Early Modernists; or Reflections on LiteraryCritics Writing the “History of the Subject” ’, in Culture and History1350–1600: Essays on English Communities, Identities and Writing, ed. D. Aers(New York, London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1992), p. 180.

26. See, Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages:Academic Traditions and Vernacular Texts (Cambridge, New York: CUP, 1991);Roger Ellis, ‘Introduction’, in The Medieval Translator 4, ed. R. Ellis andR. Evans (Exeter: EUP, 1994), pp. 2–10; The Idea of the Vernacular: an Anthologyof Middle English Literary Theory 1280–1520, ed. J. Wogan-Brown, N. Watson,A. Taylor and R. Evans (Exeter: EUP, 1999), pp. 10–12; Ian Hodder, TheArchaeological Process: an Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999), p. 63.

27. See, Ruth Evans, ‘Translating Past Cultures?’, in Medieval Translator 4,pp. 22–3 and 36; Idea of the Verncaular, ed. J. Wogan-Browne et al., p. 4.

28. Hodder, Archaeological Process, p. 63.29. See, The World of Consumption, ed. B. Fine and E. Leopold (London, New York:

Routledge, 1993); Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. J. Brewer andR. Porter (London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 2–3, on capitalist ideology and thestudy of consumerism; pp. 4–5 on the contested meanings of consumergoods. On the need to explore the historical contingency of consumptionsystems and practices, see Sally M. Horrocks, Review Article, Econ. Hist. Rev.,2nd Series, 47 (1994), 844–5.

30. I think that ‘leeste’ here is used in comparison to ‘best’. From Kurath & Kuhn(Vol. M–N): ‘A maser is a drinking bowl of maser wood (maple or other

Notes 177

highly grained hard wood).’ There are various types, such as a maser with a‘bond’ which is a metal mount around the edge, or ‘standing’ maser whichhas a deep foot.

31. Roger Chartier, Cultural History: Between Practices and Representations, transL.G. Cochrane (Cambridge, Oxford: Polity Press with Basil Blackwell, 1988), p. 41.

32. Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: a Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste, trans.R. Nice (London: Routledge, 1984), pp. 6 and 249–50; and on the ‘socialcondition’ of ‘modes of appropriation’ within the context of everyday practice,see p. 1.

33. Bourdieu, Distinction, pp. 2 and 249–50. See also, Peter Burke, ‘Res et Verba:Conspicuous Consumption in the Early Modern World’, in Consumption andthe World of Goods, pp. 149–50.

34. On the ‘social genesis of value’, see Arjun Appadurai, ‘Introduction:Commodities and the Politics of Value’, in The Social Life of Things:Commodities in Cultural Perspective, ed. A. Appadurai (Cambridge: CUP, 1986),p. 56. On the relationships between value and an object’s biography, see IgorKopytoff, ‘The Cultural Biography of Things’, in Social Life, p. 68.

35. On these ‘tournaments of value’, see Appadurai, Social Life, pp. 56–7.36. On emulation and contemporary perception see, Matthew Johnson, Behind

the Castle Gate: From Medieval to Renaissance (London, New York: Routledge,2002), pp. 165–7; also, Lorna Weatherill, Consumer Behaviour & MaterialCulture in Britain 1660–1760 (London: Routledge, 1988), pp. 6 and 196;Brewer and Porter, ed., Consumption and the World of Goods, p. 5; Henrietta L.Moore, Space, Text, Gender: an Anthropological Study of the Marakwet of Kenya,2nd edn (London, New York: Guildford Press, 1996), p. 202.

37. This runs contrary to the idea that only after c. 1550 did conspicuous con-sumption enable a ‘movement towards the assertion of the individual’. See,Laurence Stone, The Crisis of the Aristocracy, 1558–1641 (Oxford, London:OUP, 1965), pp. 249–67, especially p. 266.

38. See Aers, ‘A Whisper’, passim.39. Michel de Certeau, ‘Reading as Poaching’, in The Practice of Everyday Life, trans.

S. Randall (Berkeley, London: UcalP, 1984), pp. 165–76; also, A History of Readingin the West, ed. G. Cavallo and R. Chartier, trans. L. Cochrane (Cambridge andOxford: Polity Press, 1999), p. 1, on de Certeau’s approach to reading. In dis-agreement with the similar radical pragmatist position of Stanley Fish, see alsoJames Simpson, ‘Faith and Hermeneutics: Pragmatism versus Pragmatism’, inHermeneutics and Ideology: Reading Medieval and Early Modern Texts, JMEMS,Special Issue, 33 (2) (2003), ed. D. Aers and S. Beckwith, 215–39.

40. Chartier, Cultural History, p. 11, notes that the ‘hermeneutic perspectiveproves inadequate’ for this practical endeavour.

41. On Michel Foucault’s ‘lesson’ that discourse should be understood as‘discontinuous and specific’, see Chartier, Cultural History, pp. 10–11.

42. See, for example, Michel Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge, trans.A.M. Sheridan-Smith (London: Routledge, 1992), pp. 25–30.

43. Chartier, Cultural History, p. 13. This is a critique of Foucault’s idea that theappropriation of discourse confers power on one group to the detriment ofanother.

44. James Clifford, ‘Introduction’, in Writing Culture: the Poetics and Politicsof Ethnography, ed. J. Clifford and G. Marcus (Berkeley, London: UCalP,1986), p. 13.

178 Notes

45. John Liep, ‘Introduction’, in Locating Cultural Creativity, ed. J. Liep (London,Sterling, Virginia: Pluto Press, 2000), p. 2. For a historically-oriented study,see Wellsprings of Achievement: Cultural and Economic Dynamics in Early ModernEngland and Japan, ed. P. Gouk (Aldershot, Brookfield, Vermont: Ashgate,1995).

46. Liep, Locating, p. 2, on the use of this ‘cultural process’ approach by somesociologists and historians of science.

47. Renato Rosaldo, Culture & Truth: the Remaking of Social Analysis (London:Routledge, 1993), p. 5.

48. The move away from ‘improvisation’ signals another departure from PierreBourdieu’s concept of the habitus, see n. 12 above.

49. Liep, Locating, p. 1.50. Rudi Colloredo-Mansfeld, The Native Leisure Class: Consumption and Cultural

Creativity in the Andes (Chicago, London: UChP, 1999), pp. 5–12.51. Liep, Locating, p. 2.52. Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (London,

Fontana Press, 1993), p. 5.53. See Robert Darnton, The Kiss of Lamourette: Reflections in Cultural History

(London: Faber, 1990), p. 216 on Geertz’s definition as ‘too coherent’.54. Chartier, Cultural History, p. 39.55. Rosaldo, Culture & Truth, p. 20.56. Clifford, Writing Culture, p. 15.57. Jean-Loup Amselle, Mestizo Logics: Anthropology of Identity in Africa and

Elsewhere, trans. C. Royal (Stanford: USP, 1998), p. 2.58. On the negotiation of symbolic meanings in a period of reformation, see for

example, J.W. Fernandez, ‘Symbolic Consensus in a Fang Reformative Cult’,American Anthropologist, 67 (1965), 21–35.

59. Clifford, Predicament of Culture, p. 10, on the idea that ‘[c]ulture is a deeplycompromised idea I cannot yet do without’.

60. Amselle, Mestizo, p. xviii, 161; ‘mestizo’, translated from métisses, means amixture or the result of mixture.

61. See, Amselle, Mestizo, p. 2; for a completely opposite understanding of‘contingency’, which focuses on connections imposed retrospectively, seeCaroline Dinshaw, Getting Medieval: Sexualities and Communities, Pre- andPostmodern (Durham, USA, London: Duke University Press, 1999), pp. 38–9.

62. See Don Kulick, Language Shift and Cultural Reproduction: Socialization, Self,and Syncretism in a Papua New Guinean Village (Cambridge: CUP, 1992), p. 9.For a medievalist’s view of contingency that is slightly over-ordered, see PaulStrohm, Hochon’s Arrow: the Social Imagination of Fourteenth Century Texts(Princeton: PUP, 1992), esp. p. 6.

63. See Martha Carlin, Medieval Southwark (London, New York: Hambledon Press,1996); Heather Knight, Aspects of Medieval and Later Southwark, ArchaeologicalInvestigations (1991–1998) for the London Underground Limited Jubilee LineExtensions Project, MoLAS Monograph 13 (Museum of London ArchaeologicalService, 2002), pp. 19–20; Edward Hasted, The History and TopographicalSurvey of the County of Kent, 12 Vols, first published 1797 (Wakefield:W.P. Publishing, 1972), esp. Vol. 1; Olive Hamilton and Neil Hamilton, RoyalGreenwich: a Guide and History to London’s Most Historic Borough (London:Greenwich Bookshop, 1969); Beryl Platts, A History of Greenwich (NewtonAbbot: David & Charles, 1973). Also Elisabeth E. Salter, ‘Some Differences in

Notes 179

the Cultural Production of Household Consumption’, in The ChristianHousehold in Medieval Europe, c. 850–1550, ed. S. Rees-Jones, C. Beattie, andA. Maslakovic (London: Brepols, 2003).

64. David Parkin, ‘Ritual as Spatial Direction and Bodily Division’, inUnderstanding Rituals, European Association of Social Anthropologists,ed. D. de Coppet (London, New York: Routledge), p. 23.

65. Parkin, ‘Ritual’, pp. 23–4.66. Chartier, Cultural History, p. 36.67. Caroline Humphrey and James Laidlaw, The Archetypal Actions of Ritual:

a Theory of Ritual Illustrated by the Jain Rite of Worship (Oxford: ClarendonPress, 1994).

3 Inheritance and Property

1. For seminal general models explaining famine, pestilence, and populationdecline in terms of a neo-Malthusian model of checks see, M.M. Postan, ‘TheEconomic Foundations of the Medieval Economy’, in Essays on MedievalAgriculture and General Problems of the Medieval Economy, ed. Postan(Cambridge: CUP, 1973); and M.M. Postan, ‘The Fifteenth Century’, Econ.Hist. Rev., 9 (1939), 160–7; M.M. Postan, Medieval Economy and Society: anEconomic History of Britain in the Middle Ages (London: Weidenfeld andNicolson, 1972). On regional investigations see, Ian Kershaw, ‘The GreatFamine and Agrarian Crisis in England 1315–1322’, P&P, 59 (1973), 3–50;J.C. Russell, ‘The Pre-plague Population of England’, Journal of British Studies,5 (1966), 1–21; Rodney H. Hilton, Class Conflict and the Crisis of Feudalism,2nd edn (London: Verso, 1990); Barbara Harvey, ‘The Population Trend inEngland Between 1300 and 1348’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society,5th Series, 16 (1966), 23–42; Barbara Harvey, ‘Introduction’, in Before theBlack Death: Studies in the ‘Crisis’ of the Early Fourteenth Century, ed.B.M.S. Campbell (Manchester, New York: MUP, 1991); John Hatcher, ‘TheGreat Slump of the Mid-fifteenth Century’, in Progress and Problems inMedieval England: Essays in Honour of Edward Miller, ed. R.H. Britnell andJ. Hatcher (Cambridge: CUP, 1996), pp. 238–9 and 241–9; Mavis Mate, ‘Kentand Sussex’, in AHEW, gen. ed. J. Thirsk, 8 Vols, 3, 1348–1500, ed. E. Miller(Cambridge: CUP, 1991), p. 120. On towns, see Hatcher, ‘Great Slump’,pp. 266–70; David M. Palliser, ‘Urban Decay Revisited’, in Towns andTownspeople in the Fifteenth Century, ed. J.A.F. Thomson (Gloucester: Sutton,1988), p. 18; Alan Dyer, Decline and Growth in English Towns, 1400–1640(London: Macmillan, 1991), pp. 12–19, 33, 34, 60.

2. W.G. Hoskins, The Age of Plunder: the England of Henry VIII 1500–1547(London, New York: Longman, 1976), p. 64. For a review of approaches tourban land markets, see B. Brodt, ‘People, Places and Profit in the Towns ofMedieval and Early Modern Europe’, Journal of Urban History, 23(3) (2000),350–6, p. 351. On the scattered and fragmented character of Colchestertownsmen’s land acquisitions, see Richard H. Britnell, Growth and Decline inColchester (Cambridge: CUP, 1986), pp. 260 and 264. For a comparison of twotowns, see Andrew F. Butcher, ‘Rent and the Urban Economy: Oxford andCanterbury in the Later Middle Ages’, Southern History, 1 (1979), 11–43, 16.

180 Notes

On urban merchants’ social ambition and the acquisition of rural land, seeRosemary Horrox, ‘The Urban Gentry in the Fifteenth Century’, in Towns andTownspeople, pp. 25 and 33.

3. Bruce M.S. Campbell, ‘Population Pressure, Inheritance and the Land Marketin a Fourteenth-century Peasant Community’; and Richard M. Smith,‘Families and their Land in Redgrave, Suffolk 1260–1320’, in Land Kinship andLifecycle, ed. R.M. Smith (Cambridge: CUP, 1984), pp. 107–20, 130, and154–7; Marjorie K. McIntosh, Autonomy & Community: the Royal Manor ofHavering, 1200–1500, Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought(Cambridge: CUP, 1986), p. 125. And, for an application of the Smith andCampbell approach to a later period, see Jane Whittle, The Development ofAgrarian Capitalism: Land and Labour in Norfolk, 1400–1580 (Oxford:Clarendon, 2000).

4. On the ‘social problem of engrossment’ and its basis in the agricultural econ-omy see, Hoskins, Age of Plunder, pp. 63–4, 67, 230. On the economics of landuse and legal practices of land transaction, see F.R.H. Du Boulay, The Age ofAmbition: English Society in the Late Middle Ages (London: Nelson, 1970),pp. 50–60, On ‘social mobility’, see Simon J. Payling, ‘Social Mobility,Demographic Change, and Landed Society in Late Medieval England’, Econ.Hist. Rev., 2nd Series, 45(1) (1992), 51–73, 51, 70; Mate, ‘Kent and Sussex’,pp. 121–7. On the decreased likelihood of accumulating wealth by those ten-ant farmers identified, by optimistic historians, as possible candidates forupward social mobility, see Hatcher, ‘Great Slump’, pp. 255–66 and 271–2;also McIntosh, Autonomy; Marjorie K. McIntosh, A Community Transformed:the Manor and Liberty of Havering, 1500–1620, Cambridge Studies inPopulation, Economy and Society in Past Time 16 (Cambridge: CUP, 1991);Edward B. Fryde, Peasants and Landlords in Later Medieval England (Stroud:Sutton, 1996), pp. 2–4, and 260 ff.; Whittle, Agrarian Capitalism, pp. 82–4.

5. Palliser, ‘Urban Decay’, p. 2.6. Andrew F. Butcher, ‘Person, Morality and Civic Economy’, unpublished

research paper, presented to CCMTS (2002).7. Richard H. Britnell, The Closing of the Middle Ages? England, 1471–1529

(Oxford: Blackwell, 1997), p. 189; Hoskins, Age of Plunder, p. xiii, for his inten-tion to study, ‘the mass of people who constituted the commonwealth ...’.

8. Interest and Emotion: Essays on the Study of Family and Kinship, ed. H. Medickand D.W. Sabean (Cambridge, Paris, New York: Maison des Sciences del’Homme and CUP, 1988), pp. 1–8.

9. For a discussion of family and community, see Britnell, Closing, pp. 195–201.On the dynamics of households, see Larry R. Poos, ‘Population Turnover inMedieval Essex: the Evidence of Some Early Fourteenth Century TithingLists’, in The World We Have Gained: Histories of Population and Social Structure,ed. L. Bonfield, R.M. Smith, and K. Wrightson (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986).

10. Medick and Sabean, Interest and Emotion, p. 2.11. Family and Inheritance: Rural Society in Western Europe, 1280–1800, ed.

J. Goody, J. Thirsk and E.P. Thompson (Cambridge, London, New York andMelbourne: CUP, 1976).

12. David Cressy, Birth, Marriage, and Death: Ritual, Religion, and the Lifecycle inTudor and Stuart England (Oxford: OUP, 1997), pp. 5–6; also Ralph A.Houlbrooke, The English Family 1450–1700, Themes in British Social History

Notes 181

(London, New York: Longman, 1984), especially the historiographicalintroduction on pp. 1–16; and on the problematic evidence for sentiment andthe analysis of ‘the emotional life of societies or social groups’, pp. 13and 254. For a careful analysis of social process, see Diana O’Hara, Courtshipand Constraint: Rethinking the Making of Marriage in Tudor England (Manchester,New York: MUP, 2000), pp. 2, 3, 7.

13. A. Barnard and A. Good, Research Practices in the Study of Kinship (London:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1984), especially the preface on Needham’s stim-ulating claim that there is, ‘no such thing as kinship’, and pp. 187 ff.

14. For a survey of approaches during the crisis and revisionism in kinshipstudies, see P.P. Schweitzer, Dividends of Kinship: Meanings and Uses of SocialRelatedness (London: Routledge, 2000), pp. 6–7; on the deconstruction ofkinship, see Richard Parkin, Kinship: an Introduction to the Basic Concepts(Oxford: Blackwell, 1997), p. ix. See also Richard M. Smith, ‘Some IssuesConcerning Families and their Property in Rural England, 1250–1800’, inLand, Kinship, and Lifecycle, pp. 85–6. See also, Alan Macfarlane, The Origins ofEnglish Individualism: the Family, Property and Social Transition (Oxford:Blackwell, 1978), pp. 2–4, and passim; and for Smith’s consideration ofMacfarlane’s approach, see, Land, Kinship, Lifecycle, p. 11.

15. Schweitzer, Dividends, p. 4, citing Needham’s 1973 terms; for the relatedwider concerns about theory and practice, see Pierre Bourdieu, ‘The SocialUses of Kinship’, in The Logic of Practice, trans. R. Nice (Oxford, Cambridge:Polity Press with Blackwell, 1995), pp. 162–99, especially pp. 168–9.

16. Strategies of Inheritance, ed. A.F. Butcher (Oxford: Peter Lang, forthcoming);also, Lynne Bowdon, ‘ “People of Property”: Social Relations in Wingham,c. 1450–1600’ (unpublished MA thesis, CCMTS, University of Kent, 1998).

17. Marilyn Strathern, Property, Substance and Effect: Anthropological Essays onPersons and Things (London, New Brunswick, NJ: The Athlone Press, 1999),pp. 65–9; Janet Carsten, The Heat of the Hearth: the Process of Kinship in aMalay Fishing Community (Oxford: OUP, 1997), p. 27.

18. Schweitzer, Dividends, p. 10.19. Cultures of Relatedness: New Approaches to the Study of Kinship, ed. J. Carsten

(Cambridge: CUP, 2000), for a review of approaches, see pp. 1–36, especiallypp. 14–18; Schweitzer, Dividends, p. 10, on the ethnocentricity of the concept‘person’.

20. NA SC 12/9/27.21. Select Cases in Manorial Courts, 1250–1550: Property and Family Law, ed.

L. Poos and L. Bonfield, The Selden Society 114 (1997), pp. xxxiii–iv.22. Campbell, ‘Population Pressure’, p. 130; and, for example, NA SC 2/181/10

(1484) for an example of court roll evidence for sustained acquisition of landby the Morris and Acton families of Gravesend.

23. For example, CKS DRb. Pwr. 5/388.24. Michael Zell, Early Modern Kent 1540–1640, Kent History Project

(Woodbridge: Boydell and Kent County Council, 2000), p. 45, on will evi-dence for the ‘mixed character’ of Kentish landholdings, from c. 1540.

25. Mate, ‘Kent and Sussex’, p. 132, on marshland in east Kent; McIntosh,Autonomy, pp. 205 and 207, refers to marshland as valuable for the localeconomy, up to c. 1500.

26. For example, NA PROB 11/11/7/57 (1495).

182 Notes

27. For example, Thomas Hogeson who held marshland in Greenwich andStepney, CKS DRb. Pwr. 6/349 (1511); and William Cooke who bequeathedsubstantial property in east and west Greenwich and Richmond, andStebenhithe marsh in Middlesex NA PROB 11/14/30/234 (1505).

28. NA SC 2/181/81 (1518/9). This example is from Gravesend.29. John Sheail, The Regional Distribution of Wealth in England as Indicated in the

1524–5 Lay Subsidy Returns, List and Index Society, Special Series, 28 and 29,ed. R.W. Hoyle as Vols 1 and 2 (1998), 1, pp. 105–6.

30. Sheail, Regional Distribution, 1, pp. 105–6; Zell, Kent, pp. 39–40, 41, 49, 53;Mate, ‘Kent and Sussex’, p. 135; Fryde, Peasants and Landlords, pp. 260–1.

31. F.R.H. Du Boulay, The Lordship of Canterbury (London: Nelson, 1966),pp. 145–6 and 149; also, McIntosh, Autonomy, pp. 4, 176 ff., for a compara-tive example, that residents of Havering enjoyed an unusual level of personaland collective freedom, because of the rules of tenancy and the economicstructures in this royal manor.

32. Compare Butcher, ‘Rent’, 16.33. For example, the Girdelers of Shorne and the Actons of Gravesend. For the

Girdelers, see CKS DRb. Pwr. 9/217; CKS U 601/T 61, also, Cobham CollegeRental CKS U 47/11/E 37, fo. 2r; for the Actons, see CKS DRb. Pwr. 2/256, CKSDRb. Pwr. 5/393, CKS Pwr. 2/536, CKS DRb. Pwr. 4/181, CKS DRb. Pwr. 5/278,and NA SC 2/181/10.

34. For example, NA SC 2/18/10.35. Edward Hasted, The History and Topographical Survey of the County of Kent,

2nd edn, 12 Vols, 3, first published 1797–1801 (Wakefield: EP Publishing,1972), p. 328.

36. CKS DRb. Pwr. 5/209.37. LMA ACS 4/208. See NA PROB 11/16/40/318. Pole was taxed on £40 of goods

in 1523/4; the only higher sum in this Milton subsidy was on £100.38. See NA E 179/124/187. In Community Transformed, p. 167, McIntosh classes

£20 plus as the top wealth bracket, defined as, ‘prosperous craftsmen, trades-men and yeomen, gentlemen’.

39. Poos and Bonfield, Select Cases, pp. lxxii–lxxvi, for a comprehensive discus-sion of property and family law in manorial courts c. 1250–1550, whichincludes inheritance practices.

40. Ibid., pp. xcix–c, on the debated issue of alienation and the family–land bond.41. For example, CKS DRb. Pwr. 5/293.42. For example, CKS DRb. Pwr. 5/256.43. CKS DRb. Pwr. 9/344. ‘Tides’ probably relate to fishing rights.44. Du Boulay, Lordship of Canterbury, p. 157; Butcher, ‘Rent’, 14.45. For example, the Uswastes and the Cheesemans of Greenwich, NA PROB

11/11/7/57, CKS DRb. Pwr. 2/43 and NA SC 12/9/27; the Jermens and theGirdelers of Shorne and Cobham, CKS DRb. Pwr. 6/209, CKS DRb. Pwr.5/388, CKS DRb. 9/217, Alice Jermen requests Robert Girdeler as overseer.

46. See CKS DRb. Pwr. 3/240, CKS DRb. Pwr. 5/290.47. For example, the very detailed case study of two families, the Hawkes and the

Staces of Shorne and Cobham in Kent, conducted in Elisabeth E. Salter,‘Cultural Appropriation and Transmission in Town and Country in LateMedieval England’ (unpublished PhD thesis, CCMTS, University of Kent,2003), pp. 68–74.

Notes 183

48. See Smith ‘Families’, p. 193 on the debate about the divisive nature ofpartibility on the family–land bond.

49. Stephen H. Rigby, Medieval Grimsby: Growth and Decline (Hull: University ofHull Press, 1993), pp. 64–73, p. 72 on the under-representation of artisanoccupations, c. 1300–1500; Horrox, ‘Urban Gentry’, pp. 22–44, p. 37, sug-gests that in the fifteenth century, ‘the number of townsmen designated“gentleman” or “esquire” increased dramatically’.

50. Du Boulay, Lordship of Canterbury, pp. 148–9, on north-west Kent as a popu-lar place for Londoners to make land investments.

51. CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/331, Andrew Coward, and CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/193, ThomasCope, for watermen; NA E 179/126/340, Andrew Coward was taxed in thetop 15 per cent in the subsidy of 1551/2, on £20; only three individuals weretaxed on higher sums of £25 and £50.

52. CKS DRb. Pwr. 9/315.53. McIntosh, Autonomy, p. 262; McIntosh, Community Transformed, pp. 139–44.54. For an example of ‘civic responsibility’ see NA SC 2/181/88, and SC 2/181/11,

which show yeomen Robert Stokmede, William Walworth, and WilliamMorris serving together as jurats (CKS DRb. Pwr. 9/173, Robert Stokmede;CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/36, William Walworth, NA PROB 11/16/40/318, WilliamMorris).

55. CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/292, Horseley; CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/308, Basse. Both arenamed in the subsidy of 1545/6, NA E 179/125/307: Horseley pays a moder-ate subsidy, based on 36s, where the highest payment is based on £10; thereare five Basses mentioned, all of whom are taxed on moderate to lowamounts, to the value of between 4s and 14s 5d.

56. CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/7; NA E 179/125/187, Potter was taxed on the value of £20in goods in 1523/4, the highest payment was on £200.

57. For a similar trend in the Protestant or Puritan wills of c. 1540–1620, seeMcIntosh, Autonomy, pp. 141 and 188–97.

58. CKS DRb. Pwr. 12/75.59. CKS DRb. Pwr. 12/96, John Montayn; NA PROB 11/34/27/208, Hugh Proves.60. NA E 179/126/334 and 126/340. Montayn was taxed on £40 in 1551/2,

where the highest subsidy was on £60; NA E 179/124/247, Proves is taxed on£165 worth of goods and land; the only higher amount in this subsidy is paidby Dame Jane Garnish on £305 worth of goods and property.

61. McIntosh, Autonomy, p. 262; McIntosh, Community Transformed, pp. 139–44.62. NA E 179/124/221, John Reynolds’ subsidy was 10s, based on goods, in

1535/6; the highest payment being £2 10s (CKS DRb. Pwr. 10/110 for hiswill); compare CKS DRb. Pwr. 12/261 for Montayn’s widow, Elizabeth, whoasks to be buried next to John Reynolds, yeoman.

63. CKS DRb. Pwr. 12/75.64. Sylvia L. Thrupp, The Merchant Class of Medieval London, first published 1948

(Chicago: University of Michigan Press, 1962), on the movement ofLondoners to the ‘home counties’.

65. McIntosh, Autonomy, pp. 124 ff.66. CKS U 601/T140, a charter (1504) (CKS DRb. Pwr. 7/345, for John Jordan,

gentleman).67. Britnell, Growth and Decline, pp. 259–6168. CKS DRb. Pwr. 12/319.

184 Notes

69. NA E 179/125/307, there is an Edmund Porrege named in the taxationevidence for Milton, in 1545/6, taxed on goods at £5 3s 4d, where the onlyother higher subsidy is paid on £10.

70. CKS DRb. Pwr. 9/254.71. For Jervase Frank’s dispute over land claimed by the chantry of Milton,

c. 1509–47, see NA STAC 2/19/198.72. NA PROB 10/11.73. NA PROB 11/20/22/179.74. NA PROB 11/12/13/123.75. NA PROB 11/18/23/176. See Chapter 2.76. See, Salter ‘Cultural Appropriation’, pp. 68–74.77. On local process, see Elisabeth E. Salter, ‘Some Differences in the Cultural

Production of Household Consumption in Three North Kent Communities’,in Managing Power, Wealth and the Body: the Christian Household in MedievalEurope c. 850–1550, ed. Sarah Rees Jones et al. (London: Brepols, 2003),pp. 397–401.

78. McIntosh, Autonomy, pp. 139–40, on inns in relation to the upward socialmobility of the ‘urban yeoman’.

79. CKS DRb. Pwr. 12/32.80. CKS DRb. Pwr. 12/378. Basse also leaves a tilt boat and all ‘furniture’ belong-

ing to it.81. LMA ACS 4/218; see also, LMA ACS 4/124, LMA ACS 5/184.82. Grenville, Medieval Housing (London: University of Leicester Press, 1997),

pp. 1 and 171, on typologies see p. 48; Christopher Dyer, ‘English PeasantBuildings in the Later Middle Ages (1200–1500)’, in Everyday Life in MedievalEngland, ed. C. Dyer (London, Rio Grande: The Hambledon Press, 1994),p. 165; Matthew Johnson, Housing Culture: Traditional Architecture in anEnglish Landscape (Washington DC: Smithsonian Institute Press, 1993), p. 1,and on experience see pp. 7–9; Sarah Pearson, Medieval Houses of Kent(London: HMSO, 1994), p. 1; The English Medieval Town: a Reader in EnglishUrban History 1200–1540, ed. Richard Holt and Gervase Rosser (London:Longman, 1990), Chapter 3, n. 6.

83. Christopher Dyer, Standards of Living in the Later Middle Ages. Social Change inEngland, c. 1200–1520, 2nd edn (Cambridge, New York: CUP, 1989), p. 166;Dyer, ‘Peasant Buildings’, pp. 138, 139, 142, 148, 163. For a distinguishedregional study on the county of Kent, see Pearson, Medieval Houses; alsoA Gazetteer of Medieval Houses in Kent, ed. S. Pearson, P. Barnwell, andA.T. Adams (London: HMSO, 1994). Paul Contamine, ‘Peasant Hearth toPapal Palace: the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries’, in Revelations of theMedieval World, ed. G. Duby (Cambridge, Mass., London: HUP, 1988),pp. 425–35; Grenville, Medieval Housing, p. 193.

84. Johnson, Housing Culture, pp. 168, 107, 176.85. On ‘spaces’, see Michael Camille, ‘Signs of the City: Place, Power and Public

Fantasy in Medieval Paris’, in Medieval Practice of Space, ed. B. Hanawalt and M.Kobialka, Medieval Cultures 23 (Minneapolis, London: University ofMinnesota Press, 2000), pp. 24, 30. For a textual approach, see Henrietta L.Moore, Space, Text, Gender: an Anthropological Study of the Marakwet of Kenya,2nd edn (London, New York: Guildford Press, 1996), pp. 89–90. On the ‘poetics’of architecture, see Grenville, Medieval Housing, pp. 14–22; on ‘grammar’,

Notes 185

see Johnson, Housing Culture, Chapter 6. For the more structural seminalhypothesis that ‘(social) space is a (social) product’, see F. Lefebvre, TheProduction of Space, trans. D. Nicholson-Smith, first published in French in1974 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991), p. 16.

86. Janet Carsten and S. Hugh-Jones, ‘Introduction’, in About the House: Levi-Strauss and Beyond, ed. J. Carsten and S. Hugh-Jones (Cambridge, New York:CUP, 1995), pp. 1–46, 41–6.

87. Nathalie Z. Davis, Fiction in the Archives: Pardon Tales and their Tellers inSixteenth Century France (Oxford: OUP, 1987).

88. Carsten and Hugh-Jones, About the House, p. 40.89. Select Cases, ed. Poos and Bonfield, p. 114.90. John Brewer and Susan Staves, ‘Introduction’, in Early Modern Conceptions of

Property, ed. J. Brewer and S. Staves (London, New York: Routledge, 1995), p. 18.91. Ibid., pp. 6–8.92. For example, NA SC 2/181/81 (1518/19), fo. 1r.; NA STAC 2/19/198

(1509–47).93. Justin P. Croft, ‘The Custumals of the Cinque Ports, c. 1290– c. 1500: Studies

in the Cultural Production of the Urban Record’ (unpublished PhD thesis,University of Kent, 1997), pp. 32 ff.

94. Paula Simpson, ‘Custom and Conflict: Disputes over Tithe in the Diocese ofCanterbury, 1501–1600’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Kent,1997), especially chapters 2 and 3.

95. NA PROB 10/11, reproduced here with some modern punctuation for clarity.96. Similar terms and discursive techniques are used for rural properties, for

example, CCAL U63 70471 (bundle) a 1511 rental of Canterbury’sChristchurch Priory’s manorial records.

97. Daniel L. Smail, ‘The Linguistic Cartography of Property and Power in LateMedieval Marseille’, in Practices of Space, pp. 37–63.

98. LMA ACS 3/140.99. CKS DRb. Pwr. 5/337; CKS DRb. Pwr. 9/61, reproduced here with modern

punctuation and spelling. See also Salter, ‘Cultural Production’. Widow’sspace is discussed in Margaret Spufford, Contrasting Communities. EnglishVillagers in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Cambridge, London: CUP,1974), pp. 112–16. She also shows the possibilities for variations accordingto a community’s customs, and refutes Laslett’s suggestion that multi-generational households were rare in this period and the next century; alsoDyer, ‘Peasant Buildings’, p. 152.

100. Catherine Richardson, ‘The Meanings of Space in Society and Drama:Perceptions of Domestic Life and Domestic Tragedy c. 1550–1600’ (unpub-lished PhD thesis, CCMTS, University of Kent, 1999), pp. 99–102.

101. LMA ACS 6/203.102. CKS DRb. Pwr. 5/405.103. NA PROB 11/16/40/318; CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/7.104. CKS DRb. Pwr. 12/318.105. Alan M. Everitt, ‘The English Urban Inn, 1560–1760’, in Perspectives in

English Urban History, ed. A.M. Everitt (London: Macmillan, 1973), p. 124;Peter Clark, The English Alehouse: a Social History, 1200–1800 (London, NewYork: Longman, 1983), p. 8.

106. CKS DRb. Pwr. 12/120.

186 Notes

107. NA PROB 11/18/33/252.108. CKS DRb. Pwr. 12/120.109. Johnson, Housing Culture, p. 169.110. LMA ACS 6/261.111. LMA ACS 4/233.112. NA PROB 11/21/27/208.113. Richardson, ‘Meanings of Space’, Chapter 3.114. CKS DRb. Pwr. 6/191.115. CKS DRb. Pwr. 6/91.116. CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/7.117. CKS DRb. Pwr. 9/254.118. Richardson, ‘Meanings of Space’, Chapter 3.119. CKS DRb. Pwr. 6/91, my italics for emphasis.120. LMA ACS 5/18.121. Richardson, ‘Meanings of Space’, Chapter 3, for the idea that this conveys

dis-ease.122. CKS DRb. Pwr. 3/240.123. NA PROB 11/7/20/151.124. NA PROB 11/21/27/208.125. CKS DRb. Pwr. 4/88.126. For example, Henry Little who left 5s for this cause in 1519, CKS DRb. Pwr.

7/166.127. CKS DRb. Pwr. 5/209.128. CKS DRb. Pwr. 3/9.129. NA PROB 11/18/33/252.130. LMA ACS 2/152. These are presumably ‘alms houses’.131. CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/61.132. NA PROB 11/16/38/296.133. McIntosh, Autonomy, pp. 225–9; Clark, English Alehouse, pp. 75–6.134. Everitt, ‘English Urban Inn’, pp. 129–34, for a discussion of ‘inn-keeping

dynasties’.135. CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/61; NA E 125/307, Burston is taxed on £5 in 1546, the

highest and next increment being £10.136. This Thomas is possibly the gentleman testator, CKS DRb. Pwr. 7/68.137. See Chapter 7 on education.138. Everitt, ‘English Urban Inn’, pp. 110–13.139. LMA ACS 3/203.140. CKS DRb. Pwr. 3/240.141. Everitt, ‘English Urban Inn’, pp. 92 and 110–13.142. NA PROB 11/16/27/210.143. Clark, English Alehouse, pp. 6 and 68.

4 Possessions

1. William Harrison’s ‘The Description of England’, ed. G. Edelen (New York:Cornell University Press, 1968), p. 200.

2. This period has traditionally been viewed as a time of changing opportuni-ties for the consumption of goods in general, particularly for the non-élite

Notes 187

and usually in the period beginning c. 1550. See, Joan Thirsk, Economic Policyand Projects: the Development of a Consumer Society in Early Modern England(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), pp. 160–9; Consumption and the World ofGoods, ed. J. Brewer and R. Porter (London: Routledge, 1993).

3. See Chapter 2; Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: a Social Critique of the Judgement ofTaste, trans. R. Nice (London: Routledge, 1984); Arjun Appadurai, ‘Introduction:Commodities and the Politics of Value’, in The Social Life of Things: Commoditiesin Cultural Perspective, ed. A. Appadurai (Cambridge: CUP, 1986).

4. For an economic approach, see Richard H. Britnell, The Commercialisation ofEnglish Society 1000–1500 (Cambridge: CUP, 1993), esp. pp. 1 and 164; Studiesin English Trade in the Fifteenth Century, ed. E. Power and M.M. Postan(London: G. Routledge & Sons Ltd., 1933). For statistical approaches, seeLorna Weatherill, Consumer Behaviour & Material Culture in Britain 1660–1760(London: Routledge, 1988), pp. 43–7; for queries concerning perceptions ofregional identity, see Catherine Richardson, ‘The Meanings of Space in Societyand Drama: Perceptions of Domestic Life and Domestic Tragedy, c. 1550–1600’(unpublished PhD thesis, CCMTS, Kent, 1999), and also Domestic Life andDomestic Tragedy in Early Modern England (Manchester: MUP, forthcoming2006). On the issue of ‘experience’, see Britnell, Commercialisation, p. 184.

5. Weatherill, Consumer Behaviour, pp. 58ff.; Richardson, ‘Meanings of Space’,pp. iii, 1, 3–5; also Catherine Richardson, ‘Household Objects and Domestic Ties’,in Managing Power, Wealth and the Body: the Christian Household in MedievalEurope c. 850–1550, ed. S. Rees Jones et al. (London: Brepols, 2003), p. 435.

6. And see Chapter 1 on will evidence and statistical analysis.7. For a Marxist approach see, Rodney H. Hilton, ‘Introduction’, in The Transition

from Feudalism to Capitalism, ed. R.H. Hilton et al. (London: Verso, 1982),pp. 28–9. On markets, see Christopher Dyer, ‘The Consumer and the Marketin the Later Middle Ages’, Econ. Hist. Rev., 2nd Series, 42(3) (1989), 305–27,314. On prices, coinage, and wages, see David L. Farmer, ‘Prices and Wages,1350–1500’, in The Agrarian History of England and Wales, 8 Vols, Vol. 3, ed.E. Miller (Cambridge: CUP, 1991), pp. 434–94.

8. For comparisons of peasant possessions, see Christopher Dyer, Standards of Livingin the Later Middle Ages: Social Change in England, c. 1200–1520, 2nd edn(Cambridge, New York: CUP, 1989), pp. 151–60, 160–9, 170–5 and also Making aLiving in the Middle Ages: the People of Britain (London: Penguin, 2002). On differ-ent forms of élite consumption see, Revolution and Consumption in Late MedievalEngland, ed. M. Hicks (Woodbridge: Boydell, 2001) and essays therein byMiranda Threlfall-Holmes, ‘Durham Cathedral Priory’s Consumption ofImported Goods: Wines and Spices, 1464–1520’, pp. 141–58, and ChristopherWoolgar, ‘Fast and Feast: Conspicuous Consumption and the Diet of theNobility in the Fifteenth Century’, pp. 7–25, which both focus on élite levels ofconsumption; and Lisa Jardine, Worldly Goods: a New History of the Renaissance(New York, London: Norton, 1996), esp. pp. 33–4. On London tastes see CarolineBarron, ‘Centres of Conspicuous Consumption: the Aristocratic Town House inLondon, 1200–1550’, London Journal, 20(1) (1995), 1–16; Vanessa A. Harding,‘Cross Channel Trade and Cultural Contacts: London and the Low Countries inthe Later Fourteenth Century’, in England and the Low Countries in the Late MiddleAges, ed. C.M. Barron and N. Saul (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1995).

9. On rising standards of living see, Britnell, Commercialisation, pp. 168–70;F.R.H. Du Boulay, The Age of Ambition: English Society in the Late Middle Ages

188 Notes

(London: Nelson, 1970), pp. 163–4; for a history of sumptuary legislation,see F.E. Baldwin, Sumptuary Legislation and Personal Regulation in England(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1926); for one interpretation of its signifi-cance see, Sara Warneke, ‘A Taste for New Fangledness: the DestructivePotential of Novelty in Early Modern England’, Sixteenth Century Journal,26(4) (1995), 881–96, 891; on differences between practice, and the theoryrepresented by sumptuary legislation, see Elisabeth E. Salter, ‘ReworkedMaterial: Discourses of Clothing Bequests in Sixteenth Century Greenwich’,in Clothing Culture, 1350–1650, ed. C.T. Richardson (Aldershot: Ashgate,2004), pp. 179–80.

10. See Janet Hoskins, Biographical Objects: How Things Tell the Stories of People’sLives (London, New York: Longman, 1998), esp. pp. 7–8; Annette Weiner,Inalienable Possessions: the Paradox of Keeping-while-giving (Oxford, Berkeley:UCalP, 1992).

11. Hoskins, Biographical Objects, p. 13; and see Nicholas Thomas, Possessions:Indigenous Art/Colonial Culture (London: Thames and Hudson, 1999); forinfluential work on ‘partible personhood’, see Marilyn Strathern, The Genderof the Gift: Problems with Women and Problems with Society in Melanesia(Berkeley: UCalP, 1998), pp. 192–207.

12. Weiner, Inalienable Possessions, p. 6, Inalienable possessions include, ‘landrights, material objects, or mythic knowledge’.

13. Weiner, Inalienable Possessions, pp. 6–8.14. Richardson, ‘Meanings of Space’, pp. 77–8. In east Kent c. 1550–1600, various

items of apparel were the most commonly bequeathed goods; chests, whichoften contained silver spoons and pewter vessels, were the second most oftenbequeathed.

15. Dyer, Standards, pp. 169–75, on these metals as signifiers of wealth.16. Elisabeth E. Salter, ‘Cultural Appropriation and Transmission in Town and

Country in Late Medieval England’ (PhD thesis, CCMTS, University of Kent,2003); and, ‘Some Differences in the Cultural Production of HouseholdConsumption in Three North Kent Communities’, in The Christian Householdin Medieval Europe, pp. 391–407.

17. Salter, ‘Cultural Production’, p. 395.18. Salter, ‘Cultural Appropriation’, pp. 155–67.19. John Hatcher, A History of British Pewter (London: Longman, 1974), pp. 43

and 74 on the emergence of pewter in London wills from c. 1450, and its pro-duction in provincial towns from c. 1475.

20. NA PROB 11/5/29/202.21. NA PROB 11/8/11/90.22. NA PROB 11/10/32/251.23. NA PROB 11/10/27/213.24. NA PROB 11/24/9/66.25. LMA ACS 3/203.26. LMA ACS 5/10.27. LMA ACS 5/34.28. LMA ACS 5/59.29. LMA ACS 2/53.30. NA PROB 11/18/23/176.31. LMA ACS 5/184; CKS DRb. Pwr. 10/117; LMA ACS 4/206.32. NA PROB 11/25/24/173.

Notes 189

33. LMA ACS 5/76.34. LMA ACS 4/235.35. NA PROB 11/16/40/318.36. Kurath and Kuhn (Vol. O–P), suggests ‘pounce’ as an embossed design, from

the word for the tool used to ‘punch’ holes in metalware.37. LMA ACS 2/80.38. Hatcher, British Pewter, pp. 106–7, on ‘fashioning’ and the remodelling of old

objects into new. For near contemporary reference to this, see WilliamHarrison’s The Description of England, ed. G. Edelin (New York: Cornell UniversityPress, 1968), p. 367.

39. LMA ACS 3/203.40. NA PROB 11/16/40/318.41. Beverley Nenk, ‘English Households in Transition c. 1450–1550: the Ceramic

Evidence’, in The Age of Transition: the Archaeology of English Culture,1400–1600, ed. D. Gaimster and P. Stamper, The Society for MedievalArchaeology, Monograph 15, Oxbow Monograph 98 (Oxford: Oxbow, 1997),pp. 171–95, esp. p. 174; Franz Verhaeghe, ‘An Aquamanile and SomeThoughts about Ceramic Competition with Quality Metal Goods in theMiddle Ages’, in Custom and Ceramics, Essays Presented to Kenneth Barton, ed.D. Allen (Wickham: APE, 1991), pp. 25–61, esp. p. 53.

42. NA PROB 1/16/27/206.43. NA PROB 11/14/22/171. Willoughby’s book bequests are discussed in

Chapter 7.44. NA PROB 11/25/12/72; NA PROB 11/14/3/21.45. NA PROB 11/8/34/86.46. NA PROB 11/10/2/9.47. LMA ACS 4/55.48. See, John Cherry ‘Jewellery’, in The Age of Chivalry: Art in Plantagenet England,

1200–1400, ed. J. Alexander and P. Binski (London: Royal Academy of Artswith Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1987), pp. 176–8 on interpreting the mean-ings of surviving material objects, and issues associated with the transmis-sion of fashions and textual inscriptions.

49. CKS DRb. Pwr. 6/285.50. CKS DRb. Pwr. 6/285; CKS DRb. Pwr. 9/49.51. CKS DRb. Pwr. 6/292.52. NA PROB 11/24/4/32.53. NA PROB 11/25/16/103. From Kurath & Kuhn (Vol. D): ‘ “Dornix” is a kind

of damask cloth.’54. NA PROB 11/16/38/296.55. LMA ACS 2 /152.56. NA PROB 11/16/33/254.57. LMA ACS 3/171.58. PRO PROB 11/22/18/223.59. CKS DRb. Pwr. 9/179.60. CKS DRb. Pwr. 3/289.61. NA PROB 11/9/27/150; my emphasis.62. NA PROB 11/ 25/11/179; my emphasis; and see Chapter 5.63. PRO PROB 11/30/8/59; see also, CKS DRb. Pwr. 7/283.64. LMA ACS 2/84.

190 Notes

65. CKS DRb. Pwr. 9/272.66. CKS DRb. Pwr. 6/91.67. PRO PROB 11/11/7/57.68. NA PROB 11/16/33/254.69. NA PROB 11/16/13/102.70. See chapters 1 and 2 on rituals of will-making and their tangled states.71. CKS DRb. Pwr. 5/254.72. NA PROB 11/29/4/31.73. CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/180.74. NA PROB 11/4/22/168.

5 Life-fashioning

1. See Chapter 1 for issues concerning empiricism in relation to the approachtaken in this book.

2. Nigel Saul, ‘Bold as Brass: Secular Display in English Medieval Brasses’,in Heraldry Pageantry, and Social Display in Medieval England, ed. P. Coss andM. Keen (Woodbridge: Boydell, 2002), pp. 174–5.

3. Stephen Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-fashioning: From More to Shakespeare(Chicago, London: UChP, 1980), p. 2 on the ‘increased self-consciousnessabout the fashioning of human identity as a manipulable artful process’. Forcritiques of Greenblatt’s use of historical context, his absolutism, and his lackof reflexivity, see Ann Barton, ‘Perils of Historicism’, New York Review of Books,March 28 (1991), 53–5; Alisdair Fowler, ‘Power to the Self’, Times LiterarySupplement, September 4 (1981), 10–12, p. 1011; J.E. Howard, ‘The CulturalConstruction of the Self in the Renaissance’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 34 (1983),378–81, 380; also, Janet Coleman, Ancient and Medieval Memories: Studies inthe Reconstruction of the Past (Cambridge, New York: CUP, 1992), p. 463, for asimilar critique to Fowler, and a suggestion that differences between writinghistory in medieval and renaissance times are generic and linguistic;P. Edwards, ‘Review Article’, Renaissance Quarterly (1982), 317–321, 321;Richard Strier, ‘Identity and Power in Tudor England: Stephen Greenblatt,Renaissance Self-fashioning from More to Shakespeare’, Boundary 2: A Journal ofPost Modern Literature (1982), 383–94, 384. Marguerite Waller, ‘AcademicTootsie: the Denial of Difference and the Difference it Makes’, Diacritics,17(1) (1987), 2–20, 4.

4. See, Roy Porter, ‘Introduction’, in Rewriting the Self: Histories from theRenaissance to the Present, ed. R. Porter (New York, London: Routledge, 1997),pp. 9 and 12.

5. Johannes Fabian (with narrative and paintings by Tshibumba Kanda Matulu),Remembering the Present: Painting and Popular History in Zaire (Berkeley,Los Angeles, London: UCP, 1996).

6. Fabian, Remembering, p. ix.7. Fabian, Remembering, p. 187; see Chapter 1 on Writing Culture.8. Fabian, Remembering, p. 3.9. Fabian, Remembering, p. 262.

10. But see Fabian, Remembering, p. 248 for his concerns about the currenttendency to overuse concepts of performativity. See also Susan Crane,

Notes 191

The Performance of Self: Ritual, Clothing and Identity during the Hundred YearsWar (Philadelphia: UPP, 2002).

11. Fabian, Remembering, p. 249.12. Miri Rubin, Corpus Christi: the Eucharist in Late Medieval Culture (Cambridge:

CUP, 1991), Chapter 4, on the wide ranging cultural ramifications ofeucharistic symbolism, and on its performance by the laity.

13. P.D.A. Harvey and Andrew McGuinness, A Guide to British Medieval Seals(London: The British Library and Public Record Office, 1996), pp. 1–26, espe-cially p. 26, and pp. 77–93, 88 ff; one such fragmentary collection of personalseals is found at: CKS U 470/T3-4, 7-8; CKS U 47/3/T46; CKS U 47/11/T547-8; CKS U 282/T20-25; CCAL DCC CA P 2-18.

14. NA PROB 11/28/7/55.15. CKS DRb. Pwr. 9/177.16. LMA ACS 6/147.17. Roger Ellis bequeaths no residential property, but refers to furniture in his

host’s house.18. NA PROB 11/22/8/64.19. NA PROB 11/32/13/98.20. CKS DRb. Pwr. 8/38.21. NA PROB 11/20/13/93.22. CKS DRb. Pwr. 7/43.23. LMA ACS 2/149.24. CKS DRb. Pwr. 7/43.25. PRO PROB 11/21/22/173.26. CKS DRb. Pwr. 7/43.27. PRO PROB 11/22/8/59.28. CKS DRb. Pwr. 8/18.29. CKS DRb. Pwr. 12/95.30. NA PROB 11/22/8/59.31. NA PROB 11/13/14/56.32. CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/10233. LMA ACS 6/30.34. The Trevelyan Papers to 1551, The Camden Society, Old Series, Vol. 67, p. 137; The

Trevelyan Papers Part II to 1643, The Camden Society, Old Series, Vol. 84, p. 27.35. See, for example, CKS DRb. Pwr. 12/397; also, references supplied by Karen

Watts of the Leeds Armouries Museum include, C. Blair, ‘The Will of MartinVan Royne and Some Lists of Almain Armourers at Greenwich’, Journal of theArms and Armour Society, 11 (1985), 199–215, 201; also the 1552 list ofarmourers E 101 424/9; Blair also cites Matthew Dethykes as one of the fivespecial men working on the king’s personal armour in the 1530s, othermembers of this family have Greenwich testaments, for example, CKS DRb.Pwr. 8/25 and 10/10.

36. See, for example, Gertrude Kempe (1548), CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/31 (wife ofJasper Kempe, CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/31) which distinctly shows her network offoreign individuals.

37. C. Blair, ‘The Armourers’ Bill of 1581: the Making of Arms and Armour inSixteenth-century London’, Journal of the Arms and Armour Society, 12 (1986),20–53, 22–3; for Jasper Kempe, see CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/31.

38. See, for example, BL MS Stowe 146, fo. 64r.

192 Notes

39. Sidney Anglo, Images of Tudor Kingship (London: Seaby, 1992), especiallypp. 6–15.

40. PRO PROB 11/28/7/50; also see, CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/274.41. CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/102.42. CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/274.43. NA PROB 11/22/8/64.44. NA PROB 11/22/8/59.45. PRO PROB 11/32/13/98.46. NA PROB 11/28/7/50.47. NA PROB 11/35/2/12.48. NA PROB 11/31/ 51/403.49. CKS DRb. Pwr. 9/176.50. NA PROB 11/25/24/173.51. NA PROB 11/13/10/91.52. NA PROB 11/22/25/195.53. NA PROB 11/25/25/179.54. NA PROB 11/29/22/173, this gift is given to the son of a named London

merchant; another example of armour bequeathed by a London citizen isJohn Palmer (1520), NA PROB 11/20/2/5.

55. W.G. Hoskins, The Age of Plunder: the England of Henry VIII 1500–1547(London, New York, 1976), pp. 14–18 on the requirements for muster andarray, noted above.

56. CKS DRb. Pwr. 12/95.57. CKS DRb. Pwr. 12/474.58. S. Foister, ‘Holbein’s Paintings on Canvas: the Greenwich Festivities of 1527’,

in Hans Holbein: Paintings, Prints, and Reception, ed. M. Roskill and J.O. Hand(New Haven, London: National Gallery of Art, Washington, distributed byYUP, 2001), pp. 119 and 122; in NA E 36/227, Christopher Smith of Greenwichis recorded as bringing ‘Spanish Iron’ for the building of the banquetinghouse in 1527.

59. Stephen J. Gunn, Early Tudor Government, 1485–1558, British Historyin Perspective (London: Macmillan Press, 1995), chapters 4 and 5, particu-larly p. 208.

60. Sarah Beckwith, Christ’s Body: Identity, Culture and Society in Late MedievalWritings (London, New York: Routledge, 1993), Chapter 2, on such socialorder and ritual process.

61. Sidney Anglo, Spectacle, Pageantry and Early Tudor Policy (Oxford: ClarendonPress, 1969). The lives of these masters of the revels are considered inElisabeth Salter, Six Renaissance Men and Women: Innovation, Biography, andCultural Creativity in Tudor England (Ashgate: forthcoming 2007).

62. L.P. III, Part II, pp. 1550–1; Alison Weir, Henry VIII King and Court (London:Jonathan Cape, 2001), p. 91.

63. L.P. II, Part II, p. 1505; Anglo, Spectacle, Pageantry, pp. 532–3.64. L.P. II, Part II, p. 1509; Kurath and Kuhn (Vol. S) suggest that ‘sypers’ refers to

either satin from Cyprus or some kind of neck tie, probably of that material.65. L.P. III, Part II, p. 977.66. L.P. II, Part II, p. 1505.67. L.P. III, Part II, p. 1551.68. L.P. II, Part II, p. 1505.

Notes 193

69. L.P. II, Part II, p. 1505.70. L.P. II, Part II, p. 1501.71. L.P. II, Part II, pp. 1505–6; OED: sarsenet is a silk.72. L.P. II, Part II, p. 1509.73. Crane, Performance of Self, p. 3.74. NA E 36/227 passim, and see, fo. 16r, showing the involvement of

Christopher Smith of Greenwich in the provision of goods; Hans Holbein ismentioned on fo. 11r; for a discussion of Holbein’s role in the 1527 pageantssee, Foister, ‘Holbein’s Paintings on Canvas’ passim.

75. BL MS Eg. 2605 ff. 16v, 34v ff.76. Edward Halle’s The Union of the Two Noble Families of Lancaster and York [...]

1550, printed by Richard Grafton in 1550. Reproduced from Bodleian LibraryCC 39 Art (London: Scolar Press Ltd., 1970), fo. clviii.

77. Roy Strong, Holbein and Henry VIII, The Paul Mellon Foundation for BritishArt (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967), p. 12.

78. NA E 36/227, fo. 15r.79. BL MS Stowe 146, ff. 112r–113v, 124r–v.80. See, Paul Connerton, How Societies Remember (Cambridge, New York: CUP,

1989), p. 42.81. Fabian, Remembering, p. 255.82. Barry Dobson and John Taylor, Rhymes of Robyn Hood: an Introduction to the

English Outlaw, 2nd edn (Stroud: Sutton, 1997), p. 42.83. Jennifer Loach, Edward VI, ed. G. Bernard and P. Williams (New Haven,

London: YUP, 1996), p. 156.84. See also, Elisabeth E. Salter, ‘Reworked Material: Discourses of Clothing

Bequests in Sixteenth Century Greenwich’, in Clothing Culture, 1350–1650,ed. C.T. Richardson (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004), on clothing bequests.

85. NA PROB 11/28/7/54; CKS DRb. Pwr. 7/285.86. See, Maria Hayward, ‘Fashion, Finance, Foreign Politics and the Wardrobe of

Henry VIII’, in Clothing Culture, pp. 165–78.87. See, How Societies Remember, pp. 39–40, for the importance of considering

‘acts of transfer’.88. NA PROB 11/32/13/98.89. See, Geary, ‘Oblivion between Orality and Textuality’, pp. 121–2; Althoff

et al., eds, Medieval Concepts of the Past: Ritual, Memory, Historiography(Cambridge: German Historical Institute and CUP, 2002), p. 12.

90. Edward Halle’s The Union of the Two Noble Families of Lancaster and York,fo. clvii.

6 Death-fashioning

1. Andrew F. Butcher, ‘The Functions of Script in the Speech Community of aLate Medieval Town, c. 1300–1550’, in The Uses of Script and Print, 1300–1700,ed. A. Walsham and J. Crick (Cambridge: CUP, 2003), pp. 162–5. G. Althoff,et al., ‘Introduction’, in Medieval Concepts of the Past: Ritual, Memory,Historiography, ed. G. Althoff et al. (Cambridge: German Historical Instituteand CUP, 2002), p. 9. For an examination of the role of the public courtroomperformance texts in the construction of memory, see Patrick J. Geary,

194 Notes

‘Oblivion between Orality and Textuality in the Tenth Century’, in MedievalConcepts of the Past, pp. 121–2 on the ‘complexities of orality and textualitywithin the most practical, mundane aspects of life’.

2. Johannes Fabian (with narrative and paintings by Tshibumba KandaMatulu), Remembering the Present: Painting and Popular History in Zaire(Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: UCP, 1996), pp. 255 and 262.

3. See, for example, Mary Carruthers, The Book of Memory: a Study of Memory inMedieval Culture (Cambridge: CUP, 1990), but see pp. 246–56 on theoreticians’beliefs that a mnemonic diagram was an invitation to elaborate and recomposerather than being a prescriptive scheme. See also, Memory and the MedievalTomb, ed. E. Valdez del Alamo and C. Stamatis Pendergast (Vermont, Aldershot:Ashgate, 2000), pp. 1–11; p. 2 shows their primary concern with ‘theory’. Also,Susan Crane, ‘Writing the Individual Back into Collective Memory’, AmericanHistorical Review, 102 (1997), 1372–85, 1374–5, on the practice of interpretation(though not the interpretation of practice), see 1382 ff. For a more practice-oriented approach see, Mary Carruthers, ‘ “Ars Inveniendi”: Visualization andComposition in Late Medieval Rhetoric’, Annual Medieval Academy Lecture,Leeds International Medieval Congress, 2002.

Nathalie Z. Davis and Robert Starn, ‘Introduction’, in Memory and Counter-Memory, Representations, Special Issue, 26 (1987), 1–6, 5, on the pioneeringapproaches of Maurice Halbwachs and Henri Bergson. See also, JanetColeman, Ancient and Medieval Memories: Studies in the Reconstruction of thePast (Cambridge, New York: CUP, 1992), p. 541. On the social construction ofmemory, see Paul Connerton, How Societies Remember (Cambridge, New York:CUP, 1989), pp. 70–1. For an Annales School approach to ‘Les Lieux deMemoire’, see Pierre Nora, ‘Between Memory and History’, Representations, 26(1989), 7–24, 23.

4. Mark L. Merry, ‘The Construction and Representation of Urban Identities:Public and Private Lives in Late Medieval Bury St Edmunds’ (unpublishedPhD thesis, University of Kent, 1998), 239–47. See also Nigel Saul, Death, Art,and Memory in Medieval England: the Cobham Family and their Monuments(Oxford: OUP, 2001), pp. 241–3.

5. NA PROB 11/30/33/257.6. NA PROB 11/30/33/259.7. NA PROB 11/8/354.8. Martha Carlin, Medieval Southwark (London, New York: Hambledon Press,

1996), p. 88.9. Robert Pocock, THE HISTORY OF THE Incorporated Town and Parishes of

GRAVESEND & MILTON IN THE COUNTY OF KENT Selected with Accuracy fromTopographical Writers AND ENRICHED FROM MSS HITHERTO UN-NOTICEDRecording Every Event that has Occurred in the Aforesaid Town and Parishesfrom the Norman Conquest to the Present Time (Gravesend: The Author,1797), p. 112.

10. See Elisabeth E. Salter, ‘Cultural Appropriation and Transmission in Townand Country in Late Medieval England’ (unpublished PhD thesis, CCMTS,University of Kent, 2003), pp. 67–74 for a case study based on choice in theneighbouring Kentish settlements of Milton and Gravesend.

11. CKS DRb. Pwr. 7/270.12. CKS DRb. Pwr. 7/270; ‘staynd’ is taken to mean ‘painted’.

Notes 195

13. M. Concanen and A. Morgan, The History and Antiquities of the Parish ofSt Saviour’s Southwark (London, 1795), unpaginated.

14. CKS DRb. Pwr. 2/122.15. LMA ACS 3/146.16. LMA ACS 4/77.17. NA PROB 11 22/37/293.18. CKS DRb. Pwr. 7/211.19. NA PROB 11/11/29. This is probably the same William named by John

Cayser as his son in his testament discussed above.20. NA PROB 11/19/43.21. CKS DRb. Pwr. 3/175.22. NA PROB 11/22/7/49.23. NA PROB 11/16/17/132.24. LMA ACS 2/84. This is the same Stephen Burdon who made the interesting

and highly textual commemorative request mentioned in Chapter 1.25. NA PROB 11/16/18/140.26. CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/19.27. NA PROB 11 14/34/267.28. NA PROB 11 22/7/51.29. LMA ACS 5/60.30. CKS DRb. Pwr. 10/198.31. See the historiographical introduction to the study of commemorative mon-

uments in Saul, Death, Art, Memory, pp. 1–9; p. 6, for the statement that‘brasses were crucial to the strategies of legitimation by which families drewattention to their status and affirmed their position in the élite’; p. 9, for thestatement that, ‘a key aim of this book will be to consider what the brassescan teach us about the process of fashioning and manipulating the family’sself-image’.

32. See, for example, Saul, Death, Art, Memory, dustcover.33. See Chapter 2 for a discussion of approaches to emulation.34. LMA ACS 4/153.35. LMA ACS 5/227.36. NA PROB 11 14/34/267; my emphasis.37. NA PROB 11/25/30/223.38. For a suggestion that notions of individualism should be treated with caution

because selfhood is invariably constructed in group rather than individualterms, see Nigel Saul, ‘Bold as Brass: Secular Display in English MedievalBrasses’, in Heraldry, Pageantry, and Social Display in Medieval England,ed. P. Coss and M. Keen (Wordbridge: Boydell, 2002).

39. On the significance of literacy events, and the distinction between literacyevents and practices, see Brian V. Street, Literacy in Theory and Practice,Cambridge Studies in Oral and Literate Culture (Cambridge: CUP, 1984),pp. 94–125.

40. LMA ACS 3/155.41. CKS DRb. Pwr. 7/273.42. LMA ACS 4/42.43. CKS DRb. Pwr. 7/200.44. For the kinds of questions which must be asked of a more material, production

centred analysis, see Saul, Death, Art, Memory, esp. pp. 227–9; on the same

196 Notes

sort of question asked in relation to testamentary requests, see Saul, ‘Bold asBrass’, pp. 179–85.

45. The Age of Chivalry: Art in Plantagenet England, 1200–1400, ed. J. Alexanderand P. Binski (London: Royal Academy of Arts with Weidenfeld and Nicolson,1987). For a useful summary of the historiography of monument description,particularly brasses, see, Saul, ‘Bold as Brass’, p. 170.

46. Age of Chivalry, p. 296.47. J.G. Waller, ‘The Lords of Cobham, their Monuments, and the Church’, AC,

11 (1877), 49–112, plates 3, 4 and 2; Age of Chivalry, pp. 250–1. For a recentand comprehensive description and discussion of these objects see, Saul,Death, Art, Memory.

48. See Saul, ‘Bold as Brass’, p. 185 on the importance of status as reflected in tes-tamentary evidence.

49. For some particularly useful case studies based primarily on surviving mat-erial monuments see, Heraldry, Pageantry and Social Display in MedievalEngland, ed. Peter Coss and Maurice Keen (Woodbridge: Boydell, 2002), esp.Brian and Moira Gittos, ‘Motivation and Choice: the Selection of MedievalSecular Effigies’; and Saul ‘Bold as Brass’.

50. Saul, Death, Art, Memory; Gittos and Gittos, ‘Motivation and Choice’, p. 150:‘The general arrangement might be the choice of either the subject or execu-tors but, to a greater or lesser extent, both were in the hands of the mason asfar as the execution was concerned.’

51. For this tendency in memorialisation in general, see Pierre Nora, ‘BetweenMemory and History’, Representations, 26 (1989), 7–24, 19.

52. See, Paul Binski, Medieval Death: Ritual and Representation (London: BritishMuseum Press, 1996), for a general discussion of medieval memorial repre-sentations based on material evidence, see Binski’s Chapter 2, and pp. 92–115on ‘the tomb as a sign of selfhood’.

53. On this subject in relation to providing context for commemorative brasses,see Saul, Death, Art, Memory, pp. 5–6; Saul, ‘Bold as Brass’, esp. pp. 170–1.

54. CKS DRb. Pwr. 6/374.55. CKS DRb. Pwr. 5/387.56. I am grateful to Peter Fleming who raised this point in discussion at the

Fifteenth Century Conference, Keele University, September 2003.57. On the related subject of a rise in popularity of ‘bastard feudal insignia’ on

monuments, see Saul, ‘Bold as Brass’, pp. 186–7.58. CKS DRb. Pwr. 6/344; ‘briganders’ are body armour for foot soldiers, some-

times a pair if made in two pieces, generally iron sewn onto canvas or leather;‘sallett’ is a light head-piece with no crest, with a lower part curving outwardsbehind; ‘splints’ protect arms and elbows, and are made from overlappingplates; ‘gorget’ is a piece of armour protecting the throat.

59. Saul, Death, Art, Memory, p. 228. St George was depicted on the memorial ofSir Nicholas Habwerk at Cobham.

60. On ‘Muster and Array’, see W.G. Hoskins, The Age of Plunder: the England ofHenry VIII 1500–1547 (London, New York: Longman, 1976), pp. 14–18.

61. NA PROB 11/11/57.62. For a discussion of changes in funerary practices promoted by the

Reformation, including the use of tombs, see Claire Gittings, Death, Burial,and the Individual in Early Modern England (London, Sydney: Routledge, 1984),

Notes 197

esp. pp. 12–14, 39–40; for difficulties of interpreting individualism, see RalphHoulbrooke, Death, Ritual, Bereavement (London, New York: Routledge,1989).

63. On changing fashions of tomb representation including the depiction ofweepers, occurring from the fifteenth century, see Binski, Medieval Death;also Christopher Daniell, Death and Burial in Medieval England, 1066–1550(London: Routledge, 1997); Andrew Martindale, ‘Patrons and Minders: theIntrusion of the Secular into Sacred Spaces in the Later Middle Ages’, Studiesin Church History, 28 (1992), 133–56. On the comparable issue of styles of rep-resentation in brasses, see Malcolm Norris, ‘Later Medieval MonumentalBrasses: an Urban Funerary Industry and its Representation of Death’,in Death in Towns: Urban Responses to the Dying and the Dead, 100–1600,ed. S. Bassett (London: Routledge, 1992).

64. On this subject see, David Aers, ‘A Whisper in the Ear of Early Modernists; or,Reflections on Literary Critics Writing the “History of the Subject” ’, inCulture and History 1350–1600: Essays on English Communities, Identities andWriting, ed. D. Aers (New York, London: Routledge 1992), passim.

65. PROB 11 25/12/72.66. PROB 11 32/10/78. See also the request of William Kellome, CKS DRb. Pwr. 10/7.67. LMA ACS 6/203.68. LMA ACS 6/ 227.69. See, Judith Ford ‘A Study of Wills and Will-making in the Period 1500–1533

with Special Reference to the Copy Wills in the Probate Registers of theArchdeacon of Bedford, 1483–1533’ (unpublished PhD thesis, OpenUniversity, 1992), p. 45.

70. This template is taken from the will of John Aunsell, as discussed in Chapter 2.71. This template is taken from the will of John Knotte, a weaver of Yalding in Kent.72. NA PROB 11/16/9/76.73. Beds CRO ABP/R3, p. 57. This is cited in Ford, ‘Study of Wills’, p. 32.74. See, for example, Margaret Spufford, Contrasting Communities: English

Villagers in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Cambridge, London: CUP,1974), pp. 55–6.

75. LMA ACS 4/42.76. LMA ACS 4/124.77. LMA ACS 5/127, my emphasis. See Elisabeth E. Salter, Six Renaissance Men and

Women: Innovation, Biography and Cultural Creativity in Tudor England(Aldershot: Ashgate, forthcoming 2007), for detailed discussion of a differentinstance of this kind of request.

78. NA PROB 11/25/11/179.79. See Chapter 5.80. See Chapter 5.81. See Chapter 5.82. See Salter, ‘Cultural Appropriation’, pp. 77–85.

7 The Creativity of Reading

1. This chapter has been particularly helped by participants in our ReceptionStudies Discussion Group: Andrew Butcher, Rob Lutton, Cath Nall, Claire

198 Notes

Norton, Emily Richards, Daniel Wakelin, and Helen Wicker; and also inMay 2005 by the discussion of a paper I gave to the Household ResearchGroup, University of York.

2. The related subject of the origins and rise of an English reading public formsthe focus of a forthcoming monograph.

3. For example, Andrew F. Butcher, ‘The Functions of Script in the SpeechCommunity of a Late Medieval Town, c, 1300–1550’, in The Uses of Scriptand Print, 1300–1700, ed. A. Walsham and J. Crick (Cambridge: CUP),pp. 157–70, and n.1 on the forthcoming monograph.

4. NA PROB 11/22/37/290.5. LMA ACS 3/118; also, Michael Camille, ‘Signs of the City: Place, Power

and Public Fantasy in Medieval Paris’, in Medieval Practices of Space,ed. B. Hanawalt and M. Kobialka (Minneapolis, London: University ofMinnesota Press, 2000), pp. 1–36.

6. NA PROB 11/16/27/206. See Chapter 6 for commemorative tombstoneinscriptions; Chapter 4 for domestic and luxury goods and their inscriptions.

7. The concept of the author is used loosely, see The Idea of the Vernacular: anAnthology of Middle English Literary Theory, 1280–1520, Exeter Middle EnglishTexts and Studies, ed. J. Wogan-Browne et al. (Exeter: EUP, 1999), pp. 4–8.

8. See also, James Simpson, ‘Faith and Hermeneutics: Pragmatism versusPragmatism,’ JMEMS, 33(2) (2003), 215–39.

9. Margaret Deanesly, ‘Vernacular Books in the Fourteenth and FifteenthCenturies’, Modern Language Review, 15 (1920), 349–58; Joel Rosenthal,‘Aristocratic Cultural Patronage and Book Bequests, 1350–1500’, Bulletin ofJohn Rylands University Library of Manchester, 64 (1982), 522–48, 535–48. Forcomparisons with the York diocese, see Jo Ann Hoeppner Moran, The Growthof English Schooling, 1340–1548: Learning, Literacy, and Laicization in Pre-Reformation York Diocese (Princeton: PUP, 1985), pp. 150–6; and P.J.P. Goldberg,‘Lay Book Ownership in Late Medieval York: the Evidence of Wills’, TheLibrary, 16(3) (1994), 181–9; for comparisons with Norwich, see NormanTanner, Church in Late Medieval Norwich, 1370–1532 (Pontifical Institute ofMediaeval Studies, 1984); also, Carol Meale, ‘ “ ... alle the bokes that I have oflatyn, englisch, and frensch”: Laywomen and their Books in Late MedievalEngland’, in Women & Literature in Britain, 1150–1500, ed. C. Meale(Cambridge: CUP, 1993), pp. 130–3 on will evidence for book ownership.

10. A History of Reading in the West, ed. G. Cavallo and R. Chartier (Cambridgeand Oxford: Polity Press, 1999), p. 4.

11. See Chapter 4; and on Kent in particular, Elisabeth E. Salter, ‘SomeDifferences in the Cultural Production of Household Consumption in ThreeNorth Kent Communities’, in Managing Power, Wealth and the Body: theChristian Household in Medieval Europe, c. 850–1550, ed. S. Rees-Jones et al.(London: Brepols, 2003), pp. 391–407.

12. See Mary C. Erler, ‘Devotional Literature’, in The Cambridge History of theBook, Vol. 3, 1400–1557, ed. L. Helinga and J.B. Trapp (Cambridge: CUP,1999), p. 497; and Chapter 4 of this volume.

13. Goldberg, ‘Lay Book Ownership’, 183, and n. 10 also citing similar evidencefor Hull; Moran, Growth of English Schooling, pp. 196–7; Tanner, Church in LateMedieval Norwich, p. 111; Erler, ‘Devotional Literature’, p. 505.

14. NA PROB 11/10/13/98.

Notes 199

15. NA PROB 11/13/20/169.16. LMA ACS 3/162.17. LMA ACS 4/139.18. NA PROB 11/14/22/171.19. See, Wendy Scase, ‘Reginald Pecock, John Carpenter and John Colop’s

“Common Profit” Books: Aspects of Book Ownership and Circulation inFifteenth Century London’, Medium Aevum, 61 (1992), 261–74, 262–3;H.S. Bennett, ‘The Production and Dissemination of Vernacular Manuscriptsin the Fifteenth Century’, The Library, 5th Series, 1 (1946/7), 167–78, 171.

20. CKS DRb. Pwr. 5/256; book bequests of Acton kin include William Acton,CKS DRb. Pwr. 5/278; Edward Nevill, CKS DRb. Pwr. 7/29; and HenryLittle, CKS DRb. Pwr. 7/166.

21. See also Scase, ‘ “Common Profit” Books’, 267–9.22. NA PROB 11/16/13/102.23. NA PROB 11/10/2/9. See note 42 for ‘portuus’.24. Ibid.25. Ibid.26. NA PROB 11/3/21/131.27. CKS DRb. Pwr. 9/256.28. NA PROB 11/11/24/137.29. NA PROB 11/9/24/66. For a further consideration of Dame Katherine Styles,

see Elisabeth E. Salter, Six Renaissance Men and Women: Innovation, Biographyand Cultural Creativity in Tudor England (Aldershot: Ashgate, forthcoming2007).

30. NA PROB 11/16/13/102.31. Susan Groag Bell, ‘Medieval Women Book Owners. Arbiters of Lay Piety and

Ambassadors of Culture’, in Women & Power in the Middle Ages, ed. M. Erlerand M. Kowaleski (Athens, GA, London: University of Georgia Press, 1988),pp. 149–87.

32. NA PROB 11/16/13/102.33. CKS DRb. Pwr. 3/294.34. NA PROB 11/10/12/80.35. NA PROB 11/10/26/206.36 NA PROB 11/12/8/55.37. NA PROB 11/8/38/306.38. NA PROB 11/14/7/52.39. NA PROB 11/10/2/9. And see n. 42 below.40. See, for example, Marcell Clarke, clerk, of Gravesend (1537), CKS DRb. Pwr.

9/235; Simon Templeman, Rector of Lee, next Greenwich (1527), CKS DRb.Pwr. 8/16.

41. LMA ACS 2/50. Kurath and Kuhn (Vol. O–P) has (for ‘Prykked Song’) ‘to writedown music by means of notation involving points or neumes’. (Prickedsong is notated as opposed to extemporised.) Common forms are ‘prike song’or ‘prike-song’. And see n. 42 below.

42. NA PROB 11/6/24/205 (... a small portiforium in the custody of Master WilliamEstfelde of Cambridge). Kurath and Kuhn (Vol. O–P) define ‘portiforium/port-hors’, porteus or portuus as a portable breviary.

43. See Paul Lee, ‘Monastic and Secular Religion and Devotional Reading in LateMedieval Dartford and West Kent’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University ofKent, 1998), Chapter 7.

200 Notes

44. CKS DRb. Pwr. 4/50. Jacobus de Voragine, Legenda Aurea [The GoldenLegend], c. 1260, a huge collection of saints’ lives. It was first published inEnglish by William Caxton in 1483, but was widely read in Latin and intranslation through the medieval period. Pupilla Occuli is a treatise designedfor the examination of devotional practice, intended as an instructionalmanual for priests but also read by the laity.

45. CKS DRb. Pwr. 2/284; this text may be one of those grammar treatises dis-cussed in Moran, Growth of English Schooling, pp. 37ff, and identified by her,on pp. 201–2, as a popular gift from clergy to young boys.

46. NA PROB 11/14/22/171.47. Lee, ‘Monastic and Secular’, p. 291 identifies Pars Occuli as a book of ‘pastoral

theology’.48. NA PROB 11/13/6/63.49. NA PROB 11/14/34/267; my italics.50. NA PROB 11/9/27/215; my italics.51. Moran, Growth of English Schooling, p. 175 for the suggestion that, ‘it does not

appear to be that simple’.52. Nicholas Orme, English Schools in the Middle Ages (London: Methuen, 1973),

p. 194.53. Moran, Growth of English Schooling, pp. 221 ff.54. Ibid., p. 224.55. Margaret Spufford, Small Books and Pleasant Histories: Popular Fiction and its

Readership in Seventeenth-century England (Cambridge: CUP, 1981), especiallych. 2, and pp. 28–9 on the use of primers.

56. See, Gillian Draper, ‘Educational Provision and Piety in Kent’, in Pieties inTransition: Religious Practices and Experiences, 1400–1640, ed. R.G.A. Luttonand E.E. Salter (Aldershot: Ashgate, forthcoming 2006); Lee, ‘Monasticand Secular’, ch. 7, especially p. 227; Moran, Growth of English Schooling,pp. 164–70, for comparable evidence from York diocese.

57. J.W. Adamson, ‘The Extent of Literacy in England in the Fifteenth andSixteenth centuries’, The Library, 4th Series, 10 (1930), 162–93, 174ff.; alsoLee, ‘Monastic and Secular’, p. 220 for caution about terminology, where‘schoole’ may refer to either a grammar school or university education.

58. NA PROB 11/10/26/ 206.59. On Kent, see Lee, ‘Monastic and Secular’, p. 220.60. NA PROB 11/11/15/127.61. NA PROB 11/21/27/208.62. Adamson, ‘Extent of Literacy’, p. 184.63. LMA ACS 3/157.64. LMA ACS 4/198.65. LMA ACS 3/192.66. LMA ACS 6/1.67. Adamson, ‘Extent of Literacy’, pp. 178–9, for a discussion of the role of clergy

in ‘informal’ education.68. CKS DRb. Pwr. 8/85; compare Moran, Growth of English Schooling, p. 175 and

n. 108, for the comparative rareness of such bequests.69. CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/253.70. CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/21.71. BL MS Eg 2605, fo. 40v.72. CKS DRb. Pwr. 11/61.

Notes 201

73. CKS DRb. Pwr. 12/116.74. See Draper, ‘Educational Provision and Piety’; also Lee ‘Monastic and

Secular’, pp. 206–7, on the educational benefits to local families such as theSprevers of Cobham in Kent.

75. CKS DRb. Pwr. 2/285; Lee, ‘Monastic and Secular’, pp. 203–4. Vitas Patrum(Lives of the fathers) was a collection of moral tales; it is not clear which ver-sion is intended here.

76. NA PROB 11/17/8/8.77. NA PROB 11/17/5/35.78. NA PROB 11/18/25/223.79. CKS DRb. Pwr. 10/74.80. PRO PROB 11/23/16/210.81. See also Chapter 1; for the seminal work see Michael T. Clanchy, From

Memory to Written Record: 1066–1377, 2nd edn (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993).82. For example, in Southwark see, NA PROB 11/10/26/206 (Peter Alanson,

1495); NA PROB 11/13/28/235 (John Hill, 1503); in Eltham, see, CKS DRb.Pwr. 6/252 (John Passey); CKS DRb. Pwr 8/233 (Agnes Passey, 1512); CKSDRb. Pwr. 8/223 (Roger Ewgham, 1529).

83. LMA ACS 2/57.84. See, for example, the extent of the textual production occurring in the parish

of St Olave Southwark in the period 1546–1610. Southwark Local HistoryLibrary, Churchwardens’ Accounts, YT 852.

85. LMA ACS 3/203.86. See, Cavallo and Chartier, History of Reading; also Reading, Society and Politics

in Early Modern England, ed. K. Sharpe and S. Zwicker (Cambridge: CUP,2003).

87. Adamson, ‘Extent of Literacy’, pp. 163–5, 166, 170.88. H.S. Bennett, ‘Printers, Authors, and Readers, 1475–1557’, The Library,

5th Series, 4 (1949), 155–65, 161–3; Idea of the Vernacular, ed. J. Wogan-Brownet al., especially part 3. See also Joyce Coleman, Public Reading and the ReadingPublic in Late Medieval England and France (Cambridge: CUP, 1996); Moran,Growth of English Schooling, pp. 44–6; also, Orme, English Schools, pp. 62–3; Lee,‘Monastic and Secular’, p. 221; Spufford, Small Books, pp. 28–9. On what peo-ple read, see Moran, Growth of English Schooling, p. 186; Carol Meale, ‘ “godemen/ Wiues maydnes and alle men”: Romance and its Audiences’, in Readingsin Medieval English Romance, ed. C. Meale (Cambridge: CUP, 1994), p. 217.

89. Michael Sergeant, ‘The Transmission by the English Carthusians of SomeLate Medieval Spiritual Writings’, JES, 27 (1976), 225–40; Vincent Gillespie,‘Vernacular Books of Religion’, in Book Production and Publishing in Britain,1375–1475, ed. J. Griffiths and D. Pearsall (Cambridge: CUP, 1989); VincentGillespie, ‘Cura Pastoralis in Deserts’, and Anne Hutchinson, ‘DevotionalReading in the Monastery and in the Household’, in De Cella in Seculum:Religious Secular Life and Devotion in Late Medieval England, ed. M. Sergeant(Cambridge: CUP, 1989); Paul Lee, Nunneries, Learning, and Spirituality in LateMedieval English Society: the Dominican Priory of Dartford (Woodbridge: YorkMedieval Press, Boydell & Brewer, 2001). On interactions between lay andreligious women see, Carol Meale, ‘ “... alle the bokes”...’; Felicity Riddy,‘ “Women Talking about the Things of God”: a Late Medieval Sub-culture’,pp. 106–111, and Julia Boffey, ‘Women Authors and Women’s Literacy in

202 Notes

Fourteenth- and Fifteenth-century England’, all in Women & Literature inBritain, pp. 165–6, 169–75.

90. On the nature of a medieval lay reader’s ecstatic mystical experiences in theuse of devotional poetry see, Vincent Gillespie, ‘Mystic’s Foot: Rolle andAffectivity’, in The Medieval Mystical Tradition in England, ed. M. Glascoe(Exeter: EUP, 1982), pp. 212–20. On the significance of the private ownershipof devotional books in the development of silent reading, as well as thebroader political implications associated with lay independence from theclergy, see Paul Saenger, ‘Books of Hours and the Reading Habits of the LaterMiddle Ages’, in The Culture of Print: Power and the Uses of Print in Early ModernEurope, ed. R. Chartier (Cambridge: CUP, 1989), pp. 143–4 and 145. On sig-nificant evidence for the popularity of romance literature in the fifteenthcentury including ‘mercantile concern’ with English translations of such fic-tion from the early fifteenth century, see Meale, ‘ “gode men” ’, pp. 210–15,219–20; also John Thompson, Robert Thornton and the London ThorntonManuscript: British Library MS. Additional 31042, Manuscript Studies II, gen.ed. J. Griffiths (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 1987), p. 1. On conduct literaturesparticularly those for gentlemen see, George R. Keiser, ‘Practical Books for theGentleman’, Cambridge History of the Book, Vol. 3, pp. 470–94.

91. On statutes, see Margaret Aston, England’s Iconoclasts: Laws against Images(Oxford: OUP, 1988). For a recent summary of reading theories see MichaelClanchy, ‘Images of Ladies with Prayer Books: What do they Signify?’, in TheChurch and the Book, Studies in Church History published for theEcclesiastical History Society, ed. R. Swanson (London: Brepols, 2004).

92. Idea of the Vernacular, pp. xiv and 220. Other approaches claim to be aboutreading practice but tend to be based in theory. See, for example, AndrewTaylor, ‘Into his Secret Chamber’, in The Practice and Representation of Readingin England, ed. J. Raven et al. (Cambridge: CUP, 1996).

93. See, for example, Lisa Jardine and Anthony Grafton, From Humanism toHumanities: Education and the Liberal Arts in Fifteenth and Sixteenth CenturyEurope (London: Duckworth, 1986), especially Chapter 1 on ‘Ideals andPractice’, where on pp. 9–13 the authors address ‘what actually went on’ inthe classroom of Guarino Guarini of Verona; and also, p. 161 for the intentionof the authors to get to grips with ‘humanist practice’ rather than its theoreticaland idealistic promises.

94. See Cavallo and Chartier, History of Reading, p. 1, which begins by citingMichel de Certeau’s generalised claims concerning the role of readers as‘travellers’.

95. J.B. Trapp, ‘Literacy, Books and Readers’, Cambridge History of the Book, Vol. 3,pp. 31–43, especially pp. 40–3 on ‘individual readers’. He cites particularlythe following studies: Anthony Grafton and Lisa Jardine, From Humanism tothe Humanities; William Sherman, John Dee: the Politics of Reading and Writingin the English Renaissance (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press,1995); and other studies by Grafton, Jardine, and Sherman.

96. Elisabeth E. Salter, ‘ “The Dayes Moralised”: Reconstructing DevotionalReading, c. 1450–1550’, in Pieties in Transition.

97. For pioneering work using a codicology approach to reading see, for exam-ple, Thompson, Robert Thornton, p. 69 for the relationships betweenprocesses of book production and compilation, as the ‘mixture of obvious

Notes 203

and sometimes happy accident, and occasional careful design’ in thisprocess; Boffey, ‘Women Authors’, pp. 165–6, 169–75; Meale ‘ “ ... alle thebokes” ’, pp. 137–43; Riddy’, ‘ “Women Talking” ’, pp. 106–11.

98. See also the recent consideration of the ‘poetics of annotation’ in Booksand Readers in Early Modern England (Material Studies), ed. J. Anderson andE. Sauer (Pennsylvania: UPP, 2001).

99. See Chapter 4.100. Adamson, ‘Extent of Literacy’, 170, identifies churches as centres of lay

reading, especially of vernacular texts, in the sixteenth century. SeeC. Cotton, ‘Churchwardens’ Accounts of the Parish of St Andrew,Canterbury’, part 1, from AD 1485 to AD 1625, AC, 37 (1917), 181–246;J.M. Cowper, ‘Accounts of the Churchwardens of St Dunstan’s, Canterbury’,AC, 16 (1885), 289–321, 314–5.

101. For some implications of silent reading in public, see Paul Saenger, Spacebetween Words: the Origins of Silent Reading (Stanford, CA: USP, 1997),pp. 273–6.

102. BL C. 106.a.24 (A Spirituall Counsayle), fo. E viii, v.103. See, for example, CUL, Kk.1.6.104. The Early English Versions of the Gesta Romanorum, Formerly Edited by Sir Frederic

Madden for the Roxburgh Club, and Now Re-edited from the Mss. in the BritishMuseum (Harl. 7333 & Addit. 9066) and University Library, Cambridge (Kk.1.6),EETS, Extra Series, 33, first published in 1879, ed. S.J.H. Herrtage (London,New York: OUP, 1962), pp. xxi–xxviii.

105. ‘Note’, in Wynkyn de Worde’s Gesta Romanorum (c. 1510) facsimile, ExeterMedieval English Texts, gen. ed. M.J. Swanton, with a note of introductionby R. Tamplin (Exeter: EUP, 1972), p. i. The manuscripts are: British LibraryManuscripts Harley 7333, and Additional 9066; Gloucester Cathedral 22, 22Add., and 42; Oxford Balliol College 354; and, Cambridge UniversityLibrary Kk.1.6. See, Susan Powell, The Advent and Nativity Sermons from aFifteenth Century Revision of John Mirk’s Fesial edited from BL MSS Harley 2247,Royal 18B XXV and Gloucester Cathedral Library 22, Middle English Texts, 13,gen. ed. M. Gorlach (Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitatsverlag, 1981),p. 12 on the prior existence of these three manuscripts as one book; also seeA Middle English Version of the Gesta Romanorum Edited From GloucesterCathedral Manuscript 22, Studia Anglistica Upsalensia 8, ed. K.I. Sandred(Upsala: Upsala University).

106. BL MS Harl. 7333 measures 44 cm by 32 cm by 3 cm.107. Michael C. Seymour, A Catalogue of Chaucer Manuscripts, 2 vols (1995–97),

Vol. 1 (Brookfield, USA, Aldershot, UK: Scolar Press, 1995), p. 21; Herrtage,Gesta Romanorum, p. xix.

108. BL MS Add. 9066 measures 27 cm by 28 cm by 2 cm.109. Thomas D. Cooke, ‘Tales’, in A Manual of Writings in Middle English,

1050–1500, 10 vols (1967–1998), gen. ed. J.B. Severs and A.E. Hartung, Vol. 9(New Haven, Connecticut: The Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences,1993), pp. 3288–91 for a list of the stories.

110. Suzanne M. Eward, A Catalogue of Gloucester Cathedral Library, with additionsby Neil Ker, H.M. Nixon and R.A. May (The Dean and Chapter of GloucesterCathedral, 1972), p. 3; GCL 42 measures 21 cm by 15 cm by 1 cm.

111. Songs, Carols and Other Miscellaneous Poems from Balliol 354, Richard Hill’sCommonplace Book, EETS, Extra Series, 101, ed. R. Dyboski (London: Kegan

204 Notes

Paul, Trench and Trubner & Co., 1907); D.C. Browning, ‘The CommonplaceBook of Richard Hill’ (unpublished B. Litt thesis, University of Oxford,1934); R.A.B. Mynors, Catalogue of the Manuscripts of Balliol College Oxford(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963), p. 352.

112. Dyboski, Songs, Carols, pp. xiii–xvi.113. CUL MS K.k.1.6 measures 27 cm by 19 cm by 5 cm.114. A Catalogue of the Manuscripts Preserved in the Library of the University of

Cambridge, 5 vols (1979–80), Vol. 3 (1980) (Munich: Kraus Reprint), pp. 563–5.115. CUL MS K.k.1.6, ff. 148r, 179v.116. St John’s College Cambridge A.II.18.117. Hoccleve’s Works: The Minor Poems, EETS, Extra Series, 61, 72 and 73, rev. edn,

now in 1 vol., originally ed. F.J. Furnivall and I. Gollancz, as Extra Series 61(1892 repr. 1937) and 73 (1925), ed. J.E. Mitchell and A.I Dowe (London,New York: OUP, 1970), pp. 215–40.

118. Hoccleve’s Works, p. 218.119. Hoccleve’s Works, pp. 137–9, 140–78.120. Aymer Valence, ‘Cobham Collegiate Church’, AC, 43 (1931), 133–60, 148;

Moran, Growth of English Schooling, p. 199, described the Pye as an instruc-tional manual for clergy also popular amongst laity.

121. Meale, ‘ “gode men” ’, p. 218 and n. 33.122. Valence, ‘Cobham Collegiate Church’, p. 154, for the suggestion that, ‘[T]he

Gesta Romanorum was the most popular story book of the middle ages’;Moran, Growth of English Schooling, p. 205 notes the Gesta as one of the mostpopular ‘Romances’ in York; Adamson, ‘Extent of Literacy’, p. 168 notes deWorde’s shrewd decisions about printing popular texts.

123. Gerald R. Owst, Preaching in Medieval England: an Introduction to SermonManuscripts of the Period, c. 1350–1450 (London: Russell & Russell, 1961),pp. 45, 56–7, 91, 186, 196.

124. See Hereford Cathedral 0.III.5, for a macaronic example; and Oxford BodleianMS Greaves 54 which uses a mixture of Latin Gesta and English sermons.

125. GCL MS 22, p. 473.126. A fuller rendition of the bare bones is found in Elisabeth E. Salter, ‘Cultural

Appropriation and Transmission in Town and Country in Late MedievalEngland’ (unpublished PhD thesis, CCMTS, University of Kent, 2003).

127. This is from Harl. 7333; see Herrtage, Gesta Romanorum, pp. 153–4; Sandred,Gloucester, p. 71; Tamplin, Wynkyn, p. 171.

128. See the story of Emperor Fredericus, Herrtage, Gesta Romanorum, p. 26;Sandred, Gloucester, p. 51; Tamplin, Wynkyn, p. 30.

129. Herrtage, Gesta Romanorum, p. 294, refers to the tale as ‘the story of thethree caskets in The Merchant of Venice’.

130. This is from Harl 7333, see Herrtage, Gesta Romanorum, pp. 302–3; Sandred,Gloucester, p. 70; Tamplin, Wynkyn, p. 107.

131. This is from Harl 7333, see Herrtage, Gesta Romanorum, p. 298; Sandred,Gloucester, p. 68; Tamplin, Wynkyn, pp. 103–4.

132. This is from Harl 7333, see Herrtage, Gesta Romanorum, p. 303; Sandred,Gloucester, p. 70; Tamplin, Wynkyn, p. 108.

133. Cruden’s Complete Concordance to the Bible, with Notes and Biblical ProperNames Under One Alphabetical Arrangement, rev. edn, first published 1839, ed.C.H. Irwin et al. (Cambridge: The Lutterworth Press, 1996), p. 111; seeIsaiah 28: 6, Ephesians 2: 20.

Notes 205

134. Cruden, p. 111; cf. 1 Peter 2: 6; Vulgate, p. 255, has, ‘Propter continetScriptura: Ecce pono in Sion lapidem summum angularem, electum,pretiosum ...’.

135. For example, in this story, there are allusions to other major themes in bib-lical narrative, such as the reference to the cock crowing, which refers to thedenial of Peter, compare Cruden, p. 97; for example, John 13: 38.

136. See the Emperor Pompeius story for another example where different ver-sions all emphasise specifically a contemporary (or medieval) concern withthe interdependence of clerical and secular social groups, rather than thebiblical parable suggested by the theme of the feast.

137. Herrtage, Gesta Romanorum, p. 310.138. Tamplin, Wynkyn, p. 125.139. For one example of asking the question, see J. Allan Mitchell, Ethics &

Exemplary Narrative in Chaucer and Gower, Chaucer Studies XXXIII(Cambridge: D.S.Brewer, 2004), p. 3.

140. This is from Add. 9066, see Herrtage, Gesta Romanorum, pp. 416–19.141. This is from Add. 9066, see Herrtage, Gesta Romanorum, pp. 409–11.142. Remains of the Early Popular Poetry of England, Collected and Edited with

Introductions and Notes, ed. W. Carew Hazlitt, 4 vols (1864–6), Vol. 4(London: John Russell Smith, 1846), pp. 91–109.

143. I am grateful to Steve Ellis for drawing attention to the issue of worldlygoods across this textual (and disciplinary) divide. And I would like to thankthe participants and organisers of the Recovering Reading Conference atQueen’s University Belfast, in April 2004, for the very vigorous discussion ofthis subject.

144. All quotations are taken from Harl 7333, see Herrtage, Gesta Romanorum,pp. 302–3; also, Sandred, Gloucester, p. 70; Tamplin, Wynkyn, p. 108.

145. See Chapter 4.

8 Conclusions

1. Ludmilla Jordanova, History in Practice (London: Arnold, 2000).2. Keith Jenkins, Re-thinking History, 2nd edn, with a new preface and conver-

sation with the author by Alun Munslow, first published in 1991 (London,New York: Routledge, 2003); Keith Jenkins, Refiguring History: New Thoughtson an Old Discipline (London, New York: Routledge, 2003).

3. Lisa Jardine, Reading Shakespeare Historically (London: Routledge, 1996),p. 17, and ch. 1.

4. Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: a Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste, trans.R. Nice (London: Routledge, 1984); The Social Life of Things: Commodities inCultural Perspective, ed. A. Appadurai (Cambridge: CUP, 1986).

5. This is specifically relevant to Marxist approaches, see for example RodneyH. Hilton, ‘Introduction’, in The Transition from Feudalism to Capitalism, ed.R.H. Hilton et al. (London: Verso, 1982), pp. 28–9.

6. Roger Chartier, Cultural History: Between Practices and Representations, trans.L.G. Cochrane (Cambridge, Oxford: Polity Press in association with BasilBlackwell, 1988), pp. 30, 34–6, and p. 14 on the recovery of mentalités.

7. Johan Huizinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages: a Study of the Forms of Life,Thought, and Art in France and the Netherlands in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth

206 Notes

Centuries, trans. F. Hopman, first published in 1924 (London: Penguin Books,1985); also David Aers, ‘A Whisper in the Ear of Early Modernists; or,Reflections on Literary Critics Writing the “History of the Subject” ’, in Cultureand History 1350–1600: Essays on English Communities, Identities and Writing, ed.D. Aers (New York, London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1992), for a modern viewcriticising early modernist tendencies to propose that many cultural forms andattitudes began in a post-medieval period. See John L. Watts, ‘Introduction’, inThe End of the Middle Ages? England in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, ed.J.L. Watts (Stroud: Sutton, 1998), pp. 5–6, on ‘Huizinga’s predicament’, and itscontinued influence on the historiography of this period.

8. Hilton Feudalism to Capitalism, passim; Christopher Dyer, Lords and Peasantsin a Changing Society: the Estates of the Bishopric of Worcester, 680–1540(Cambridge, London: CUP, 1980).

9. Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy, trans.S.G.C. Middlemore, with a new introduction by Peter Burke, and notes byPeter Murray, Penguin Classics (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1990).

10. For a critique of the Burckhardtian position, see Aers, ‘A Whisper’, p. 186;Watts, End of the Middle Ages? pp. 8–10 ff.

11. Richard H. Britnell, The Closing of the Middle Ages? England, 1471–1529(Oxford: Blackwell, 1997).

12. Watts, End of the Middle Ages? p. 265.13. Adam Fox, Oral and Literate Culture in England, 1500–1700, Oxford Studies in

Social History (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000), pp. 18–19; Robert Darnton,The Kiss of Lamourette: Reflections in Cultural History (London: Faber, 1990),pp. 156–79.

14. The Idea of the Vernacular: an Anthology of Middle English Literary Theory,1280–1520, Exeter Middle English Texts and Studies, ed. J. Wogan-Brown et al.(Exeter: UEP, 1999), p. xvi, on the much broader context of ‘development’surrounding Chaucer’s vernacularity; Watts, End of the Middle Ages?pp. 267–8; Michael T. Clanchy, From Memory to Written Record: England1066–1377, 2nd edn (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), on the significance of admin-istrative writing in the development of literacy before c. 1400; Andrew F.Butcher, ‘The Functions of Script in the Speech Community of a LateMedieval Town, c.1300–1550’, in The Uses of Script and Print, 1300–1700, ed.A. Walsham and J. Crick (Cambridge: CUP, 2004), on the cultural importanceand implications of the administrative archive.

15. See, for example, Barbara Harvey, ‘Introduction’, in Before the Black Death:Studies in the ‘Crisis’ of the Early Fourteenth Century, ed. B.M.S. Campbell(Manchester, New York: MUP, 1991).

16. See, for example, Lisa Jardine, Worldly Goods: a New History of the Renaissance(London: Norton, 1996); Christopher Dyer, Standards of Living in the LaterMiddle Ages: Social Change in England, c. 1200–1520, 2nd edn (Cambridge,New York: CUP, 1989).

17. See, for one example, Eileen Power, Medieval People, first published in 1924(Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1951), p. 7.

Notes 207

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Carruthers, M., ‘ “Ars Inveniendi”: Visualization and Composition in LateMedieval Rhetoric’, Annual Medieval Academy Lecture, Leeds InternationalMedieval Congress (2002).

Croft, J.P., ‘The Custumals of the Cinque Ports, c. 1290–c. 1500: Studies in theCultural Production of the Urban Record’ (unpublished PhD thesis, Universityof Kent, 1997).

Ford, J., ‘A Study of Wills and Will-making in the Period 1500–1533 with SpecialReference to the Copy Wills in the Probate Registers of the Archdeacon ofBedford 1483–1533’ (unpublished PhD thesis, Open University, 1992).

Lee, P., ‘Monastic and Secular Religion and Devotional Reading in Late MedievalDartford and West Kent’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Kent, 1998).

Lutton, R.G.A., ‘Heterodox and Orthodox Piety in Tenterden, 1420–1540’(unpublished PhD thesis, University of Kent, 1997).

Merry, M., ‘The Construction and Representation of Urban Identities: Public andPrivate Lives in Late Medieval Bury St Edmunds’ (unpublished PhD thesis,University of Kent, 1998).

Richardson, C.T., ‘The Meanings of Space in Society and Drama: Perceptions ofDomestic Life and Domestic Tragedy c. 1550–1600’ (unpublished PhD thesis,CCMTS, University of Kent, 1999).

Salter, E.E., ‘Cultural Appropriation and Transmission in Town and Country inLate Medieval England’ (unpublished PhD thesis, CCMTS, University of Kent,2003).

Simpson, P., ‘Custom and Conflict: Disputes Over Tithe in the Diocese ofCanterbury, 1501–1600’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Kent, 1997).

224 Bibliography

225

Index

adaptation: creative process 69;small scale 49; social 50, 52, 55,59, 60, 63, 65, 73

agrarian crisis 51anecdotes 11Annales School 9anthropology: and culture 45; and

history 4; of kinship 52;linguistic 18

appropriation 20: acts of 43;reader’s 43

appropriative acts 15, 37:performative 18

aspiration 119–20, 124attribution of value 75, 77, 79, 126,

168: and creativity 92; creativeprocess of 93; and inscription 88

boats (and barges) 60: fishing 60books: ‘all my’ 143; bequests of

139–45; bequests by men 143;bequests by women 142; borrowingof 152; culture of 144; evidence ofownership 138; Gesta Romanorum144; as heirlooms 139; LegendaAurea 144; lending of 151; Lives ofSaints 141, 142; mass book 140;and memory 152; Pars Occuli 144;‘Portiphorium’ 144; ‘portuus’ 144;‘prykked Song’ 143; primer 140,141; primers and books of hours152; private or public 140; PupillaOcculi 144; religious andinstructional 140; sermon book144; use of 152

boundaries, cultural 37burial place, and family tradition

117–18

case studies 8, 9categories: analytical viii, 46; of

contemporary perception 11;deconstructing 79, 91;

deconstructing descriptive 83; ofdescription 82; for descriptiveterminology 86; disrupted 46; ofheirloom 77; and historicalspecificity 169; imposition of2, 95; linguistic constructions of 62;of possession 78; problems with 83;and usages of language 46

change 1: c. 1450–1560 170; agentsof 47, 164; broader social andeconomic 61; and choices 75;chronology of 75; and continuity63, 76; cultural vii; demographic50; and discontinuity in livingspace 68; evidence for 166, 168;and family 168; and fluidity 68;and identity 168; individual 42;issue of 166–9; large-scale 166;levels of 167; of meaning 37;models for 51; performance of74; personal 43, 48, 68; small-scale2, 166; social 9; and socialadaptation 63; and social networks 168; and styles ofcommemoration 128

choice/choices: about burial 116;about burial place 117; consumer94; by copyists 138; ephemeralissue of 124; individual 75, 114;individualised 121; about life-fashioning 109; about memorialstyle 125; about memorialsymbolism 126; personal 14, 15,76, 80, 95, 114, 115, 121, 166, 169;by printers 138; by readers 138;representation of 116; symbolic16

chronology: late medieval and early modern 1; and terminology1

citizens of London 48, 56, 115: andeducation 146

class vii, 10

codicology 138commemoration: attitudes to 1;

causal explanations 134; choicesabout 114; concepts of 111;family traditions 114, 116; andgeography 114; ideas about 134;inscriptions 122; and memory111; and performance 133–5; andreform 136; and Reformation128, 136; and religious ideology136; requests for 2, 95, 135; andsaints 114, 117; scriptures 123; inSouthwark 114; spiritual andmaterial 111; and status 119;stones 122; supra-local meanings114; and symbolism 111

commercialising society 76, 92construction of identity 20: see also

identityconsumption 20: aesthetics of 92;

chronology of changing 79; andcommercialisation 76;conspicuous and inconspicuous39; evidence of 39; experiences of42, 76; and goods 38–9

consumption and emulation 37–42continuity, and change 74conventions: of representation 123;

textual and contextual 43court pageantry 105–7cultural creativity vii, viii, 37, 44–9,

150: acts of 135; anthropologicaland ethnological approaches to45; and aspiration 120; and theattribution of value 92, 93; andbeing textual 137; andcommemoration 114; of death-fashioning 111; ethnography of164; factors influencing 135–6;and improvisation 45; andinnovation 45, 150, 163; andlinguistic detail 166; mundane47; of reading 151, 153–63; ofrequests 124; structures for 169;and text 13, 137; and translation37; transmission of ideas about134; using text 164

cultural history 1, 3: new direction 2

cultural transmission 102: agents of107; and religious houses 149

culture: anthropological definitionsof 45–6; book 12; creativeinnovations 46; disruptedmeanings of 46; diversity andhomogeneity 36; as dynamic46; flux of 36; of London 47; ofmanuscript 12; poetics of 6;pragmatic context 46; of print12; semiotic definitions of 45;textual 11, 12

death-fashioning 111, 132: creativeprocess of 111

description: detailed 13, 50, 61, 75,79, 168, 170; emotive 65; goingbeyond 95; of goods 67, 68; ofgoods, property and burialpractices 13; of heirlooms 80; ofmemorials 112; of pewter 83; ofpossessions 75; of property 63,64; of property and ‘stuff’ 62;qualitative 166; rich viii; richer170; of silver ware 82; tables 82;textual 59; thick 6

discourse: historical 11; andinterpretative crisis 44; legal 44, 62, 166; social 6;textual 13, 44

education 12: and citizens ofLondon 146; and Southwark146

emulation 125, 127: old-fashionedconcept 40; and symbolism 41;and tomb design 41

engrossment 54, 64: language of63

ethnicity 36: and ascription 36;ethnic boundaries 36

ethnography: historical 5; partial6; reflexive 6

evidence: administrative 148;anecdotal 11; of apprenticeship148; architectural 61; bequest145; from books 150; of bookavailability 162; of book bequests142; for consumption 76;

226 Index

evidence – continueddocumentary 2; empirical 2, 5,59; for everyday life 4; factual 11;formulaic 169; fragmentary 9,100, 166; fragments of 11, 150;and language 58; for life-fashioning 97; for lost objects135; material 2, 11; objectiveanalysis of 5; of performance107; personal 95, 109; personaland biographical 15; for reading138, 139; for reading situations152; repositories of 80; ofscholarly reading 149; statistical76; survival 7; tangible 162;textual 1, 11, 53, 164

experience vii, 1: construction of167; contemporary 2, 165;everyday 2; popular 76, 170; ofpractice 165; of reading 159; seealso perception

Fabian, Johannes, Remembering thePresent 96: and narrative 96; andreflexivity 96

family 51: and burial place117–18; and change 168

fashioning: individual 97; symbolicand practical 109

fiction: good 6; ‘place’ as 7flow vii, 7: of ideas 8, 48; of social

discourse 6; see also fluidityfluidity: of meanings 62; and

structure 7; and symbolicmeaning 170; see also flow

fragments (of evidence) 9, 10

geography vii, 8, 47: geographicallyspecific 8

Gesta Romanorum 152, 153–62:administrative literatures in 159;biblical references in 155–67;circulation of 154; ‘figures’ in153, 155; and Thomas Hoccleve154; moral lessons in 159;narrative structures in 155; andpopular imagination 159; andpossessions 159–61; and sermons154; social morality in 158;

surviving versions of 153–4;symbolic language in 155;symbolic meanings in 159

gift 80: gift-giving 80, 98–9;symbolic 80

goods: see possessions

habitus 34Halle, Edward 107Harrison, William 75heirlooms 75, 76–7, 168:

biographical objects 76; books139; categories of 77; constructionof 79; and continuity 76; culturalrules 80; descriptions of 80;inalienable possessions 76;keeping-while-giving 76; memorial109; stories and memories 108;symbolic sphere of 91

hermeneutic crisis 2history: ‘from below’ 4; and myth

111; of popular culture 165; ofreading 149; social and economic50

household 51: and religious spaces90; rooms in 66; rooms and ‘stuff’in 67; ‘stuff’ 66

ideas: formation of 19; aboutlifestyle 76; textual representationof 124; transmission of 104, 107

identity 30–6, 50: categories of 30;and change 168; collective andindividual 36; community 104;construction of 9, 20, 97, 104;creative definition of 74; definitionof 1; encapsulation of 43; andethnicity 35; fashioning of 1, 36,95, 104; formation of 13;fragmentary 36; group 98–9; andgroup allegiances 35; group andindividual 20; indigenous conceptsof 34; individual 97, 137, 167;individual and family 52;manipulation of 34; multifaceted34; multi-form 30, 36; and name31–2; and occupation 31–2; of ordinary individuals 2;performance of 3, 37;

Index 227

identity – continuedpersonal 109; personhood 62;and place 33–4; practical andsymbolic 16; pragmaticconstruction of 34; reflections on99; renegotiation of 62; selfhood12; shared 97; and space 70;statement of 17, 30; textualconstruction of 97

imagination 63: andcommemoration 122; creative 1;individual 138; popular 151;and meaning 170

inheritance 68: provision of 64;strategies of 1, 55

inns 60: descriptions of 71;dynasties 71,

inscription 87–9, 125, 170; andattribution of value 88; andcommemoration 122; as mode ofexpression 163; named rooms in66; personalised 93; and reading138; and symbolic meaning 161;and written description 88

institutions, social (fraternities) 35interpretation 3: crisis of vii, 1, 2, 3,

44, 51, 165; response to crisis of 19

kinship 51: contingent definitionsof 56; terminology of 52

knowledge 150: biblical 157;culturally embedded 77; of legalterminology 63; andrepresentation 96

land and property 2, 50:accumulated and transmitted 54;alienation of 55; distinctionsbetween 52; and legal language63; ownership of 53

life-fashioning 96–7, 109: evidencefor 97; with seals and signets 97,109

lifestyle, ideas about 76literacy: activities 138, 148; English

11; events 12; occasions 11;popular 13; and popular culture167; practices 12; situations 138;writing or reading 149

literature: to read 137; to write137

local history 8location, geographical 8: see also

placeLondon, influence of viii, 79, 115

memorials: descriptions of 112;personal 12; requests for 111;time-depth 125; time-scales 125

memorialisation: and textuality123; and time 125

memory: concepts of 111; practicesof 111; theories of 111

method and approach 3, 11, 49:abstract concepts 21; Annales166; appropriation as abstract 43;aspiration 119–20; codicological138; to commemoration 111–12,127–8; discourse 44; early Englishrenaissance vii, 1; eclectic 21;emphasis on process 37;empirical detail 165; empiricaltradition 7; empiricism 4, 5;ephemeral issues 124;ethnographic 3, 50, 51,169; fluid62; imaginative reconstruction 7,151; indigenous concepts ofidentity 34; to individuality128; interdisciplinarity 9;Marxist 10, 166; mentalités 4; tomemorial 125; objectivity 5;and performance 133–5;qualitative 14; quantitative 14;to reading 139; to readingpractice 149–51; reflexive 6, 7;to Renaissance vii; torepresentation of cultures 7;resisting empirical approaches91, 95; restructuring 51; rigorouspartiality 9; statistical 76;temptation to empiricism 79;thick description 6; traditional50; truth 5,6, 165; unquantifiableevidence 95; vocabularies 20

metropolitan hinterland viii, 7, 47,48, 53, 79, 92, 94: and marshland57; see also place

microhistory 9

228 Index

modes of expression 86–91, 92, 162,165, 169: inscription 87–9; naming86–7; pious conversion 89–91

name, and identity 31–2naming 86–7narrative 8: more colourful 168;

and discontinuities 96; dull 168;and ethnography 96; grand 9;overarching 166; personal 18;seamless 9

networks: formation of 55;occupational definition of 56;social 52, 168

new historicism 10

objects, in spaces 67oral: histories 109; record 108

perception (and experience) 1, 43,50, 51, 61: contemporary 2, 95,165; culturally embedded 94;deconstruction of 165;individual 138; of luxury goods75, 76; of possessions 76;production, representation andalteration 13; of style andaesthetics 93

performance: of commemoration112; ideas about 107; process of104, 109; public 63; theorisationof 110

performativity 96personal identification 97, 109:

objects of 97personal parlance 44, 61, 62place: of burial 117; community 7;

cultural influences on 8; andfamily 33–4; locality andcommunity 7; meta-settlement48; metropolitan hinterland viii,7, 47,48, 53, 57, 79, 92, 94; andpossessions 81; problem of 47;problematic concept 7; region andlocality vii, 7; of residence 59;rural vii; town and country vii

places: Kent 54; north Kent 79;London, Greenwich andSouthwark 47

poetics, cultural 6popular culture viii, 10, 51, 79, 97,

115, 124, 138, 150, 151:theorisation used in 165

possessions: agricultural stock 93;apparel 2; attribution of value 92;cloth and clothing 81; earlyEnglish renaissance 79; andélite/non-élite dichotomy vii;jewellery 79, 88; luxury anddomestic 2; luxury goods 94;perception of 76; personal 1;personal descriptions of 82; pewter78; silver ware 79; in spaces 61;Spanish apparel 104; terminologyfor 82; and wealth 78; andworldly goods 159–61

practice: of consumption 42; cultural 2; daily 3; formation of 19; pious 114; sitesof 47; and symbols 43; andtheory 4

process: of creative reading 151;cultural 170; of fashioning 95;personal 3; and ritual 49; social2; and transformation 49

property (and space) 62:perceptions of 62, 63; rhetorical descriptions of 63;widow’s 65

prosopography 48public and private 70–2; and

buildings 69; and inns 71

reader: choices by 138;contradictions for 161;imaginative world of 152; andintertextuality 157; makingmeanings 138; mental world of150; ordinary 152

readerships, English 138reading practice, interpretation of

149reading public 149reading: and annotation 150; and

audience 149; conceptualisationof 137; and constructions ofmeaning 139; devotional 149;as ephemeral 150; experiences

Index 229

reading – continuedof 150, 159; history of 149;how 137; imaginative activity of165; and innovation 150;medieval theories of 149;moments of 151; popular 13,150; in popular culture 138;practices 137, 163; public orprivate 152; situations 152,162; and textual time 138;theories of 149

reception 20, 42–4: anticipated actsof 43; public 42; and reader43; study of 150; of text 138;theoretical 43

reconstruction: detailed 2, 8;imaginative 7, 151; see alsomethod and approach

reflexivity 6: reflexive ‘I’ 7; see alsomethod and approach

region see placeRenaissance vii: see also method and

approachrepresentation 20, 43ritual, process 49

schools 145–7: see also educationscribe: influence of 130; of London

59; see also willself, historiography of 96self-fashioning 96servants of the royal household 48,

56, 97; armour 100; andcommemoration 120, 125; élitetastes 102–3; family ties 99;fellows 98; gifts 98–9; hosts101, 102; livery 108; wills of 97,108

situation: cultural 37; culturallydistinct 97; of reading 138;textual 138

social mobility 120: upward 50, 51space (and property) 62:

architectural 61; communal 69;objects in 67; perceptions of 62;and possessions in 61; of a room67

St George 127: fashionable cult of128

status: construction of 119;signification of 123

structures vii, 47: appropriation of166; and creativity 60; linguistic68; manipulation of 59, 166; meta-60; old and new 63; of process168, 169; of representation 11, 49,110, 166, 168; for social adaptation73; uses of 164

structures of representation 11, 49,110, 166: meta- 115; textual 169

sumptuary legislation 76symbolic meaning 163, 169: spheres

of 162; of worldly goods 169symbolism: construction of 93;

contradictions 163; language of155; manipulation of 109; andpractices 43; sphere of 80, 161;theoretical and practical levels of165; and traditions 126; andtranslation 126, 127; of worldlygoods 159–61

taste: dynamics of 75; élite 102;ideas about 107; London 115;Renaissance 107

terminology 20: kinship 52;knowledge of legal 63; forpossessions 82; theoretical 20;see also vocabularies

text: and creativity 13; materiality of12; and memorialisation 122; andperception 2; and personalperception 96; in popular culture12; public performance of 42;transmission and reception of 138

textual culture 42, 123, 148, 170:popular 12

tomb, symbolism of 41, 123transition vii, 1: between old and

new 63translation 37: and creativity 37;

and symbolism 126transmission vii, 20, 48: of books

149; of book culture 144; cultural102; of culturally creative ideas134; of ideas 58, 104, 149;intergenerational 108; of land andproperty 54; of styles 126; of taste

230 Index

transmission – continued102; of text 138; of tomb designs114

truth: crisis of 165; partial 6;pursuit of 5

vocabularies 20, 61: of propertydescription 64; of propertyownership 62; see alsoterminology

will: appropriation of 14;appropriative acts 15; of JohnAunsell 20, 21–30, 80 115; ofJohn Baret 111–12; of JohnBishop 112–13; and bookbequests 139–45; of John Brown133–5; circumstances ofproduction 121; commemorativerole 151; comparing bequests in84; and creativity 14;deconstruction of 109, 110;discursive contexts of 125; andeducational provision 145–8; andemotion 108; as evidence13–18; evidence for bookownership in 148; as formulaictext 16; generic constraints 16;and geographical location 169; ofSimon Godfrith 115; andheirlooms 76; and identity 95;individual coherence of 80;individuality of 92; internalreference in 91; language of 73,98; legal rhetoric in 61; literateacts in 135; as literature 16; andlost objects 135; and memorial

requests 111; andmemorialisation 121; andmemories 108; and memory123; mundane requests 112, 113,125; narrative conventions 14;occupational information in 148;and performance 165;performance of 37; piouspreambles in 129–33; piousprovision in 113; of William Pole84–6; and possessions 75; andproperty descriptions 63–72;proto-Protestant 116, 132; publicperformance of 42, 135; andpublic property 72; as repositoryof information 125; ritual ofproducing 92; ritualised text165; scribes 16, 130; and servantsof the royal household 97, 108;and social adaptation 169;strategies 13; symbolic themes in94; and symbolism 126;testamentary strategies 13; ofWilliam Tilghman 141; and time125; and tombs 121; ‘withoutpomp and pride’ 116

writing practice 11, 19: and culturalproduction 44; and discourse44; and ethnography 96; andpatchwork 10, 11; and personalchoice 44; and personal parlance44; and rhetoric 44; andvocabulary 44

writing, and commemoration 122

yeomen 56–7: networks of 57; andProtestantism 56; strategies of 56

Index 231