Notes

INTRODUCTION

1. The sociologist of religion, David Martin shows the very different forms of secularization that took place depending on whether the Church constituted the 'monopoly' of power, as in France and Scandinavia, or to a lesser extent in England with the Dissent, or whether there was no such direct connection, as in the United States for example. He explains how, starting from the American model, 'emotional' religion was able to spread in the Third World, as a transformation of Methodism into Pentecostalism (Martin, 1978, 1990).

2. Daniele Hervieu-Leger does this for the sake of provocation in 'Renouveaux emotionnels contemporains' (Hervieu-Leger, in Champion and Hervieu-Leger, 1990, pp. 217-48).

3. Historical Protestants often have the same negative reaction as Catholics do towards new Churches, especially Pentecostal ones (Martin, 1990, p. 30).

4. On the notions of 'political language' and 'acceptability', see Faye (1972).

5. Perhaps this was true of Puritanism in its early stage as well. Puritanism also emerged as a valorization of fervour and piety. On the other hand, there was in it a refusal to abandon oneself to emotions.

6. This is political theology understood in its political dimension, a dimension which is totally distinct in its presuppositions and its methodology from the theological dimension, to which liberation theology indirectly belongs.

7. In this volume of selected texts by Novalis, the Schlegel brothers, Adam Miiller, Schleiermarcher, and so on, the author views polit­ical Romanticism mainly as a reaction against the French Revolution.

8. See Barret-Kriegel (1979). The author's thesis on the Romantic origin of totalitarianism - a thesis which, with respect to Nazism, is moreover akin to that of Lukacs in The Destruction of Reason -is at times outrageously far-fetched. It retains, however, a methodological interest. In a completely different reading, Michel Lowy stresses the twofold origin of Romanticism: Rousseau and Burke. Burke, who was an English politician, is known for his Reflections on the French Revolution, whose influ­ence in Germany was considerable. Lowy invites us to review revolutionary Romanticism, notably in Rosa Luxemburg, Ernst Bloch, Walter Benjamin, and the early twentieth century Jewish

157

158 Pentecostalism in Brazil

Messianism of Central Europe, without forgetting to mention moreover the enigmatic and dangerous figure of Naphta in The Magic Mountain. Lowy (1980, 1990) distinguishes four types of Romanticism: (1) passeist Romanticism (Novalis); (2) conserva­tive Romanticism (Burke); (3) disenchanted Romanticism (Weber); and (4) revolutionary Romanticism (Fourier, Gustav Landauer and Ernst Bloch). As we shall see, Ernst Bloch exerted an influence on several liberation theologians

1 PARTICIPATION AND THE POOR

1. The following dates are symbolic: in 1964, the first meeting of Latin American theologians took place in Petropolis; in 1985, Dom Helder Camara was replaced at the head of the archdiocese of Recife/Olinda; in 1972, the conservative Bishop Lopes Trujillo became secretary general of CELAM; in 1978, Karol Wojtyla was elected.

2. We refer here to two currents in the literature. The first is the current on social movements - it has been realized that these paradoxically concern mainly the middle classes. See notably Offe (1987). The second is the current on the march of intellectuals to power (Konrad and Szeleny, 1979).

3. Interview held on 11 May 1991, in Serra Redonda, Paraiba. 4. According to Burdick (1993, p. 85), 'the thesis that the comu-

nidade recruits more members from the better paid, better educated, less oppressed strata of the working class than the crentes (believers, Pentecostals) do, has been supported in many works in Brazil'. He mentions notably the works of Mariz in Recife, Brandao in Itapira, Hewitt in Sao Paulo, and Rolim in Rio de Janeiro.

5. 'Conscientization' and 'politicization' are essentially a character­istic of the stratum of pastoral agents (Smith, 1991, pp. 105, 142).

6. The expression is often used in a derogatory sense (Collet, 1994). 7. The expression was formulated for the first time in 1966 by

Richard Saull; it refers explicitly to guerrilla warfare (Smith, 1991, pp. 116-17).

8. A bibliography published in New York lists 1,295 titles (Musto, 1991).

9. Several future theologians assisted their bishops during Vatican Council II (1962-5). The progressive Bishop Manuel Larrain from Chile, president of CELAM at the time, co-opted a team of bishops and theologians to prepare for the conference in Medellin (Smith, 1991, pp. 150-62).

10. The Rockefeller Report spoke of a 'Marxist infiltration of the Church'. The Santa Fe document, which served as a platform for Reagan in 1980, refers explicitly to the danger of liberation the­ology.

Notes 159

11. See Beozzo (in Berten and Luneau, 1991, pp. 178-206). See also Estagao da Seca na Igreja, Comunicagoes do ISER, Ano 9, No. 39 (1990).

12. In June 1992, Boff published a 'Letter to My Road and Hope Companions' in which he explained the pressures and conditions that drove him to abandon the priesthood.

13. The theses of Comblin (1990) on the institutionalization of the CEBs caused a scandal partly because they were poorly under­stood (Teixeira et al., 1993).

14. There is not enough space here to recount this fascinating history (Le Goff, 1968; Cohn, 1970, Vidal, 1977).

15. This is a 'progressive' theological current that influenced Vatican II (Comblin, 1985). We can find a critique of this liberal influence among Baptist authors such as Guimaraes (1984). See also the position of a theologian of the Assembly of God: de Almeida (1989).

16. Note also the book by Bishop Macedo (1992) of the Igreja Universal do Reino de Deus (IURD). See chapter 3 on the IURD.

17. At the level of the topography, these positions are defined only in descriptive terms. We then easily refer to the Left/Right or liberal/conservative axis, or to class membership. The topology, that is the political language which the circulation of discourses can generate, at times completely disrupts these positions (Faye, 1972). The example of Paulo Freire is very illustrative in this respect.

18. See interview with Paulo Freire in Corten (1990, pp. 57-65). 19. Comblin (1985) identifies the 1920-53 period, dominated by the

first anti-liberal reaction of the twentieth century with Barth and Bultmann, and the 1953-72 period of affirmation of neo-liberal theology - in 1955, the first works of Teilhard de Chardin were published. The neo-liberal movement is represented in the journal Concilium. Since 1972, neo-conservatism has been getting the upper hand again. The journal Communio was launched in the Catholic camp. In the Protestant camp, note the Harford Declaration: An Appeal for Theological Affirmation.

20. Karl Barth (1886-1968), '[i]n 1915, ... became a member of the Social Democratic party, but contrary to his socialist Christian friends, he refused to identify socialism with the Kingdom of God' (Eliade, 1987, p. 69).

21. According to Barth, '[transcendence becomes history, world, time ... what makes transcendence historical is God's freedom, which becomes act' (Alves, 1969, p. 50).

22. Cardinal Ratzinger is the co-author of two books with Karl Rahner (Cox, 1988, p. 82).

23. The movement of the Lollards, who were disciples of the English theologian John Wycliffe (1330-84), demanded direct access to the Bible; this movement anticipated and determined the specific

160 Pentecostalism in Brazil

conditions for the Reformation in England. Wycliffe greatly influ­enced the Czech religious reformer and national hero John Huss (1371-1415). The execution of Huss set in motion a national and religious uprising - the movement of the Hussites - which contin­ued into the movement of the Taborites. One of their demands was for freedom of sermon.

24. This was the case with the movement of the apostolici in the thir­teenth century in Italy. For the apostalici, the Church had fallen from a state of perfection. The true spiritual Church of the apos­tles had to await the coming of the Antichrist. This movement made the demand for an intimate, direct and free contact of the individual spirit with God. As for the movement of the flagellants, which appeared in various European countries towards the middle of the fourteenth century, it is remarkable for the fact that although it was not a heretical movement, it was able to move the popular masses in a very short time over large territories of the continent. This was the period of the great plague of 1320-30. The flagellants accused the Church of neglecting its duties and threatened to render the hierarchy superfluous. They demanded lay preachers as well as hymns which told of the suffering of Jesus in their mother tongue. They declared that everyone could attain grace without the mediation of the Church, without confessing to a priest and without indulgences (Le Goff, 1968, pp. 189-90, 222, 229, 235).

25. The charismatic renewal would represent today 4 per cent of the population against 2 per cent for the CEBs (Pierucci and Prandi, 1996). See also Machado (1996).

26. It was only in 1970 that the notion of a 'prophetic mission' of the Brazilian Church truly became a fact (Bruneau, 1974, p. 233).

27. When the movement stemmed from poor peasant sectors, as was the case with the Cathars and the Albigenses, there was no valorization of the spirit of 'poverty'. 'Heresy' - in this case Manicheism, which came from Bulgarian Bogomilism and origi­nated very remotely in third-century Persia - was used by the peasantry as a principle of opposition, enabling peasants to mani­fest their grievances against the heavy feudal dues imposed by the feudal class and against the Church associated with this class (Le Goff, 1968, pp. 75-8).

28. Specifically, Pope John Paul II rejected the 'People's Church' as 'unacceptable and pastorally sterile'. After a moment of embar­rassment, liberation theologians tried to interpret the papal message in a positive light (Smith, 1991).

29. Although the theologians did not have access to the sessions of the Puebla Conference, it is Gustavo Gutierrez who wrote the chapter on 'the preferential option for the poor' (Comblin, 1993, p. 35).

30. 'The Church of the Poor gathers 1 or 2 per cent the population and not specifically amongst the poorest,' Comblin adds. These

Notes 161

people form a small elite, somewhat separated from the poorest by their social condition. Besides, the base communities were not trained to become missionaries (Comblin, 1993, p. 39).

31. This expression comes from Moltmann, who later came to think otherwise (Tamayo, 1990, p. 63).

32. The revealed Word does not come from outside; it is present within each culture. In its explicit content, the concept of 'incul-turation' is articulated to a problematic of liberation, but it produces, in the entire discursive circulation, an effect of obliter­ation of the category of 'poor' (Comblin, 1993, p. 52; Cox, 1988, pp. 171-3; Ehle, 1993, pp. 167-74).

33. Once again we recommend the work of Cox (1988), which very clearly demonstrates the absence of a specific offence. Boff almost fraternized with the Cardinal, his former professor, believ­ing that he had cleared up the misunderstanding.

34. There is not enough space here to analyse in detail these heresies which have recurred throughout history. They generally consist more of discursive effects than of doctrinal contents.

35. It is undoubtedly wrong to describe the evolution that John Paul II has imparted on the Catholic Church as conservative or reac­tionary (Corten, 1993). This evolution introduces into the Church what Legendre calls the 'industrial dogmatic', a discursive oper­ation which removes all 'mythological' contours from the effects of normativity. These effects appear as simple 'moralist' regula­tions. See Legendre (1983, 1988).

36. This mirage is part of Romanticism, notably in the case of Novalis (Droz, 1963, pp. 20, 61-7).

37. The following dates are significant: 1966 with General Ongania, and 1976 with General Videla in Argentina; 1969 with the fifth Institutional Act in Brazil; 1973 in Chile; 1976 in Uruguay.

38. In December 1980, the Pope visited Brazil; he sent a letter to each of the bishops in which he expressed his reservations with respect to the practice of the Church in Brazil. In April 1985, Dom Helder Camara was replaced by Mgr Jose Cardoso Sobrinho. In 1989, the ITR - Theological Institute of Recife - and SERENE II - North East Regional Seminary II - two centres of liberation theology, were closed. 'Since the beginning of his pontificate, John Paul has to date appointed two cardinals and named 23 archbishops as well as close to 150 bishops in Brazil, that is more than half the bishops in office' (Beozzo, 1991, p. 203).

39. The New York Maryknoll Order published a great number of works on liberation theology. Miguel D'Escoto, Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Sandinista government, belongs to this order.

40. This was notably the case of Boaventura Kloppenburg, a Franciscan like the Boff brothers and a former editor of the Revista Eclesiastica Brasileira (REB), who then became director of the Pastoral Institute of CELAM (Dussel, 1990, p. 133).

162 Pentecostalism in Brazil

41. Yet, in the Magic Mountain: 'Romanticism carries within itself the germ of sickness as the rose does the worm: its most intimate essence is seduction - the seduction of death. Such is Mann's troubling paradox: he who defends, in a revolutionary manner, the irrational forces of life against abstract reason, flat humani-tarianism, has a profound affinity with death' (Barret Kriegel, 1979, pp. 164-5).

42. In some Brazilian pastoral circles, this refers to the ambiguous role of bishops who defended the CEBs (Comblin, 1990, p. 358).

43. 'It is this great common homeland, promised land - forbidden until now - in which milk and blood are flowing. It is a sort of geopolitico-spiritual 'co-naturality' which makes us vibrate together, struggle together, and arrive together. It is much more than a geographical reference: it is a whole common history, a vital attitude, and a collective decision' (Casaldaliga and Vigil, 1993).

44. This 'narrative effect' seems to have driven 'popular heresy' during the dictatorship period. Reich shows that the desire to escape captivity - the 'prison' - is in no way evident (Reich, 1975).

45. General audience concerning the charisms of lay people, March 1994, CIP.

2 EMOTION AND THE POOR: PENTECOSTALISM (I)

1. On Pentecostalism (in general and in Latin America), a few frequently consulted sources are worth mentioning. First, there are the classic studies of Hollenweger (1972,1988) (translation of a thesis written in German, entitled The Enthusiastic Christians in a version published in Zurich, Verlag, 1972), of Lalive d'Epinay (1969, 1975) and of Willems (1967). See also the lesser known study of Damboriema (1969). Brandt-Bessire's (1986) book is a Master's thesis written by a Pentecostal, presented at the Faculty of Theology of the University of Louvain and at the Protestant Theological Faculty of Brussels. On Pentecostalism in Latin America, the work of David Martin (1990) (renowned sociologist of religion), as well as that of Stoll (1990), revived the study of Pentecostalism in the early 1990s. Stoll tries to demonstrate the American influence while avoiding falling into conspiracy theory. See also Stoll and Garrard Burnett (1993), Gros (1992). See the Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, edited by Burgess and McGee (1988). Note the anthropological perspective of Boudewijnse, Droodgers and Kamsteeg (1991). Bastian's (1994) work provides a good historical introduction to Protestantism in Latin America; his 1997 book covers recent reli­gious transformations. The book edited by Alvarez (1992) is a reading of Pentecostalism with a vision close to that of liberation theology. Also note the more recent books by Cox (1996),

Notes 163

Guttierez and Campos (1996), Cleary and Stewart-Gambino (1997) and Oro and Steil (1997). On Pentecostalism in Brazil, one can find an historical and socio­logical introduction in Rolim's (1985) 'classic' study (the author defended in 1977 a Doctoral thesis at USP). See also Rolim (1994). Note, among the early works, the already dated study of Leonard (1952), that of Willems (1967), and the stimulating anthropological study of Novaes (1985) (Master's thesis defended in 1975). Since then, a number of texts written by Brazilian and foreign researchers have been published. Note in Brazil the works of Antoniazzi et al. (1994), Birman (1996, 1997), Bittencourt (1993), Brandao (1986), Fernandes Cesar (1992, 1993), Cesar (1992, 1996), Correa (1989), Freston (1993, 1994, 1995, 1996), Mariano (1995, 1996), Machado (1996), Mariz (1988, 1993, 1994, 1995), Oro (1992,1994,1996,1997a, 1997b), Pierrucci and Prandi (1996), Sanchis (1994), Shaull and Cesar (1999), Campos (1997), Soares (1992), Gutierrer and Campos (1996), etc. In English, note the works of Ireland (1988), Burdick (1993), Lehmann (1996). In French, see the works of Aubree (1985, 1987, 1991, 1996), Gutwirth (1991), Boyer (1996, 1997), etc. Arminianism comes from the name of Jacob Arminius (1560-1609), a Dutch theologian who, through his questioning of predestination, brought about a schism within the Reformed Church (Calvinist). Arminianism was condemned at the Synod of Dort in 1618-19, and is often seen by Calvinists as the rallying cry to Catholicism or to the Anglican 'High Church' (Halevy, 1913, p. 382). To the Arminian tradition, the notion of predestination 'seems to derogate from human freedom and responsibility: salvation is certainly made available by God, but man has at least the task of accepting and appropriating it. The grace of God is not irresistible, as some Calvinists held, and man can reject it; thus a man can be a Christian and yet later fall from grace' (Barr, 1997, pp. 188-90). Arminianism, which was already part of the Baptist doctrine (the Baptist Church was founded in 1609 by John Smith, a separatist exiled to Amsterdam, and in 1639 to the United States), is the doctrine to which the father of Methodism, John Wesley (1703-91), a former Anglican minister, adhered. On the other hand, the other great figure of Methodism, George Whitefield (1714-70), remained closer to Calvinism. It is the influence of John and Charles Wesley which nevertheless came to prevail. In Brazil, the Congregagdo Cristd do Brasil is the only Church that is not part of the Arminian matrix. The information concerning different streams and Churches is mainly taken from Livingstone (1992), Eliade (1987, 16 vols), and Douglas (1978). It is one interest of David Martin's study to show the expansion of Pentecostalism, notably in South Korea (Martin, 1990, ch. 8). Barrett's (1982; Barret in Burgess and McGee, 1988) sources are highly questionable but they are the only ones available at the

164 Pentecostalism in Brazil

level of continents. They indicate that, in 1988, there were 42.1 million Pentecostals in Africa, 37.4 million in Latin America, 22.6 million in North America and 4.4 million in Europe. Stoll (1990, Appendix 2) takes up Johnstone's (1986) data; the number of Protestants in Latin America would be 36.9 million. Note that while in the 1970s not even half of all Protestants were Pentecostal, probably three-quarters of them are Pentecostal today. By comparing global estimates with available national statistics, one can conservatively estimate that there are between 40 and 50 million Latin American Pentecostals.

6. See infra. See also Seguy (1975). 7. This is particularly true in Africa. In Latin America, the Assembly

of God claims 10.7 million members (Martin, 1990, p. 319). In Brazil, it is completely independent from the mother-house. It is very important in El Salvador, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Peru and Mexico (Damboriema, 1969, pp. 151-62; Martin, 1990, p. 319).

8. In the United States, the Church of God in Christ (a Church which, from the beginning, joined with the Azusa Street move­ment of the black pastor William J. Seymour) would be the most important numerically, with 5.5 million members against 2.2 million for the Assembly of God (Corten, 1997, p. 314). Note the importance of the denominations stemming from the Church of God (Cleveland), among which there are many black Churches. These are important in the United States and in many Latin American countries (Hollenweger, 1988, p. 47; Damboriema, 1969, pp. 151-62).

9. In Jamaica, one quarter of the population is Pentecostal. See the excellent book by Austin-Bross (1997).

10. The camp meetings 'were large religious meetings in the open air that lasted for several days and during which "the imagination of the pious crowd was inflamed". The new Wesleyan bureaucracy', notes Halevy, 'met these camp meetings with the same opposition which the Anglican Church had formerly displayed to the open-air preachings of Wesley and Whitefield' (Halevy, 1913, p. 393).

11. This appears to correspond today to what charismatics call 'being slain in the Spirit' or 'resting in the Spirit'. See chapter 3.

12. Hollenweger (1988, p. 538) also maintains that the origin of Pentecostalism lies in Afro-American revivalist groups. See also Alistair (1978, pp. 45-64).

13. Here is a brief historical review. In 1517, Luther posted his '95 theses' on the doors of the Wittenberg Castle Church. Lutheranism is characterized by its recognition of the Bible as the only authority, and stresses the doctrine of original sin, from which man can be liberated only through faith and grace. Luther had a great deal of influence in Germany, where two thirds of the population are Lutheran, in Scandinavia and in the United States and Canada through German immigration. Seventeenth-century

Notes 165

Pietism is a reaction against the intellectualism of Lutheranism. 14. Jean Calvin, of French origin, adhered to the Reformation in

1533, had to leave France, and established himself in Geneva, where he played an important political role. His doctrine of predestination, in part inspired by the theses of St Augustine, distinguishes him from Lutheranism. Calvinism expanded rapidly in France (Huguenots), Switzerland and the Netherlands, and with Presbyterianism, in England, Scotland, North America, South Africa, and so on. The Calvinist ethic is, according to Weber, the core of the spirit of capitalism.

15. It was probably remotely influenced by a 'first schism': the Anabaptism of Thomas Miinzer (1521).

16. It therefore had also been associated with Puritanism, a move­ment which was opposed to the official Church of England. The first English revolution (1642-49), which overthrew the monarchy and replaced it with the Republic of Cromwell, is generally called the Puritan Revolution (Walzer, 1965). In the eighteenth century, 'the Anglican Church found herself faced by the sects. They were termed "Nonconformist" because their members refused to conform to the ritual and the discipline of the Established Church; they were called "Dissenters" because of their doctrinal disagreement with the Church. Presbyterians, Independents, Baptists, members of the "three old denominations", agreed in pronouncing the hierarchical organization of the state Church unfaithful to the precepts of the New Testament' (Halevy, 1913, p. 379).

17. 'The system of "itinerant preachers" and "local preachers", inau­gurated by Methodism and imitated by the other sects, made it possible for any farm laborer to declare his intention to preach without offering the least guarantee of education or morality,' notes Halevy (1913, p. 406). Elsewhere in his book, Halevy strongly relativizes this appeal to lay people, stressing how strongly, in Wesley's lifetime, Methodism was marked by 'clerical authoritarianism' (Halevy, 1913, p. 391).

18. This influence was exerted through the 'Moravian Brothers', a type of community of 'Hussite' (a 'heretical', mystical lay move­ment from Bohemia pre-dating the Reformation, see chapter 1) inspiration in the vein of Lutheran Pietism, to such an extent that what was specific to the Methodists could be identified already among the Moravians: 'the grouping system, the hymns, the agapae ... the evening gatherings, the conferences, and, some­what less importantly, the open-air preaching, preaching by lay people, and education' (Brandt-Bessire, 1986, p. 45). Brandt-Bessire quotes Towlson, stressing that this influence was not as broad as Towlson claimed.

19. Rolim raises the 'problem' of the origin of Brazilian Pentecostalism. As we shall see in chapter 3, Brazilian Pentecostalism is initially the heir of 'white' Pentecostalism. Why

166 Pentecostalism in Brazil

not of 'black' Pentecostalism? he asks. 'Black' Pentecostalism would have been doubly subversive. Racism would have made it very difficult (Interview, Rio de Janeiro, 28 July 1994). Francisco Rolim died before completing his research (see Sanchis, in Pentecostes, 1996, p. 33).

20. See Soares (1992). The first issue of Debates do NER (Porto Alegre: UFRGS, Ano 1, 1, 1997) is entirely dedicated to this discussion.

21. 'What are these Pentecostal Churches? There are Protestant authors who do not recognize in them the tradition of the Reformation. They say that they are dissenting Catholic Churches. In fact, these Churches succeeded in bringing life to some themes of traditional popular Catholic religion: sin, salva­tion of the soul, Hell, Heaven, and the judgment of the Lord' (Comblin, 1993, p. 43). Note Sanchis's (1994) viewpoint, which is more cautious yet leans in the same direction. See also Oro (1996, 1997) and Bastian (1997).

22. The pai-do-santo is the head of the terreiro, which is the sacred place specific to the community.

23. This word covers the whole of the consultants, initiates and sympathizers of the cults (Aubree, 1987).

24. According to the Brazilian weekly Veja, charismatic Catholics numbered 300,000 in 1979,1 million in 1984, 2 million in 1989 and 4 million in 1994. Today, according to Veja (8 April 1998) they number eight million.

25. To Pentecostals, the distinction is not obvious. Bishop Macedo of the IURD (Universal Church - see infra) indirectly reports an experience of xenoglossia. It is the experience of a Brazilian who, while participating in the worship service of a Dutch Reformed Church in Africa, not only understood the Afrikaner language which he had never learned, but also began to preach in that language (Macedo, 1993, pp. 111-12).

26. Baptist Churches, widespread in the southern states of the US, include today two-thirds of the black Churches in the United States. They are sometimes described as fundamentalist because they are conservative at the theological level and also frequently at the political level. These Churches are of Arminian orientation theologically, like the majority of Pentecostal Churches. For Baptists, baptism is instituted 'as the characteristic of conscious believers on the basis of an association in a united church'. Often very democratic in their internal organization, Baptists (like historical Protestant Churches) also have their movement of charismatic renewal. Some Churches, such as the National Baptist Church in Brazil, are Pentecostal.

27. This commonplace criticism in the Catholic clergy - directed, it is true, at the charismatic renewal - reflects rather the distrust of this clergy towards gifts which are not tied to any ministry (Boff, in Oliveira et al., 1978).

Notes 167

28. Martin refers to the classic thesis of the historian Elie Halevy on the importance of Methodism in the formation of English society, and notably on the influence of music and of singing on social harmony (Martin, 1990, pp. 175-7). He points out that, against regularity and method, which can ensure work discipline, there is in the spiritual song the counterpoint of revolt (Martin, 1990, p. 34).

29. According to the results of the survey conducted by ISER in the region of Rio de Janeiro, 'evangelicals' have far less schooling than the average of the population (40 per cent have no more than four years of schooling - that is they are effectively illiterate - against 21 per cent for the population as a whole). On the other hand, we note that those who have been raised in an evangelical Church have more schooling than recent converts. Among those with four years or less of schooling, only 20 per cent were raised in a Church, while by contrast among those with nine years or more of schooling, 42 per cent were raised in a Church (ISER, 1996, graphs 2 and 4).

30. These oppositions are part of the rationalist approach. Hobbes (1651, 1996) makes use of them frequently in Leviathan. They should be used with caution.

31. This participation is anarchic and plural, but not conflictual. Andre Godin stresses that, in the charismatic movement, leaders recognize that their objective is to reach a climate of prayer in consensus 'by reducing to a minimum demands for detailed exam­ination (for instance regarding a testimony) and by deflecting attempts at discussions (for instance regarding the interpretation of Scripture)' (Godin, 1981, p. 125).

32. This is practised, for instance, in the Pentecostal Churches Congregagdo Cristd and Deus eAmor

3 EMOTION AND THE POOR: PENTECOSTALISM (II)

1. According to the German Romantic theologian Schleiermacher (1768-1834), emotion is the characteristic trait of religion. In his view, the awareness of God 'is but the immediate emotion of absolute dependence' (Schleiermacher, 1888, p. 10). Yet he distinguishes two states: 'The first is that in which we feel inca­pable, in every moment of our life, of making the feeling of absolute dependence prevail; the second is that in which this capacity is gradually passed on to us by the Redemptor' (p. 55).

2. As we have seen in the preceding chapter, the Congregagdo Cristd do Brasil is the only Brazilian Church which is not of Arminian matrix. The Congregagdo Cristd do Brasil, founded in 1910 by an Italian from Chicago, Luigi Francescon, indeed proceeded from a schism in a Presbyterian (Calvinist) Church. On the Congregagdo Cristd, see the superb study of Correa (1989).

168 Pentecostalism in Brazil

3. Freston borrows the term 'wave' from Martin (1990, p. 28). The latter distinguishes the second wave of Protestantism -Methodism - and the third wave - Pentecostalism. The famous American evangelist Peter Wagner uses the term 'third wave' to designate those who believe in the gifts of the Holy Spirit, in 'speaking in tongues', in divine healing and in exorcism (Campos, 1997, p. 17).

4. Among these, there are hundreds of thousands of Hispanics who are also found in Hispanic Pentecostal denominations (Burgess and McGee, 1988, pp. 390-400; Kevin, 1993; Villafaiie, 1992). The Universal Church of the Kingdom of God (IURD -Brazilian), ranked by Freston in the third wave, numbers about 20 temples in the United States, notably in New York.

5. Pentecostalism developed precociously in Sweden, a country which was still, at the beginning of the century, mainly rural. Today, Pentecostals number 300,000 in Sweden (Eliade, 1987, Vol. 11).

6. 'Evangelicos', according to the broad formulation of the term as it is employed here, corresponds to all Protestants. In its more general sense, the term has been used since the Reformation to designate Protestant Churches because of their insistence on basing education on the Gospel. In its German usage, it desig­nates Lutherans, as opposed to Calvinists or Reformed Protestants. 'Evangelical' thus corresponds to a revival movement which originated in the eighteenth century (Livingstone, 1977, p. 183). This revival went in the opposite direction of liberal theology, which developed in particular in Germany between 1820 and 1920. In the current of the Pact of Lausanne (1974), the Latin American 'evangelical' current (we prefer the anglicist formulation) insists upon the necessity of social reform. It has been sometimes described as 'fundamentalism of the left' (Fernandes, 1981, quoted in Freston, 1993, p. 128). It manifests itself in para-ecclesiastical organizations such as the FTL (Latin American Theological Fraternity) or, in Brazil, the ABU (Alianca Biblica Universitaria). Yet the meaning commonly assigned to the term among Pentecostals is the following: the 'evangelico' is one who recognizes: (1) the Bible as authority; (2) that eternal salvation is possible only through regeneration (being 'born again'); (3) a life transformed spiritually by moral conduct: personal devotion such as Bible reading, prayer, and zeal for evangelism (Eliade, 1987, Vol. 5, p. 190).

7. A survey conducted by poll (PNAD, 1988), and published in the collection of demographic censuses of the IBGE, evaluated the proportion of evangelicals at 10.8 per cent. It made no distinction between Protestants and Pentecostals.

8. The purpose of this odd name, 'Four-Square Gospel', is to insist upon the four essential components of the 'evangelical' revela­tion: 'Jesus saves; Jesus baptizes; Jesus heals; Jesus will return

Notes 169

(Second Coming of Christ or pre-millennium)'. Although the first Churches, such as that of Azusa Street, under the influence of the holiness movement (see infra), spoke of five components - salva­tion, holiness, baptism, healing and the Second Coming of Christ - the above four components are kept as the theological core of Pentecostalism by Dayton (1987, pp. 20-1) and Brandt-Bessire (1986, ch. VII, pp. 171-200). Note that the Four-Square Gospel Church was founded in the United States, in 1922, by a woman - Aimee Semple McPherson. See what Hollenweger (1988, pp. 486-7) says concerning the role of women in Pentecostal Churches: as prophetesses, wives of pastors and women with theatrical talents.

9. The name of this Church draws its inspiration from the Chilean Church El Chile para Cristo'. The founder, Manuel de Melo, had several Latin American contacts through the World Council of Churches (ecumenical, 'progressive') (Rolim, 1985, p. 52). This interpretation is disputed by Freston, who argues that the contact with the WCC followed the foundation of the Church.

10. Manuel de Melo had been a believer and then a pastor of the Assembly of God (AD) and of the Four-Square Gospel Church (IEQ) as is moreover the case with several founders of new Churches (Rolim, 1985, p. 52). See also ISER (CIN, 1992).

11. On this, see the classic analysis by Hollenweger (1988, p. 32). Lalive d'Epinay (1975, pp. 104-10) takes up the term 'denomina­tion', distinguishing it as the 'original type' of the 'sect', with the 'established sect' on the one hand and the 'ecclesia' (born in the Reformation) on the other.

12. Rede Boas Novas, launched by the dynamic preacher-President of the Assembly of God of Manaus, and now of Belem - Samuel Camara - is broadcast in Manaus and Belem by Manchete and CNT. Note the programme Renascer, by Silas Malafaia, (some­thing of an independent) pastor of the Assembly of God, which has been presented on different channels for 15 years. As for the General Convention of the Assembly of God, it hesitated for a long time over the evangelical opportunity of using television. Yet faced with the apparently irreversible propagation of the Rede Boas Novas from the North to other States, the Assembly of God launched at the end of 1996, on Rede Manchete, its own official programme: Movimento Pentecostal, with the subtitle The Assembly of God in Action. There are several programmes of the third wave. Note, in addition to the programmes of the Universal Church (Rede Record but also SBT, etc.), the programmes of Renascer em Cristo (Clip Gospel by Tid Hernandes and De Bern com a Vida by Bishop Sonia Hernandes), Cristo Vive (Posso Crer noAmanhd by Miguel Angelo), the Igreja do Senhor Jesus Cristo (Direto ao Coragdo by Bishop Renato Suhett), the Igreja Nova Vida (Cafe Espiritual by Bishop Walter Alister), the Church of the preacher Valnice Milhomes (Escola Biblica), and so on. Note,

170 Pentecostalism in Brazil

moreover, the programmes of the Baptist Church (Reencontro by Bishop Nilson Fanini), the Church of the Seventh-Day Adventists (Estd Escrito), and Caio Fabio (Pare e Pense) (Fonseca, 1997, pp. 86-111). Caio Fabio launched, in December 1996, the channel Vinde TV in Rio de Janeiro, with 100 per cent evangeli­cal programming (Shaull and Cesar, 1999).

13. In the United States, televangelism, or the 'electronic Church', is part of the extension of the use of radio by evangelicals in the 1920s. From the 1960s onwards, with the 'deregulation' of the audiovisual sector, a few preachers who did not belong to tradi­tional Churches (Pat Robertson, the 700 Club, Jimmy Swaggart, Jim Baker, Oral Robarts, and so on), made it their mission to propagate faith ('which must lead to the salvation of the soul') through television, and also embarked on grand crusades (notably anti-communist). During the 1970s, they dominated North American religious television. Televangelism is at once religion, 'politics' and 'business' (Gutwirth, 1988, 1998). Although in Latin America (Stoll, 1990) televangelical channels are still partly taken up (30 per cent) by programmes produced by this type of 'tele­vangelism', often readapted in Puerto Rico or Mexico, and although, in Brazil (Fonseca, 1997, pp. 49-54), the Assembly of God sponsored briefly some of Jimmy Swaggart's programmes (during the 1980s) and Pat Robertson's 700 Club is broadcast (today with the backing of Caio Fabio), it is a specifically Brazilian programming that has really moved into and come to dominate Brazilian religious broadcasts. Pastor Nilson do Amaral Fanini, today President of the World Baptist Alliance, intro­duced, as early as 1975, a programme which became very successful: Reencontro. He obtained, in 1983, an airwave conces­sion from President Joao Figueiredo, which gave national stature to his programmes. Note also the several regional programmes (Assmann, 1987; Gutwirth, 1991; Oro, 1992) which preceded the 'third wave' of Pentecostalism.

14. Before founding his own Church in 1977, Macedo, who is believed to have received a theological education, was a member of a Pentecostal Church of Rio founded by a Canadian - Walter McAlister, who himself came from the Assembly of God. This Church - Nova Vida - is established mainly in Rio among middle-class circles (Freston, 1993, p. 96).

15. Veja, 16/5/90. ISTOE, 29/6/94. 16. He presents the programme Igreja da Graga (no lar / em seu lar),

from 6:00 a.m. to 8:00 a.m. on CNT, from 5:00 a.m. to 6:30 a.m. on Bandeirantes, and from 7:30 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. on Manchete.

17. Often at 8:00 a.m., 10:00 a.m., 3:00 p.m., 6:00 p.m. and 8:00 p.m. 18. Macedo officially earns 8,000 dollars a month (deducting 800

dollars for tithes and taxes, this makes 5,000 dollars net, he says). A pastor earns $700, to which is added the house and sometimes the car (Veja, 6 December 1995). According to Freston, 'the

Notes 111

IURD embodies a religious version of the 'yuppie' ethics - rapid wealth accumulation through bold operations. One of the most controversial aspects of Edir Macedo's conduct, he continues, 'is his own life style'. He compares his taste for expensive houses and cars with the 'palaces of representation' of the Pope. In addition, and contrary to others, he does not do this hypocritically since he lives in conformity with the theology proclaimed daily in the Church. If he makes no 'sacrifices', as the poor faithful do, it is because he has reached the objective of being rich. He does not have to be exemplary in his disregard for material goods since he is already exemplary in his wealth' (Freston, 1993, pp. 107-8).

19. 'There are three series of denunciations and investigations: (1) an investigation by the Federal Police and the tax office on the origin of the money which enabled him to buy Rede Record; (2) a denun­ciation, by a former pastor, of narco-dollar laundering; and (3) a lawsuit against former members for curandeirismo and charla­tanism'. The bishop was sentenced for tax evasion, having borrowed at no interest from the Church which, as a religious entity, is exempt from paying taxes. For the second accusation, he benefited from the support of the lobby of evangelical deputies in the Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry. For the third, he was convicted. He was arrested and freed after 12 days. The judge, granting him habeas corpus, described his imprisonment as 'undue and premature' (Freston, 1993, pp. 110-11). Articles on the financial irregularities of the IURD continue to be published. See notably ISTOE: 15 January 1997.

20. Gutwirth stresses, rather, the similarities: 'this mix of restlessness during sermon, satire, popular songs, and hymns, is fairly close to the practices of the televangelist Jimmy Swaggart, with just a few differences. Here, sermons are brief (while Swaggart speaks at length), and there is this fight against the African gods, which culminates in a session of exorcism amid the public' (Gutwirth, 1991, p. 106).

21. 'From the religious viewpoint, the arrival of the modern subject signalled its 'inculpation', says Gauchet (1985, p. 241), referring to this tradition.

22. Soares, R. R. Medo, Feche esta Porta, Colegao Graga de Deus, n.d. 50,000 copies (Rio de Janeiro: Graga Editorial).

23. It even proceeds from the institutionalization of ADHONEP (Full Gospel Businessmen's Fellowship), which was close to the Assembly of God but had to distance itself from it because their styles were too different. The Assembly of God still broadly reaches the poor sectors of the population

4 THE LEFT AND THE 'PASSION OF THE BASE'

1. The PT has done nothing but grow in electoral terms. The

172 Pentecostalism in Brazil

number of federal deputies has increased as follows: in the 1982 election, there were 8 deputies, in 1986, 16 deputies, in 1990, 35 deputies, in 1994, 48 deputies and in 1998, 58 deputies (total number of seats: 513). In 1998, PT candidates were elected for the position of governor in three states: Rio Grande do Sul, Mato Grosso do Sul and Acre. The PSB (Brazilian Socialist Party) and the PDT (Democratic Labour Party), which in the 1998 presiden­tial election supported Lula, gained 19 and 25 seats respectively as federal deputies. They won governorships in the states of Amapa (PSB), Alagoas (PSB) and Rio de Janeiro (PDT).

2. Note the following names: the pastor and media figure Ricardo Gondim (Assembleia de Deus Betesda), Valdir Steuernagel (president of the Latin American Theological Fraternity - FTL), Renato Becker (Lutheran Church), the sociologist Paul Freston (Igreja Evangelica Koinoma), Robinson Cavalcanti (Igreja Episcopal) and Marcos Terena (Uniao das Nacoes Indigenas, Igreja Batista).

3. AEVB, Decdlogo evangelico do voto etico, 17-18 March 1994

5 PRAISE: AN ORIGINAL UTTERANCE

1. This expression, from the Christian and Missionary Alliance (American missionaries), is quoted by Martin (1990, p. 30).

2. Taking as his starting point Propp's study on Russian folk tales, in which it was shown that all popular tales are ruled by seven spheres of invariable actions, Greimas elaborated a model, applicable to all universes, which puts together six actants (or narrative roles) along three axes: the axis of desire (subject/object), the axis of communication (addresser/ addressee), and the axis of power (helper/opponent) (Greimas, 1983).

3. See Reich, Steve, Korot, Beryl ES, The Cave. 4. See the interpretation of Nathalie Dubleumortier (1997, pp.

115-20), who sees in this regression towards 'babbling' (conver­sion being conceived as rebirth) a way of placing oneself outside of time and of the social space. This allows the believer to be asocial in the profane 'world', and socializing in the religious 'world'.

5. He alludes here to Bishop Macedo, the founder and leader of the Igreja Universal do Reino de Deus. See chapter 3.

6. Arendt also views the emergence of the totalitarian system as the fact of uttering that 'everything is possible' on the way 'to fabri­cating ... a sort of human species ... whose only "freedom" would consist in preserving the species'.

7. Widespread in Corinthian communities, and then in Montanism, 'speaking in tongues' disappeared for several centuries. This vision is the result of religious ethnocentrism. 'Speaking in

Notes 173

tongues' is widespread in several religions (Goodman, in Eliade, 1987, Vol. 5, p. 564). Note, moreover, that before Pentecostalism, 'speaking in tongues' was present in numerous 'sects', as well as in the 'revival' movements of Protestantism. See chapter 6.

6 PIETY AND PROSPERITY

1. Preface to the 1992 English edition of Socialism, Utopian and Scientific.

2. Rickey, Marilyn, As sete chaves de Deus para tornd-lo rico, Sta Isabel, RJ, ADHONEP, 1991. On page 4, one reads: 'Have you not learned that it is impossible to be rich and spiritual at the same time? This is precisely what a large part of the Body of Christ [the Church] has taught, namely that to be spiritual is to be poor. Praise God that he may show us that poverty has nothing to do with spirituality and saintliness. The Bible is full of examples of men of God who were fabulously wealthy. Abraham, David, and Solomon are among them.'

'Psalm 35.27 says: "Let the Lord be magnified, Who has plea­sure in the prosperity of His servant". Jesus wants to see you prosper in every realm of your life. This enlightening and dynamic book will show you how to make Jesus your source of inspiration: HE WHO BECAME POOR SO THAT YOU MAY BECOME RICH.'

3. According to these theses, there would be pre-modern tendencies vis-a-vis wealth in Christianity. These tendencies are character­ized by the fact that morality revolves around the distribution as opposed to the creation of wealth.

4. 'Divine healing' already existed in the movement of the Scottish preacher Edward Irving. This movement is considered to be the precursor of Pentecostalism (Brandt-Bessire, 1986, p. 157).

5. It could be observed as early as the 1920s in the Four-Square Gospel Church, founded by Aimee Semple McPherson.

6. According to McConnel (1990, p. 15), Hagin literally plagiarized Kenyon who, for his part, did not deny such influences, in partic­ular that of Christian Science.

7. Schlegel, 'Introduction' in Schmitt (1988), p. x. 8. In his early writings, Hegel himself was apparently influenced by

Gnosticism, as was Jung (Eliade, 1987, Vol. 5, p. 476). 9. On this, see the book of the 'missionary' and televangelist, R.R.

Soares, founder of the Igreja Internacional da Graga de Deus (IIGD): As bengoes que enriquecem, Rio de Janeiro, Graga Editorial, 1985.

10. This is the opinion of Kenyon, who strongly inspired Hagin (McConnel, 1990, p. 173).

11. See Gondim (1993). On the back cover, one reads: 'The most dangerous and most harmful, in these times of uncertainty, is that

174 Pentecostalism in Brazil

the Brazilian people continues to copy everything that is done in the United States without the necessary critical reflection. In the United States, the well-known Theology of Prosperity and Movements of Faith have already been refuted and rejected by serious and well-prepared experts of the word of God. Meanwhile, in Brazil, we are living through a period of absolute mass fever, in which delusions are leading a number of people to feel as gods, that is able to "give orders" to God so that He may satisfy their every wishes.'

12. Note that the last chapter of Gondim's (1993) work, which is a critique of the 'theology of prosperity', is entitled: 'Are there no longer miracles?' The author concludes that, contrary to what 'dispensionalism' (fundamentalism) teaches, there are still mira­cles today.

13. Is it because it is integrated into 'religious positivism' that it takes on the form of 'general Romanticism', identified by Angenot (1988) as the social discourse of the late nineteenth century?

14. In general, the repressive aspect of Pentecostal morality for women is emphasized (Aubree, 1984; Lehmann, 1996). Iffly's (1993, p. 107, n. 56) approach is more nuanced. This view is partly disputed by Burdick (1993), Mariz and Machado (1994), Machado (1996), Brusco (in Stoll and Garrard Burnett, 1993), and so on.

15. This statement reflects St Paul's suspicion, also found in the theo­logical tradition in relation to charisms. According to this tradition, 'grace' is, in and of itself, sanctifying, while charisms are so only when used for service to the community.

16. Liberation theologians have rarely targeted Pentecostalism directly. On the other hand, note the virulent criticisms they have made of the charismatic renewal (Boff, in Oliveira, 1978, pp. 188-94). See also Boff's more open yet critical position in a recent interview on Pentecostalism (Boff, 1996).

17. Another form of piety is examined methodically by Maingueneau (1984). In his study, he shows how, within devout humanism, a tone, characterized 'obliquely' by the adjective 'sweet', confers on the utterance a reality which induces adhesion, which induces piety.

18. Two qualifications can be made immediately regarding this. According to Spinoza, piety functions as the equivalent of dread or fear. Yet this fear does not coincide completely with the 'angst-ridden fear' of the Calvinist facing death; to a certain extent, the latter chooses obedience in order to elude angst. The second qualification concerns the history of Puritanism in England. Puritan piety is at the origin not only of the so-called Puritan revolutions, but also of a dissent movement which persisted until the nineteenth century. This explains the numerous theologico-political developments of Hobbes, who attempts to subordinate the judgment of truth - including religious truth - to political sovereignty.

Notes 175

As a reminder, let us summarize the nature of these different movements: • Montanism is a religious movement which developed in Asia

Minor in the second century. It is characterized notably by the popularization of glossolalia.

• The Anabaptists who, along with Thomas Miinzer and the Bretheren, were denounced and persecuted by Luther and Calvin, had to take refuge notably in Moravia ('revival' in 1722 with Zinzendorf - Pietism); they practised communal owner­ship. Menno joined the Anabaptists. The Mennonites, in whom Spinoza showed an interest, eventually became an important movement, notably in the Netherlands in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

• The Camisards - referred to this way because they wore a white shirt as a form of identification - were Calvinists from the Cevennes. They revolted and defied the royal troops (1702) after the revocation (1685) of the Edict of Nantes (1598).

• The Shakers emerged as a result of a schism from the Quakers. (The Quakers refused all clerical authority; their refusal to show deference towards their superiors brought them persecu­tion; they developed from the middle of the seventeenth century in the United States.) The Shakers, very popular in the United States in the nineteenth century, lived in communities and granted women formal equality with men.

• The Irvingites are precursors (Irving, Edward - 1827) of Pentecostalism who preached about the gifts of the Spirit, millenarism and 'divine healing'.

• The Mormons are a Church born in the State of New York, around 1820, in the context of the 'second great revival'. The founder, Joseph Smith, claimed to have had a revelation, recorded in the 'book of Mormons'. Because they have another source of revelation than the Bible, Mormons are not consid­ered to be Evangelicals. Mormons practise their religion within the family, which they consider to have an eternal nature.

• The holiness movements are 'revival' movements which pene­trated several Churches, especially American ones, notably Methodist Churches. Increasingly certain of the preeminence of the Holy Spirit and having rediscovered 'the law of love', they played an important role prior to the American Civil War (1861-5) in the struggle against slavery, which was lived from a millenarian perspective. After the war, these movements developed further and organized camp meetings, which were great interdenominational gatherings seen as 'places of perfect love'.

This, as one knows, was of particular interest to Schmitt for estab­lishing his political theology. See especially Schmitt (1985, ch. III). On this subject, our analysis converges with the 'absolutely decisive point' of Weber's argumentation, according to which it is

176 Pentecostalism in Brazil

not the content of moral doctrine that matters (Weber, 1990, p. 260, n. 1).

21. This notion, according to which the horizontalism of charisms is opposed to the verticalism of hierarchical power, also appears in Boff (1985)

7 THE SECT: THE ANTI-POLITICS OF THE POOR

1. As in previous chapters, the use of the notions of political language and acceptability is inspired by Faye (1972). See also Guillaumou (1989).

2. The differences between Marx's and Engels' analyses of religion are notable. In The Peasant War in Germany (1850), Engels assigns a revolutionary role to Thomas Miinzer. Marx, who is less romantic, gives a good account of the importance of religion for the poor. 'The wretchedness of religion is at once an expression and a protest against real wretchedness. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people.' In his view, then, this importance is transitory. Note also that Marx confers a revolutionary virtue on militant atheism. 'The abolition of reli­gion as the illusory happiness of the people is a demand for their true happiness. The call to abandon illusions about their condi­tion is the call to abandon a condition which requires illusions. Thus, the critique of religion is the critique in embryo of the vale of tears of which religion is the halo'. Introduction to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right (1843-44). The influence of Engels' Peasant War on Ernst Bloch is well known. See the special issue of New German Critique, No. 45, Autumn 1988. See also Lowy (1990).

3. This expression, from Peterson, was adopted by Schmitt (1922, 1969) in his 1969 text, published in the French edition only.

4. 'Anti-politics' is one of those imprecise terms whose meaning does not emerge from a definition but from the way it is used. It is notably used to account for the Quakers in Bunzel (1967, p. vii). See also the critique of consensus in democracy (Smith and Thomson, 1972).

5. Recent studies tend to go against the accepted notion that Pentecostals are always conservative. Note the work of the Australian Ireland (1993, p. 97), the American Burdick (1993, p. 16) and the pioneering work of Novaes (1985). According to the survey conducted by ISER in 1996 in the region of Rio de Janeiro, Pentecostals voted less for Lula than the average of the population (19 per cent), but the difference was not very import­ant, except for the members of the Universal Church (6 per cent) who voted for Cardoso in a proportion of 56 per cent (the average of the Rio population who voted for him was 42 per cent).

Notes 111

This is the general name used to refer to those Christians -notably certain Gnostic sects - who considered themselves to be exempt, by virtue of grace, from respecting rules of morality. Antinomianism underwent a revival during the Reformation, notably among Anabaptists. This opinion was confirmed by Tennekes, according to whom Pentecostals were even more favorable to Allende than their non-Pentecostal neighbors. On the other hand, ministers were opposed to him (Tennekes, 1985, p. 106, quoted in Freston, 1993, p. 260). See also Sepulveda (in Cleary and Stewart-Gambino, 1997, p. 114). Pinochet, a practising Catholic, used the largest Pentecostal Church in Chile - the Methodist Pentecostal Church - as a reli­gious guaranty when the Catholic Church undertook (cautiously) its campaign for the defence of human rights (General Curacy). The Methodist Pentecostal Temple of Santiago, in which the Te Deum was celebrated, is considered to be the largest in Latin America. Pinochet granted material benefits to Pentecostal Churches, benefits which until then were reserved for the Catholic Church. General Rios Montt, elected in 1982, was the first evangelical President of Latin America. Prior to his coming to power, he elaborated a fundamentalist discourse aimed at fighting against the growing influence of liberation theology in Central America, notably following the victory of the Sandinistas in Nicaragua. Note that in Nicaragua, Pentecostalism was divided and partly manipulated by the Contras. Nevertheless, an important Pentecostal current supported the Sandinistas, especially before 1979 (Bastian, 1986, p.169). See also Samandu (1990). In a climate of atrocious repression, Guatemala under Rios Montt was declared the 'New Jerusalem of the Americas' (Stoll, 1990, ch. 7). According to Bastian (1997, pp. 102-3), 'the surprising political ascent of evangelicals and Adventists in 1991 was apparently due to the effort of the presidential candidate, Alberto Fujimori, to win the Indian vote of the "Sierra" region through evangelical intermediaries. While one third of the candidates of the Cambio 90 list (prepared by Fujimori) for the positions of deputy and senator were evangelicals, these represented half of all the elected members of the Cambio 90 party (that is 14 deputies and 4 senators) which took power with the electoral victory of Fujimori. The most striking, for public opinion, was the discipline and cohesion of the evangelical vote. From the moment of the 'auto-coup d'etat' of 1992 and the dissolution of Parliament, the manipulation of the movement by Fujimori came in full view. Nevertheless, in the following election, in 1994, another 56 evan­gelical candidates presented their candidacies, on various lists this time, thus ending their allegiance to a government which

178 Pentecostalism in Brazil

they judged to be arbitrary, and which had parted with "their" minister-Vice-President of the Republic. All failed, except for five evangelicals who had remained faithful to Fujimori.'

11. Note that General Ernesto Geisel, President of the Republic from 1974 to 1979, was a Lutheran 'evangelical' from Rio Grande do Sul. Note also the active support given by the televangelist Fanini to General Joao Figuereido. In August 1982, on the occa­sion of the seventh anniversary of his television programme, minister Fanini gathered 120,000 people in the Maracana stadium for a 'religious and civic' worship service. President Figuereido (1979-85) and five of his Ministers were present as special guests. On 29 November, 1982, the decree 89.078 gave, for a period of 15 years, channel 13 of TV Rio to Minister Fanini. See Assmann (1986, p. 85) and Fonseca (1997, p. 55).

12. To simplify, there are three phases in the involvement of 'histori­cal Protestants' in politics. Each one can be characterized by the predominance of one Church: the Methodist phase, from 1933 to 1951; the Presbyterian phase, from 1951 to 1975; and the Baptist phase, from 1975 to 1987. See Freston (1993, p. 171).

13. Nevertheless, it supported Collor in the second turn of 1989. 14. In the 1982 election, there were 17 Protestant parliamentaries

(including five deputies), almost all were historical Protestants; in 1986, there were 36 Protestant parliamentaries (including four deputies) among whom 20 Pentecostals; in 1990, there were 35 (including 12 deputies), among whom 18 Pentecostals; and in 1994, there were 31 (including seven deputies), among whom 19 Pentecostals. See Freston (in Pentecostes, 1996, pp. 176-7). Note that these numbers vary slightly, including in Freston's work. Following the 1998 October election, the 'bancada evangelica' in the National Congress is composed of 35 federal deputies. Among them, there are 14 deputies directly appointed by the Universal church. In addition, three other deputies were elected with the support of this Church (information communicated by Ricardo Mariano, USP).

15. The DIAP (Departamento Intersindical deAssessoria Parlementar) index, which analyses the votes of constituents and ranges from 0 to 10, more or less along the right/left axis, gave an average of 4.61 for Protestants and an average of 4.94 for the general population. Yet Pentecostals (5.06) were not as far on the right as historical Protestants (4.09) - and in particular the Baptists (3.07). Freston (p. 244) also refers to the Kinzo scale and concludes: 'All in all, Pentecostals are a lot less conservative than historical Protestants, a little more in favor of democracy, and much more nationalistic'.

16. Manin, Bernard, The Principles of Representative Government, Centre for Theoretical Studies, University of Essex, Seminar: 23 February 1994.

17. Out of the 49 Protestants who acceded to Congress between 1987

Notes 179

and 1992, 23 had ties with the media. This proportion is estimated to be at 20 per cent for other parliamentarians.

18. On this, see the fascinating study of Kyrtatas (1987). This study confirms the predominantly urban character of Christianity. Montanism, on the other hand, appeared as a rural heresy which spread from Asia Minor all the way to North Africa, Rome, and even Gaul.

19. See Holt (1930), in Yinger (1957, pp. 463-70) for a very interest­ing study on Pentecostalism in the United States in the 1930s.

20. According to Kyrtatas (1987, p. 89), we have now come to accept, more easily than in the past, that primitive Christianity was at once revolutionary and conservative.

21. 'On one side', says Sanchis, 'a tiny minority of unmarried men is selected and isolated for seven years of education. Meanwhile, on the Pentecostal side, ministers are trained in four months; they are neither taken away nor cut off from their milieu, not even their intellectual milieu' (Sanchis, in Antoniazzi, 1994).

CONCLUSION

1. For Latin America, rough estimates focus on Protestants in general, of which the majority is Pentecostal. The more Protestant countries are Chile (22.5 per cent), Brazil (17.4 per cent), the Caribbean - Puerto Rico (27.2 per cent), Haiti (17.2 per cent), Surinam (19.9 per cent), in addition to the English-speaking West Indies - and Central America, that is Guatemala (20.4 per cent), El Salvador (14.0 per cent), Panama (11.8 per cent), Honduras (9.9 per cent), Nicaragua (9.3 per cent), and Costa Rica (7.7 per cent). These estimates, from Johnstone (1986), are quoted in Stoll (1990).

2. On the evolution of the category of 'poverty', from religious to economic sequences, see Foucault (1971, pp. 493-9).

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Name Index

Adorno, Theodor, 136 Alistair, Kee, 119, 164 Alister, Walter R , 168, 170 de Almeida, Abraao, 159 Alvarez, Carmelo, 41, 54, 68, 71,

162 Alves, Rubem, 5, 8, 15, 159 Anderson, M. Robert, 38, 84, 99,

123 Angenot, Marc, 174 Antoniazzi, Alberto, 1, 60, 77, 80,

163, 179 Arendt, Hannah, 172 Aristotle, 87 Arminius, Jacob, 27, 39, 163 Arraes, Miguel, 7, 69 Arrochellas, Hellena, 72 Assmann, Hugo, 61, 63, 66, 93,

95, 115, 170, 177 Aubert, Jean-Marie, 1 Aubree, Marion, 27,28,34-5,53,

90,106,107,110,163,166,174 Augustine, 121, 165 Austin John L , 43, 85, 86 Austin-Bross, Diane, 164 Azevedo, Marcelo, 11

Baker, Jim, 170 Baker, Mary, 110, 173 Banzer, Hugo, 133 Barr, James, 163 Barret-Kriegel, Blandine, 2, 157,

162 Barrett, David, 29, 163 Barth, Karl, 5, 8, 19, 159 Bastian, Jean-Pierre, 34, 44, 133,

139-40 Bastide, Roger, 107 Benedita, see da Silva Benjamin, Walter, 10, 157 Beozzo, Jose O., 17, 133, 159, 161 Berger, Peter, 19, 109, 119

Berten, Ignace, 159 Betto, Frei, 10, 19 Birman, Patricia, 163 Bittencourt, Jose filho, 34, 53,

106, 163 Bloch, Ernst, 8, 1, 157-8, 176 Boff, Clovis, 1, 10 Boff, Leonardo, 1, 3, 8, 14, 16-19,

21-4, 159, 161, 174 Boudewijnse, Barbara, 162 Bourdieu, Pierre, 143 Boyer, Veronique, 163 Brandao, Carlos Rodrigues, 158 Brandt-Bessire, Daniel, 29, 32,

37-9, 162, 165, 169, 173 Brown, Robert M., 5 Bruneau, Thomas C , 11, 71, 78,

160 Bultmann, Rudolf, 159 Bunzel, John, 127 Burdick, John, 1, 25, 158, 162-3,

168, 174, 176 Burgess, Stanley, 37, 40 Burke, Edmund, 157-8

Cabral, Amilcar, 7 Cadorette, Curt, 5 Calvin, Jean, 27, 165, 175 Camara, Helder, 158, 161 Campos, Leonildo, 41, 53-5, 58,

60, 95, 163, 168 Canetti, Elias, 72 Cardijn, Joseph, 6 Cardoso, Fernando Henrique, 77 Casaldaliga, Pedro, 21, 162 Cavalcanti, Robinson, 78, 79, 172 Cesar, Waldo, 36, 39, 141-2, 163 Champion, Frangoise, 124, 130 Cleary, Edward L., 34, 53-4, 137,

139, 143, 163, 177 Chenu, Bruno, 1, 17, 17 Chomsky, Noam, 97, 98

194

Name Index 195

Cohn, Norman, 13, 159 Collet, Giancarlo, 158 Collor, Fernando, 137, 178 Comblin, Jose, 1, 3, 4, 10, 15, 17,

21, 22, 127, 159-62, 166 Congar, Yves, 5 Correa, Manuel L., 163, 167 Corten, Andre, 3, 7, 9, 23, 29, 34,

42, 44, 53, 54, 69, 72, 85, 88, 159, 161, 164

Courtine, Jean-Jacques, 89, 98 Cox, Harvey, 3, 14, 16, 17, 41,

141, 159-60, 162

Dambiorena, Prudencio, 126, 162, 164

Davis, Charles, xv, xix, 129 Dayton, Donald, 44, 129, 169 Dealy, Glen C , 9, 102, 103 Deret, Anne, 23 D'Escoto, Miguel, 161 Desroche, Henri, 130 Disselkamp, Annette, 131 Doimo, Ana Maria, 1, 70, 72, 76 Donzelot, Jacques, 119 Douglas, James D., 163 Droogers, Andre, xviii, 162 Droz, Jacques, xix, 161 Dubleumortier, Nathalie, 37, 90,

92, 172 Ducrot, Osvald, 74, 78 Dumont, Louis, 41, 120 Duquoc, Christian, 1, 15 Durkheim, Emile, 129, 130 Dussel, Enrique, 1, 6, 10, 16, 17,

161

Eagles, John, 12 Ehle, Paulo, 161 Eliade, Mircea, 37, 84, 90, 99,

110, 123, 163, 173 Ellacuria, Ignacio, 1, 6, 14, 15 Engels, Friedrich, 79, 105, 176 Erundina, Luiza, 69

Fanini, Nilson, 170, 178 Faye, Jean-Pierre, 3, 98, 102, 157,

159

Fernandes, Rubem Cesar, xvii, 25, 163, 168

Figueiredo, Joao, 170, 178 Fonseca, Alexandra Brasil, 47,

55, 60, 115, 170, 177 Fontanille, Jacques, 95 Foucault, Michel, 119, 179 Fourier, Charles, 158 Francescon, Luigi, 167 Franckl, Razelle, 93 Frank, Andre G., 10 Frei, Eduardo, 7 Freire, Paulo, 6,7, 159 Freston, Paul, 34, 45-7, 49, 52,

65, 77-8, 80-1, 109, 137-8, 163,168-72, 177-8

Fridman, Viviana, 23 Frigerio, Alejandro, 34 Froelhe, Bryan, 139 Frohock, Fred M., 114 Fujimori, Alberto, 133, 177, 178

Garrard-Burnett, Virginia, 139, 162, 174

Gauchet, Marcel, xv, 171 Geisel, Ernesto, 178 Germani, Gino, 10 Gibbins, Cecil, 114 Girardi, Giulio, 5 Godin, Andre, 43, 50, 53, 75, 167 Gomes, Wilson, 60, 113 Gondim, Ricardo, 50, 110, 111,

112, 172-4 Goodman, Felicitas, 37, 90, 173 Goulart, Joao, 7 Graham, Billy, 133 Gramsci, Antonio, 10 Greimas Algirdas, 94, 95, 172 Guevara, Ernesto, 10 Guizot, Frangois P., 109 Gutierrez, Benjamin F., 163 Gutierrez, Gustavo, 2, 4-5, 16,

17, 19, 160, 163 Gutwirth, Jacques, 60, 163,

170-1

Habermas, Jiirgen, 10 Hagin, Kenneth, 55, 110-11, 173

196 Name Index

Halevy, Elie, xviii, 31, 128, 144, 163-5

Haynal, Andre, 135-6 Hegel, Friedrich, 6 Hervieu-Leger, Daniele, 124, 130,

143, 157 Hewitt, Warren E., 70-1, 74, 76,

78, 158 Hinkelammert, Franz, 10 Hitler, Adolf, 98, 99 Hobbes, Thomas, 85, 115-16,

167, 174 Hobsbawm, Eric, 20 Hollenweger, Walter, xv, 29, 39,

41, 46, 162-4, 169 Holt, John, 179 Horkheimer, Max, 10 Houtart, Frangois, 4 Huss, John, 160

Iffly, Catherine, 56, 79, 96, 112, 118, 174

Illich, Ivan, 2 Ireland, Rowan, 163, 176 ISER, xiii, xvii, 53, 55, 64, 65, 77,

92, 117, 118, 159, 167, 169, 176

Jacobi, Pedro, 69 John XXII, 11 John Paul II, 8, 17, 22, 158, 160-1 Joel, 96, 100 Johnstone, Patrick, 164, 179 Jones, Charles E., 39 Jiinger, Ernst, 98

Keck, Margaret, 68, 70 Kelsey, Morton, 37, 89 Kevin, Christiano, 168 Kierkegaard, S0ren, 8 Kinso, Maria d'Alva, 69, 178 Kloppenburg, Boaventura, 161 Konrad, Georgy, 158 Krischke, Paulo, 73 Kiing, Hans, 8 Kyrtatas, Dimitris, 179

Labov, William, 114

Lalive d'Epinay, Christian, 25, 58, 64, 79, 80, 107, 108, 132, 133, 134, 135, 143, 162, 169

Landim, Leilah, 13, 25 Landauer, Gustav, 158 Landowski, Eric, 72, 87 Laplantine, Frangois, 110 Larrain, Manuel, 158 Lauret, Bernard, 1, 17 Lebret, Louis-Joseph, 10 Lefort, Claude, xv, xix Legendre, Pierre, 73, 161 Lehmann, David, 34, 163-4 Leonard, Emile, 107, 163 Lesbaupin, Ivo, 71 Levine Daniel H. 71 Libanio, Joao Batista, 1, 15, 19,

21 Livingstone, Elizabeth, 51, 163,

167-8 Lombard, 91 Lopes, Trujillo, 158 Lowy, Michael, 2, 5, 6, 157, 176 Lukacs, Georg, 157 Lula, 68, 77-8, 172, 176 Luneau, Rene, 159 Luther, Martin, 31, 47, 107, 164,

175 Luxemburg, Rosa, 157

Macchia, Frank D., 38, 100 Macedo, Edir, 35, 55, 59, 60, 115,

159, 166, 170-2 Machado, Maria das Dores

Campos, 163, 174 MacRobert, Iain, 29-31 Mafra, Clara, 55 Maingueneau Dominique, 174 Mainwaring, Scott, 73 Manin, Bernard, 178 Mann, Thomas, 18, 158, 162 Marcuse, Herbert, 10 Mariano, Ricardo, 34, 43, 55, 58,

101, 163, 178 Marin, Louis, 68, 87 Mariz, Cec'lia, 21, 34, 36, 53, 106,

118, 158, 163, 174 Martin, David A., 122

Name Index 197

Martin, David, 31-3, 38, 42, 44, 46, 101, 119, 126, 157, 162-4, 167-8, 172

Martins, Leoncio Rodrigues, 76 Marx, Karl, 5, 10, 20, 36, 149,

150, 176 Matthew, 96 McAlister, Robert, 170 McConnel, Dan, 109, 111, 112,

117, 173 McGee, Gary B., 37, 40, 162-3,

168 McPherson, Aimee S., 169, 173 Meneguello, Rachel, 68, 76 Mesters, Carlos, 12, 119 Metz, Jean-Baptiste, 8, 119 Milhones, Valnice, 169 Miller, Perry, 121, 122 Moltmann, Jiirgen, 5, 6, 8, 103,

119 Moses, 116 Mounier, Emmanuel, 10 Muelder, Walter, 142 Mullen, Peter, 122 Muiioz, Ronaldo, 19 Miinzer, Thomas, 79, 165, 175 Mussolini, Benito, 98 Musto, Ronald, 158

Niebuhr, Richard H., 25, 126, 131, 132, 140

Nietzsche, Friedrich, 8, 140 Novaes, Regina, 105, 163, 176 Novak, Michael, 119 Novalis, Friedrich, 157-8, 161 Nunez, Emilio, 133

Oro, Ari Pedro, 34, 36, 44, 53-4, 56, 58-62, 163, 170

Oliveira, Pedro Ribeiro de, 21, 166, 174

Ortega y Gasset, Jose, 83

Parham, Charles F., 30, 38 Paul, 27, 28, 89, 174 Peritore, Patrick N., 68, 69, 73 Pinochet, Augusto, 133 Pope, Liston, 141, 143

Pita, Marcello, 1 Pierucci, Flavio, 47, 138, 160, 163 Prado, Amalia Meza, 139 Prandi Reginaldo, 47, 92, 160,

163 Preiswerk, Matthias, 1

Quadros, Janio, 7 Quispel, Gilles, 110

Rahner, Karl, 5, 8, 159 Ratzinger, Joseph, 14, 17, 18, 159 Reagan, Ronald, 158 Reich, Steve, 92, 172 Reich, Wilhelm, 162 Rickey, Marilyn, 173 Ricoeur, Paul, 101 Rios Montt, Jose Efrain, 133, 177 Riviere, Gilles, 139 Roberts, Oral, 115, 170 Robertson, Pat, 96, 170 Rockefeller, Nelson A, 158 Rolim, Francisco C , 46-7, 63, 65,

80, 118, 133, 137, 139, 158, 163, 166, 169

Ronat, Mitsou, 98 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 85, 157 Roy, Jeremiah F., 114 Ruuth, Anders, 60

Saboia, Joao, 104 Samandu, Luis, 177 Sanchis, Pierre, 77, 80, 163, 166,

179 Santa Santa, Julio, 22 Schleiermacher, Friedrich, 19, 42,

157, 167 Scheren-Warren, Use, 76 Schmitt, Carl, xviii, 98, 175 Seguin, Eve, xi, 145 Segundo, Juan Luis, 6 Sepulveda, Juan, 177 Serrano, Elias, 140 Seymour, William J., 30, 164-5 Shaull, Richard, 39, 142, 158, 163 da Silva, Severino P., 113 da Silva, Benedita, 69, 139 Silva, Vera Telles, 73

198 Name Index

Slakta, Denis, 85, 86 Smith, Christian, 1, 3, 4, 11, 12,

14, 16, 158, 160 Smith, Joseph, 175 Smith, Trevor, 176 Soares, Luiz E., 35, 36 Soares, R.R., 55, 63, 95, 115, 118,

171 Sobrino, Jon, 1, 6, 14, 15, 16 Spinoza, Baruch, xvi, 5, 33, 114,

121, 174 Steil, Carlos Alberto, 34, 44 Stewart-Gambino, Hannah W.,

34, 53, 54, 137, 139, 163 Stoll, David, 12, 61, 93, 133, 139,

162, 163, 170, 174, 177, 179 Swaggart, Jimmy, 115, 170 Szeleny, Ivan, 158

Tahon, Marie-Blanche, 85, 88 Tamayo, Juan Jose, 6, 14, 15, 22,

160 Tawney, Richard H., 105 Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre, 159 Teixeira, Faustino L.C., 6, 7, 159 Tennekes, Hans, 177 Thomson, Alison, 127 Thompson, Edward P., 128, 129,

144 Tocqueville, Charles A., 74 Todorov, Tzvetan, 98 Torres, Camilo, 4, 10

Torres, Sergio, 12 Troeltsch, Ernst, 25, 130-1

Valle, Rogerio, 1 Vekemans, Roger, 17 Vernant, Jean-Pierre, 120 Veyne, Paul, xv, 41 Vidal, Daniel, 159 Vigil, Jose Maria, 22, 162 Villafane, Eldin, 168 Villaman, Marcos, 105

Wagner, Peter, 168 Walzer, Michael, 121 Weber, Max, xi, 25,32-3,103,107,

120,122-4,130,158,175-6 Weiss, Allen S., 89, 95, 98 Wesley, John, 31, 32, 38, 52, 138,

163-5 Whitefield, George, 163-4 Wilcox, Clyde, 93, 96 Willems, Emilio, 107, 108, 118,

133-5, 163 Williams, Cyril, 90, 91 Wilson, Everett, 34, 53, 54 Wojtyla, Karol, see John Paul II Wynarczyk, Hilario, 34, 53 Wycliffe, John, 159-60

Yinger, John M., 25, 80, 141, 143

Zinzendorf, Nicolas, 132

Subject Index

abortion, 79-81 acceptable, unacceptable, xvi,

xviii, 83-4, 97-100, 102, 116-17, 124-7, 136-8, 147, 153-5, 176

activist, 69-73, 76 addressee, 19, 23, 42, 45, 66-7,

86-7, 92-5, 148, 172 adoration, xi, 24; 86; see also

praise Adventists, Seventh-Day

Adventists, 170, 177 aesthetic, 92 African, 26-39, 54-5, 84, 90, 156,

164-6, 171; see also Afro-Brazilian

Albigenses, 160 alcohol, 59, 79, 118, 134 alienation, xviii, 13, 21 American, United States, 2, 5, 17,

29, 30, 34, 39, 47-9, 55, 60-3, 96, 109-17, 133, 138, 157, 162-79

Anabaptists, 14, 80, 122, 132, 175-7

Anglican, 163, 164 Antichrist, 160 anti-politics, 126-7, 132-4, 145,

154, 176 apartheid (social), 75 Argentine, 161 Arminianism, 27, 39, 80, 166-7 Asceticism, 101, 108 Assembly of God (Assembleia de

Deus), xi, 30, 34-55, 65-6, 69, 79, 106-9, 138-41, 159, 164, 169-71

austerity, 78-81, 118 authoritarianism, 3, 19, 32, 75,

135-6, 146-7, 153-4, 165 authoritarian personality, 133-6 Azusa Street, 30, 164, 169

bancada evangelista (evangelical parliamentary group), 80, 100, 137-9, 171, 177-9

Baptism, 31, 39, 46, 65, 96, 138, 159, 163-6, 170, 178

baptism, 25-7, 38-9, 46, 96-100, 119, 166-8

base, xvii, 1, 19, 68-75, 148 believers, followers, faithful,

crentes, xii, xvii, 25-6, 35-43, 49-65, 77, 81, 84, 90, 95-9, 101-9, 117, 127, 130-7, 148-52, 158, 166, 172

Bible, 8-15, 31-3, 41, 95-6, 107-9, 116, 152, 159, 164, 168-9, 173-5

black, 29-30, 35, 51, 65, 69, 159, 164, 168-9, 173-5

blessing, xiii, 39, 42, 49, 51 Bolivia, 133, 139 BPC (Brasil para Cristo - Brazil

for Christ), 49, 65, 137, 169 Brazil for Christ, see BPC Brazil, Brazilian, xi-xix, 2-11,

16-19, 26-40, 46-9, 61-70, 81, 90-4, 101-19, 133-7, 149-55, 160-74

Buddhism, 140

Calvinist, Presbyterian, 31-2, 65, 103-11, 163-8, 174-8

Camilismo, 4, 10 Camisards, 122, 175 Candomble, 35 Canudos, 153 Casa da Bengao, see ITEJ catholic, xvii, 1-24, 33-9, 61, 69,

80-1, 95, 102-3, 133, 147, 151-5, 161-3, 177

Catholic Action, 6-9 Catholic Charismatic Renewal,

see Charismatic Renewal

199

200 Subject Index

charism, charisma, 14-17, 22-3, 39, 70, 99, 122-3, 174

Charismatic Renewal, 12, 37, 50, 92, 130, 140, 160, 166

Chile, 133, 161, 169, 179 Christendom (New

Christendom), 6, 16 Christian base community, 2-4, 7,

11-12, 21-6, 70-8, 127, 148, 158-62

Christian Congregation, see Congregagagdo Cristd

Christianity, xv, xvi, 3, 6, 13, 26, 90, 96, 131-2, 140-3, 150-5, 173, 176, 179

Church, 11, passim, 121, 129-42, 160, 165

circulation (discursive), see discourse

class working class, popular strata,

popular sectors, 1, 5, 13, 40, 49, 63-6, 105, 158

popular circles, 1, 101, 114, 127, 148

middle classes, middle strata, 1, 2, 30, 54, 64-6, 71-2, 80-1, 92, 110-12, 124-7, 140-54, 158

salaried middle classes, 75-7 clergy, cleric, clerical, priest,

11-16,21-5,38,40,44,94-7, 100, 109, 127, 143-8, 160, 165-6, 175

clientelism, 135 cognitive, xv, 145, 148 common sense, 70-5, 81 community, 71-5, 108, 118,

126-7, 134-6, 141-4, 148, 172-4

communist, 2, 61, 68-9, 98, 133, 154, 170

compassion, xviii, 20-1, 45, 49-52, 67

conflict, 43, 63 Congregagdo Cristd (Christian

Congregation), 34, 46, 65, 167

conscientization, xix, 6, 7, 13, 57, 73-4, 148, 158

consolation, xi, xv, 45, 56-9, 67, 148-9

construction, xi, xvi, xvii, 36, 70-5, 145-8

contract, social contract, 84-5 conversion, 20-1, 33, 39, 54-8, 93,

103-7, 123, 134-6, 141-4, 172

cold, xii, 25, 130, 141 corpus, 37, 41, 152 monumental corpus, 42, 152 corruption, 11, 78, 86 Costa Rica, 164, 179 crentes, see believers cult, xii, xvii, 23-30, 35, 40-3,

51-61, 75, 84, 92, 96, 99, 127-30, 141-6, 151, 166, 178

death, xv, 4, 15, 19, 110-12, 162, 174

demand, 1, 37, 67-9, 76, 84-8, 106, 124, 160

democracy, xii, xv-xix, 10, 66-9, 75, 119, 136, 144, 147, 152-6, 166, 176-8

demons, 35-6, 51, 62, 67, 90, 93, 110-11, 151

denominations, xii, 37, 65, 99, 100, 106, 131-2, 145, 155, 165, 169

dependency, 4, 8, 9, 102, 167 Deus eAmor, see IPDA Devil, 51, 61-3, 77 direct action, 1, 73 discourse, xi, xvi, 16, 25, 58, 61,

66, 69-81, 87-9, 93, 101, 109, 114, 121-3, 146-52, 177

discourse analysis, xi, xiii prophetic discourse, theologi­

cal discourse, xi, xvi, 4, 6, 14,20,101,109,114, 121-3, 146-52

discursive, xviii, 2, 73-5, 81, 92-5, 145

discursive circulation, 28, 73, 84, 98, 108, 149-52, 161

Subject Index 201

divorce, 78-81 doctrine/doctrinal, 14, 15, 18,

23-7, 33-9, 53-5, 97, 100, 105, 163, 175

dogma, 8, 16, 130, 161 doing, being able-to-do, having-

to-do, 85-9, 97 Dominican Republic, 164 dress code, 79, 134

ecstasy, 33, 52, 129-30 ecumenism, 5, 53, 77-8, 136-7,

169 education (basic education), 7,

13, 65, 73-6, 143, 151-2, 158, 179

effervescence, xi, xviii, 1, 129, 149-50

elections, 10, 68-70, 75-8, 81, 109, 137-40, 155, 171-2, 178-9

elite, 1, 2,13,17-21, 128,140,161 El Salvador, 139, 164, 179 emblematic, 10, 18, 73 embourgeoisement, 29, 119, 142-3 emotion, xi-xix, 9, 21-6, 32-6,

42-5, 49-62, 66-7, 84, 88, 92-9, 111-12, 119, 124-9, 142-7, 150, 154, 157, 162, 167

empty space, xv, xix Enlightenment, 3, 9, 15, 18 enthusiasm, xi, 26, 31, 38, 53,

70-1, 121-3 ethical, ethico-political, 1, 19,

76-82, 101, 109, 128-34, 165 European, 7, 9, 18, 128, 160, 168 evangelical, xii, 25, 64-5, 77-8,

128, 133, 139-40, 168-9, 175-7

evangelism, 28, 152 evangelist, 28 evil spirits, see demons Exodus, see also Bible, xvii, 15, 20 exorcism, xvi, 36, 45-56, 94, 168,

171 exteriorized, xvi, xix, 31, 63, 119,

146

exus, see demons, 35

family, 61, 102, 111,118-19, 134-9, 175

fanaticism, xii, 83, 102, 135-6 favelas (shanty towns), 49, 69 fear, 12, 18, 63, 149, 153, 174 fisiologismo (unbridled oppor­

tunism), 133, 155 Four-Square Gospel Church, see

IEQ friar, 12, 17 fundamentalism, 14, 38 fusional (orgiastic), xviii, 45, 58,

67, 124, 126, 149

gift, 22, 27-8, 37, 51, 86, 92-5, 100, 117, 121, 166-8, 175

glossolalia (speaking in tongues), xiii, xvi, xviii, 1, 23-30, 35-47, 52, 54, 62, 75, 83-100, 148, 150, 173, 177

Gnosticism, 108-17, 173, 177 God is Love, see IPDA Gospel, 108-13, 141, 144, 149,

165, 168-71 gospel music, 55 grammar, 98 Guatemala, 133, 139-40, 177, 179

Haiti, 179 healing (divine healing), xvi, xviii,

28, 34, 43, 45, 49-52, 56, 63, 67, 97, 102, 114-18, 125, 168-9

health, 101, 111, 117 heresy, heretical, 3, 31, 127, 130,

143, 147, 153-4, 160-1, 165 popular heresy, 3, 11-13, 127,

143, 147, 162 scholarly heresy, 3, 14-16, 143,

147 hierarchy, 10-14, 18, 23, 28, 160,

165 historical, 20, 45, 53, 58, 62, 67,

128, 149 holiness (sanctification), 28-33,

39, 55, 110, 168, 175

202 Subject Index

Holy Spirit (Holy Ghost), xii, xiii, xviii, 13, 21-5, 32, 37-9, 43-6, 59, 89, 90, 95-100, 117-23, 156, 168

Honduras, 179 humble, 12, 96, 148-9

identity, 1, 13, 107, 112, 131, 142 IEQ (Igreja do Evangelho

Quadrangular - Four-Square Gospel Church), 49, 54, 65, 138, 141, 168-9,173

IIGD (Igreja Internacional da Graga de Deus -International Church of the Grace of God), 55, 83; see also R.R. Soares

illiteracy, illerate, 41, 45, 76, 92, 148

illocutionary, 43, 74, 81, 86, 94, 149, 154; see also perlocu­tionary, locutionary

illness, ill, disease, xviii, 50-1, 62, 67, 74, 102, 111-12, 117-18

imagination, 23, 33, 42, 121, 151-4, 164

immediate, 39, 42, 46, 57, 72, 75, 98, 100, 104, 154, 167

individualism, xv, 23, 79, 105, 108, 119-23, 135

insurrection, xvi-xviii, 127 International Church of the

Grace of God, see IIGD IPDA (Igreja Pentecostal Deus e

Amor - God is Love), xi, 49, 65

ISAL (Iglesia y Sociedad en America Latina), 2

ISER (Instituto de Estudos da Religuo), see ISER Index name

Islam, xv, 84, 140 ITEJ (Igreja Taberndculo

Evangelico de lesus), see Casa da Bengdo (House of Blessing), 49

IURD (Igreja Universal do Reino de Deus, Universal Church

of the Kingdom of God), xi, 55-66, 77, 93-5, 113, 138-9, 142, 150, 159, 168-72, 176-78

Jamaica, 164 Jesus is the solution, Jesus saves,

and so on, 25, 96, 148, 168, 173

joy (jubilation), 32, 33, 45, 58, 66, 75, 84, 124, 168, 173

justice, 8, 19, 32, 78-80, 99,141 justification, 32, 33, 39, 80, 111

Kardecism, 110, 113, 118 Kingdom of God, 8, 15, 16, 20,

26, 122, 159

lay, 2, 12, 32, 109, 122, 127-9, 144, 162, 165

lamentation, xviii, 19, 52-8, 66, 92 language, xi, xvi, 23, 37, 58, 83-5,

91, 97-9, 124, 151 political language, xvi, xviii, 70,

74, 84, 88, 97-100, 126, 136, 145, 155, 157, 176

Latin America, xi-xv, 1, 2, 5, 8-29, 55, 61, 78, 84, 103, 109, 132-9, 146-55, 161-4, 170, 177-9

laying on of hands, xviiii, 49,50-52, 67,100; see also blessing

Left, 68-82, 136-7, 145-7, 151, 159, 168,171, 178

literacy, 6, 7 locutionary, 75, 86 love, 19, 32, 59, 109,113,175 Lutheran, 31, 32, 103, 141, 165,

168, 172, 178

Macedo, Edir, 35, 55, 59, 60, 77, 115,159, 166, 170-2; see also IURD

Manicheism, 14, 160 marketing of faith, 45, 60, 83, 95 Marxist, 6, 9, 10, 20, 68, 95, 158 MDB (Movimento da Democracia

Brasileira), see PMDB

Subject Index 203

Medellin Conference (1968), 2, 4, 16

medicine, 117, 118 meeting, 2, 26, 39, 73-5, 133, 158,

165, 175 Mennonites, 80, 175 MEP (Movimento Evangelico

Progressista), 18 Messianism, 130, 147, 155-6 Methodism, xvi, 26-33, 38, 43, 52,

65, 111, 128-32, 138, 144-5, 156-7, 165-8, 175-8

methodology, see discourse analy­sis

Mexico, 164, 170 middle classes, see class military, 11, 17, 79, 133-44,

153-4, 162, 177 millennium, millenarianism, xviii,

124, 130, 143-9, 155-6, 169, 175

miracle, 28, 63, 91, 97-9, 103-4, 111-19, 174

miserable (extreme poverty), xviii, 58, 62, 63, 112

modern, 8-10,33,75,84,93-6, 102,113,120,128,135,149, 173

monastic, xv, 3, 13, 31, 32, 39, 108, 140

money, 58-60, 101, 171 Montanism, 122, 172, 175 morality, 9, 21, 77-82, 102-3,

131-4, 141, 161, 165-8, 173-7

morality of faith, 2 morality of salvation, xix, 19,

21,25 Moravian brothers, 165 Mormons, 122, 175 movement, 1-3, 30-3, 77, 135

popular movement, 40, 72-6 religious movement, xvi, 11, 18,

19, 25, 126, 140, 144, 160, 175

social movement, 1, 3, 68, 76-7, 157

music, 41, 42, 55, 92, 141

mysticism, xviii-xix, 12, 19, 22, 23, 27,50,52,57,82-4,100,113, 131

narrative, 2, 3, 42, 54-5, 62-3, 67, 87, 98-103, 114-17, 129, 136, 152-5, 162, 172

narrative syntax, 87-9, 136 neo-liberal (theology), 5, 8, 159 neopentecostalism, see

Pentecostalism (third wave) Nicaragua, 139, 161, 179 normative, normativity, xv, 121,

145, 154, 161

obedience, 5, 16, 122-4, 137, 151, 153

offering, 59 opium of the people, xii, xviii, 5,

176 oppression, 6, 7, 15, 20, 25, 61,

63, 135, 158 orality, 41, 54, 122 orgiastic/orgy, see fusional

Parliament, 98, 100, 138, 171, 177-9

evangelical parliamentary group, see bancada evangelica

party, 63, 68-70, 75-7, 80-1, 139, 152

party of the base, 69-75 participation, 1, 14, 21-7, 32-5,

43, 57, 61, 69-71, 129, 137, 142, 153, 158

passion, xvi, xvii, 67-82, 129, 171 pastor, 28, 29, 51-9, 92, 95,

106-16, 133-9, 143, 169-72 pedagogy, 4-7, 36 Pentecostalism, 25-67, passim

waves, 26,34,43-56,66,168-70 autonomous Pentecostalism

(third wave), 34, 45-67, 169-70

neopentecostalism, 53-6 classic Pentecostalism, 26-44,

46, 53, 163

204 Subject Index

people simple people, xvii, 33, 40-5,

50, 70, 80-1, 121, 132, 135, 140-54

people of God, 2, 19, 58, 132, 147, 152

People's Church, Church of the Poor, 13, 160

perfection, 131, 136, 160 performative, 85, 86 Peru, 133, 139, 164, 177 piety, xii-iii, xix, 14-16, 26, 33, 42,

102, 114, 118-26, 144-55, 157, 164, 173-4

Pietism, xvi, 32, 33, 165, 175 plausible, 113-17, 125 PMDB (Partido do Movimento da

Democracia Brasileira -Brazilian Democratic Party), 68

politics (political categories), xii, xvi, xviii, 1, 68-71, 78, 84-8, 97-100, 109-17, 125-55, 170

poor, xv-xvii, 2, 10-15, 18-22, 26, 32, 40, 49-50, 57, 63, 66, 68-70, 76, 81, 93, 100, 105, 109, 124-6, 158, 173-6

poverty, xviii, 8, 11-20, 45, 59, 62-3, 92-4, 111-12, 138, 145, 160, 179

category of poor, xi-vi, 10-11, 26, 56, 146-50, 161

impoverishment, 13, 53, 66, 67, 101-7, 114, 119, 129-34, 141

popular, 117, 135 popular culture, 21, 32, 36, 40,

46, 93, 127 popular religiosity, see also reli­

giosity, 34-6, 66, 67, 146, 166

popular tradition, 166, 172 see also class

populism, 7, 85-6 praise, ix, 22-6, 67, 83-4, 97, 151,

172-3 preacher, 31, 46, 57, 59, 112, 117,

122, 129, 142-4, 165, 169-70

preaching, 32, 41, 92, 160, 165, 171

predestination, 27, 32, 39, 105, 108, 122, 163

preferential option for the poor, xi, 2, 3, 13, 15, 93, 148, 150, 160

pre-Marxist, xii, 20 procedural mechanisms of

democracy, xvi, 147, 152 progress, 20, 108 proletarian, see also class, 141,

149-50 prophet, prophecy, 13, 18, 20, 28,

33, 96, 100,116,143-7, 151-2, 160, 169

proselytism, 13, 32, 33, 56, 60, 144, 149

prosperity, 100-1, 109-12, 173; see also theology of prosper­ity

Protestant theologian, 2, 5, 9, 22 Protestant Reformation, 5, 11,

26,31,39,103, 107,111,121, 144, 152, 159-69, 173-9

historical Protestantism, 27, 31, 32, 39, 41-4, 60-5, 78, 79, 95, 103, 108, 137, 141, 157, 178

protest, 13, 79, 124, 130-1, 131, 144, 160, 169

proto-politics, 117, 125 psalm, xviii, 37, 42, 52, 58, 67,

92-3,173 PT (Workers' Party), xvii, 68-70,

75-82, 171-2 Puebla Conference (1979), 13,

160 Puerto Rico, 170, 179 Puritanism, 121-4, 129, 140, 157,

165, 174

Quakers, 132, 175-6

radio, 7, 93, 115, 170 rebellion, 18, 79, 143-4 RCC (Renovacion Charismdtica

Catolica, Catholic

Subject Index 205

Charismatic Renewal), see Charismatic Renewal

religion, passim popular religion, religiosity, 34,

36, 166 Afro-Brazilian religion, 34-6,

54, 62, 67, 90, 151, 166, 171

resting in the Spirit, 50 respectability, xvii, 60, 109, 132,

137, 140-3 revival, xv, xviii, 28-31, 100, 122,

128-30, 164, 173-5 revolt, 16, 83, 92 revolution, xvi-xviii, 20, 67,

126-32, 162, 174-6 rich, wealthy, 49, 63, 109, 131,

171-2 rite, ritual, 36, 41, 51, 56-7, 90,

96-7, 130, 142 Roman, Rome, 3, 6, 16, 17, 179 Romanization, 3, 14 Romanticism, 16-21, 41, 46, 70,

98, 111, 150, 157, 162, 174-6 German Romanticism, xvi, xix,

2, 18-19, 46, 70, 86, 111, 150

theological Romanticism, xii, xvi, 2, 18-22, 25, 127, 146-9, 155-6

Utopian Romanticism, xvii, 10, 158

rural, 64, 70, 105, 140, 149, 160

salvation, xix, 8, 19-27, 32, 63, 112, 114, 119-21, 129-31, 163, 168-70

Salvation Army, 132 sanctification, see holiness Satan, 51, 59, 62, 110, 133, 136,

151 schism, 3, 14, 25, 31, 142-9, 165 Second Coming of Christ, 79, 99,

169 secularization, xv-xviii, 9, 81, 124,

157 sect, xvii, 13, 25-31, 78-83, 103-9,

125-47, 154-5, 165, 169, 176

sex taboos, 61, 79-80, 118, 129 Shakers, 122, 175 sign, 27, 32, 39, 40, 52, 62, 71,

97-9, 113-17, 152 silence, xi, 7, 22-4, 74 sin, 39, 53, 93, 105-18, 164 slain in the Spirit, 50, 164 slavery, 29, 35, 140, 150, 175 smoking, 59, 79, 118, 134 solution, 62, 103, 106, 114 song, xviii, 23, 26, 30-1, 41-5, 54,

57, 84, 92, 142, 167, 171 specialized body, 97, 127, 130,

143-4 speech, 35, 42-4, 66, 73-5, 84, 90,

95-8, 148, 152 spirit of capitalism, 101, 123, 130 spirit, 113, 165, 168; see also Holy

Spirit; evil spirit, spirituality, 21, 50, 99, 110-13,

173 statistical, statistics, 47-8,70,

104-5,118,139,150,164,179 success, 12, 32, 97, 102, 105,

108-12, 141 suffering, xi, 8, 26, 57, 58, 63, 148,

173 syntax, 145, 151, 154 Sweden, 46, 47, 168

tobacco, see smoking Taborites, 160 televangelism, 34, 53, 60-3, 84,

94-6, 110-17, 169-71, 178 television, 54-61, 93-6, 139,

169-70, 178 temple, xii, xvii, 49,55,61,64,150 testimony, 40, 56, 63, 91, 95, 97,

114-15 theologians, xii, xvii-xix, 1-24,

114-19, 127, 150-3, 158-60 theological, xi, xii, xvii, xviii, 95,

121, 147 theology, xi, 22, 96, 100, 113

liberation theology, xi, xii, xvii, xviii, 1-24, 25-8, 42, 62, 69-70, 127, 137, 145-50, 158-62

206 Subject Index

theology - continued theology of prosperity, 55, 58,

101-2, 109-13, 155, 171-4 theology of revolution, 2 political theology, xviii, 8, 103,

119, 157, 175 tithe, 112 Thomas Aquinas, xi tolerance, xii, 81, 135, 149 topography, 6-10, 23-8, 34-6, 62,

67-8, 150-6, 159 topology, xix, 23, 70 totalitarian, xii, xvi, xix, 80-98,

134, 147, 172 transnationalization, 18, 26, 33,

44, 156 truth, 73, 94-6, 102, 115-16,

121-2, 131, 136, 146, 152-5, 174

Umbanda, 35, 90 unity (substantial unity), 146-7,

152-5 Universal Church of the

Kingdom of God, see IURD urban, 11, 76, 105-6, 119, 140-2,

179 Uruguay, 161 Utopia, xviii, 15, 126, 146, 154-6

utterances, xvii, xviii, 23, 42-5, 67, 74, 91, 94, 97-8, 113-16, 126, 151, 174

primary (original) utterances, 24, 83-100, 151,172

Vatican II, 5, 9, 12, 16,158-9 Venezuela, 139 verses (biblical verses), 38, 41, 89,

96, 97, 152 violence, 31, 73, 96, 117-18, 128,

149

Waldensians, 11 withdrawal from society, xv, 39,

80, 120, 132-7, 145 witnesses, xii, 26, 38, 54, 95 women, xv, 11, 22, 28, 40, 44, 51,

54,71,106,119,152,169,174 word, see speech Worker's Party, see PT World Council of Churches, 169 working class, see class worldliness, 105, 120, 127, 130,

134, 172 worship service, see cult

xenoglossia, 99