Notes

1 Introduction

1 . Comisió n de la Verdad y la Reconciliaci ó n (2003).2 . In this essay published posthumously, Degregori reflects on his

thoughts and conclusions when serving as a member of Peru’s Truthand Reconciliation Commission.

3 . As Rasnake ( 1988: 201) notes in relation to Bolivia, the central square of Andean towns presented in miniature a kind of conceptual map of the organization of the central district.

4 . Raimondi (1895) provides an estimate of the barrio population of thetime. Some 12,000 people lived in the Tarma barrios: Collana wasthe largest with 2,400 people, followed by Urahuchoc with 2,200;Chancha with nearly 2,000; Huancoy with 1,500; Andamarca with1,300; Cayao with 1,700; and Congas with 1,000.

5 . Per ú, Direcció n de Estad í stica (1878). This census under-reported the Andean population.

6 . Until 1908, the office of the prefect was to be found in Tarma and not in the departmental capital of Cerro de Pasco.

7 . Tarma Municipal Archive: Letters (TMA:L), Pedro Cá rdenas to Deputy of Tarma province, Lima, October 13, 1868. Pongo was the name given oto indentured servants at the beck and call of the authorities. Unless otherwise stated, translations from the Spanish are my own.

8 . The Sociedad Amiga was set up by Juan Bustamante, a writer and poli-tician from Puno, who became the spokesman of the indigenous peas-antry. In Huancané, Bustamante was killed after being captured by the military (Jacobsen 1997 ; Jacobsen and Domí nguez 2011 ). In a mani-festo written in 1867, Bustamante (1981 : 22) wrote of how “the indios of Peru have not been and are still not free men or citizens of theirpueblos”; they remained “los parias del Per ú” (the pariahs of Peru).

9 . An important exception is Chiaramonti ( 2007) who analyses elections in Peru in the mid-nineteenth century, prior to the period covered in this book.

10. See also Larson (2005a) and Larson (2005b) on Bolivia.11. Quotations come from a local study of Vienrich’s contribution to

education by Ferrer Broncano (1959).

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12. La Integridad, Lima, A ñAA o 14, January 10, 1903.13. TMA: L, Aurelio Leó n to Direcció n de Primera Ense ñ anza, Lima, July

22, 1904.14. Interview, Tarma, September, 1973. 15. See Petras and Zeitlin (1968).16. Comisió n de la Verdad y la Reconciliación. 2003, Segunda parte: Los

factores que hicieron posible la violencia, Capí tulo 1, Explicando elconflicto armado interno, 1.4 Los Factores Institucionales, p. 25.

2 The Provincial Council in Action: 1870–1914

1 . The terms indio and o indígenaíí are sometimes used interchangeably ain the correspondence. More often they are given different shades of meaning, with indí gena suggesting greater respect and indio greater disdain. I have given the term used by the author.

2 . TMA:L, Federico V á VV ldez Figueroa to Subprefect, Tarma, May 1, 1885. 3 . TMA:L, Florent í n Bera ú n to Inspector of Hygiene, Tarma, March

17, 1877. With respect to Bolivia, Zulawaski ( 2000: 108) shows how public health became a central element in the debate about the roles Indians should play in the new society, reflecting both the elite’s fear of contagion and recognition that an economically productive work-force needed minimal levels of physical well-being.

4 . A more detailed account can be found in Wilson (2003).5 . Nugent ( 1997: 165–8) writing on Chachapoyas points to the ruling

elite’s construction of a mythical, egalitarian order and appeal to patri-otism to legitimate continued demands for labor service.

6 . Also known as ponguaje; I follow the spelling used in Tarma. 7 . Report by the Prefect of Juní n, El Peruano, October 23, 1874.8 . TMA:M (Tarma Municipal Archive: Minutes), September 28, 1868. 9 . TMA:L, Manuel Exhelme to Prefect, Tarma, November 7, 1878.

10 . TMA:L, Jos é Manuel Alvari ñ o to Subprefect, Tarma, March 16, 1881. 11. TMA:L, Albino Carranza to Director General de Gobierno, Lima,

September 5, 1889.12. TMA:L, Albino Carranza to district mayors, August 20, 1889.13. TMA:L, Albino Carranza to Prefect, Tarma, August 20, 1889.14. TMA:L, Albino Carranza to Director General de Gobierno, Lima,

September 5, 1889.15. Caravallo (1889); see also Mallon (1995: 216–217).16. TMA:M, Memorial del Alcalde Adolfo Vienrich, March 31, 1897.17. TMA:L, José Mar í a Beraú n to Subprefect, Tarma, October 16, 1880.18. TMA:L, José Marí a Beraú n to Subprefect, Tarma, August 14, 1880.19. TMA:L, Arturo Cantella to Director General de Gobierno, Lima,

August 11, 1896.20 . Enganche was a term to which different meanings were given. Vienrich

used it here in the pejorative sense, as the equivalent of debt peonage. But when used by official bodies, it simply meant recruitment.

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21. TMA:L, Adolfo Vienrich to Prefect, Tarma, February 24, 1897; hisletter was also published in La Integridad, Lima, March 27, 1897.

22. TMA:L, Lizandro de la Puente to Subprefect, Tarma, January 17;February 12; September 18, 1901.

23. El Imparcial, Tarma, January 16, 1910. ll24. TMA:L, José M. y Muñ oz to Director de Gobierno, Lima, December

27, 1874.25. TMA:L, José M. y Muñ oz to Deputy for Tarma province, Lima, April

23, 1875.26. TMA:M, Memorial del Alcalde Santiago Zapatero, Tarma, August 12,

1876.27. TMA:M, March 1, 1879.28. TMA:M, December 14, 1877. This reflects how schools were consid-

ered an extension of ayllu organization, as described by Salomon andNiñ o-Murcia (2011: 128).

29. TMA:M, Memorial del Alcalde Francisco Flores Chinarro, Tarma, January 23, 1879.

30. TMA:L, José M. y Mu ñ oz to mayors of the districts, January 23, 1876.

31. TMA:L, Baldomero Lurquí n to Prefect, Tarma, October 31, 1884.32. TMA:L, Eduardo Santa Marí a to municipal teachers, September 12,

1885.33. TMA:M, October 29, 1886.34. TMA:L, Albino Carranza to Director General de Educación, Lima,

April 13, 1892. The name of the body in charge of education changedfrequently, as did the ministry under which education was placed.

35. TMA:M, December 21, 1891.36. TMA:L, Juan Demarini to President of the Concejo Escolar, Tarma,

July 9, 1902.37. La Educación Nacional, journal published by the Direcci ll ón de la

Enseñ anza Primaria, Lima, No. 17, September, 1902.38. Concejos escolares were established in March 1901 and comprised

the mayor, sindico de rentas, priest, and two citizens.ss39. El Tarmeño, April 28, 1902.40. El Imparcial, Tarma, July 14, 1912. ll41. La Voz de Tarma, July 28, 1937.42. Rodr í guez y Ramí rez (1888).43. La Aurora de Tarma, November 10, 1907.44 . TMA:L, Albino Carranza to municipal teachers, Tarma, April 1, 1891. 45. TMA:M, August 11, 1906.46. TMA:A, Memorial del Alcalde Martítt n Otíí ero, 1893. tt47. TMA:M, Memorial del Alcalde Albino Carranza, December 23, 1892.48. In 1885, for example, urban primary school teachers were earning 20

soles per month while teachers in the barrios earned 10 soles; in 1892,a small salary rise was granted to teachers in Tarma town, but not tothe barrio teachers (TMA:M, December 31, 1892).

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49. La Integridad, Lima, No. 204, June 17, 1893.50. Adolfo Vienrich, 1903, Memorial sobre la provincia de Tarma, La

Educación Nacional, Lima, vol. 3, no. 29/30, pp. 449–461.ll51. La Aurora de Tarma, September 18, 1903.52. TMA:M, Planilla de sueldos, March, 1914.ss53. TMA:L, Albino Carranza to Director General de Instrucció n, Lima,

April 13, 1892.54. TMA:L, Adolfo Vienrich to Prefect, Tarma, July 21, 1903.55 . TMA:L Adolfo Vienrich to Prefect, Tarma, May 25, 1903. 56 . TMA:L, Aurelio Leó n to district mayors, April 30, 1904.57. TMA:L, Aurelio Leó n to Dirección de Enseñ anza Primaria, Lima,

June 22, 1904.58. TMA:L, Aurelio Leó n to Prefect, Tarma, July 9, 1906. 59. TMA:L, Segundo Briceñ o to district mayors, July 9, 1906.

3 Local Democracy and the Radical Challenge: 1870–1914

1. I draw on the insightful analysis of the 1860 Congressional debate in Chiaramonti (2007).

2 . According to Contreras ( 2004: 283), state revenues originating in thesale of guano had accounted for between 60 percent and 80 percent of total fiscal revenues going to the state Treasury in the 1860s. Otherforms of taxation had diminished greatly in importance or fallen into abeyance.

3 . In the first period, six members belonging to the Santa Mar í a family held office, and in the second period, there were seven. To a lesserextent, the Mendizabal, Aza, and Cárdenas families ensured represen-tation through the presence of family members.

4 . TMA:L, Baldomero Lurqu ín to Prefect, Tarma, December 9, 1896;Germán Velez to Director de Gobierno, Lima, January 22, 1897.

5 . The registers of the 1920s were compiled during Legu í a’s Oncenio inpreparation for elections to the Regional Congress.

6 . TMA:M, February 1, 1893.7 . Some 20 years later, according to the Electoral Register of 1920, the

occupational breakdown was the following: agriculture (30 percent),artisan trades (23 percent), trade (16 percent), professions (13 per-cent), and employees (11 percent).

8 . TMA:L, Santiago Zapatero to Provincial Council members, Tarma,August 12, 1876.

9 . TMA:L, Santiago Zapatero to Subprefect, Tarma, February 20,1874.

10. TMA:L, Santiago Zapatero to Provincial Council members, Tarma,August 12, 1876. For many years, Tarma was represented by a miner, Antenor Rizo Patr ó n, resident in Cerro.

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11 . TMA:L, Santiago Zapatero to Direcció n de Gobierno. Lima, December 27, 1874.

12. TMA:L, Baldomero Lurqu í n to President of Departmental Council, Cerro de Pasco, October 23, 1875.

13 . TMA:L, Baldomero Lurqu í n to Prefect, Tarma, November 24, 1877. 14. This version of events was recorded later by Cá rdenas (1941).15. La Integridad, Lima, No. 3, August 10, 1889.16. La Integridad, Lima, No. 150, May 14, 1892.17. La Integridad, Lima, No. 130, January 16, 1892.18. Pedro A. C árdenas was the son of Pedro Cárdenas who had led the

civilistas before the war.19. TMA:L, Manuel Santa Marí a to Ministro de Estado en el Despacho

de Gobierno, Policí a y Obras Publicas, Lima, May 11, 1893.20. La Integridad, Lima, No. 229, December 9, 1893.21. La Integridad, Lima, No. 150, May 14, 1892.22. The clauses of the 1892 law of municipalities were repeatedly explained

by Tarma’s mayors to the districts: as in TMA:L, Segundo Brice ñ o to district mayors, October 6, 1906.

23. District voters were registered in five separate books according to their occupation: property owners, professionals, agriculturalists and workers, traders, and artisans. These groups then nominated a candi-date to sit on the Provincial Council.

24. Germ ín, 1899.25. Adolfo Vienrich, 1903, La palabra de un buen Alcalde, La Integridad,

No. 703, January 10. In local accounts of Vienrich’s inaugural speech,the passage on “casta” is omitted.

26. The term obras can mean both deeds and public works; over time it swould tend to take the latter meaning.

27. La Aurora de Tarma, November 8, 1903.28. This version of events was reported by La Aurora de Tarma, January

24, 1904.29. TMA:L, Adolfo Vienrich to Aurelio León, Tarma, October 7, 1903. 30. TMA:L, Aurelio Le ó n to Adolfo Vienrich, Tarma, October 8, 1903. 31. La Aurora de Tarma, November 8, 1903.32. La Aurora de Tarma, January 24, 1904.33. La Aurora de Tarma, December 3, 1904.34. TMA:L, Aurelio Leó n to Prefect, Tarma, December 1, 1904.35. TMA:L, Aurelio Leó n to Prefect, Tarma, December 26, 1904.36. TMA:L, Manuel Reyes Santa Marí a to Mayor of Chanchamayo, La

Merced, December 26, 1906.37 . TMA:L, José Mar í a Alvari ñ o to Subprefect, Tarma, January 2, 1907.38. Rumbos, Tarma, March 23, 1946. 39. Oficialista was a term used polemically to describe those in favor of

state expansion at the expense of provincial autonomy.40. TMA:L, Adolfo Vienrich to Prefect, Tarma, May 25, 1903.

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4 Adolfo Vienrich, Tarma’s Radical Intellectual: 1867–1908

1 . See essays on “The intellectuals” and “On education” in Gramsci(1973).

2 . In piecing together Vienrich’s biography, I draw on the following local sources: Corona FúFF nebre (1908); Puccinelli (1945); Guijada Jara e(1950); Ferrer Broncano ( 1959); Puccinelli (1961); and Diaz Ortiz (1999).

3 . This was published in La Gaceta Cientítt ficaíí , Lima, A ñAA o IV, No. 9,June 30, 1888, p. 235.

4 . La Integridad, Lima, No. 95, May 16, 1891; see also Kristal ( 1987 ).5. La Integridad, Lima, No. 146, May 7, 1892. Sub-offices of the Radical

Party were reported to be in formation in Chancay, Parinacochas,Tacna, Moquegua, Paruro, Cusco, Cajatambo, Aymaraes, Andahuaylas,Castrovirreyna, Az á ngaro, Contumaza, La Convenció n, Jauja, Lampa, Paita, Puno, Supe, and Sartimbamba.

6. La Integridad, Lima, No. 98, June 6, 1891.7. See Drinot (2011).8. La Aurora de Tarma, July 28, 1905.9 . As L ópez (2008) notes, at that time workers’ organizations were aban-

doning their mutualist agenda and taking a more combatative position. 10. La Aurora de Tarma, February 29, 1904.11. La Aurora de Tarma, December 23, 1905; April 8, 1907.12. La Aurora de Tarma, January 6, 1906; March 12, 1906.13. La Aurora de Tarma, June 21, 1904.14. Minutes of the Centro de Artesanos Confederados de Tarma, May

15, 1904; June 21, 1904; July 25, 1904, Archive of the Centro de Artesanos, Tarma

15. La Aurora de Tarma, December 30, 1905.16. La Aurora de Tarma, June 10, 1905.17. La Aurora de Tarma, November 8, 1903.18. Aurora – Pacha-Huarai , January 1, 1904.19. La Voz de Tarma, Tarma, July 28, 1928 20. Nelson Manrique (1988: 44–45) reports that in the 1880s when

guilds in Huancayo applied for a license to perform el baile de los capitanes (the dance of the captains) according to custom, thesProvincial Council turned down the application with the remark that such rites were “retrograde and ridiculous.”

21. La Aurora de Tarma, May 6, 1905.22. Ibid.23. La Aurora de Tarma, May 1, 1906.24. La Aurora de Tarma, May 7, 1906.25. El Imparcial, December 26, 1909.ll26. This section builds on Ferrer Broncano (1959).27. Adolfo Vienrich, 1903, La palabra de un buen Alcalde, La Integridad,

Lima, No 703, January 10.

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28. Quoted in Corona FúFF nebre (1908).e29. Adolfo Vienrich, 1903, Memorial sobre la provincia de Tarma, La

Educación Nacional, Lima, vol 3, no. 29/30, pp. 449–461.30. Carranza ( 1887).31. La Crónica Medica, Lima, A ñ AA o IX, No. 102, 1892.32. La Integridad, Lima, August 10, 1889.33. Las Parias, Lima, No. 19, November, 1905.ss34. La Aurora de Tarma, February 22, 1904.35. TMA:L, Baldomero Lurqu ín to Subprefect, Tarma, December 22,

1884.36. The history of the cemetery during the colonial period is recounted

by Arellano (1984).37. Set up in 1846, the Beneficencia Pública inherited responsibilities

from the Church for charitable works in the town. 38. The story is told in a booklet published in 1946 in Tarma on the

occasion of the institution’s centenary: El Centenario de la Sociedad de Beneficencia PúPP blica de Tarma, 1846–1946, private collection.

39. Carranza (1887).40. TMA:L, Tom ás Mendizabal Pareja to Direcció n de Gobierno, Lima,

January 30, 1887; Tom ás Mendizabal Pareja to Junta de Sanidad, Tarma, February 18, 1887.

41. TMA:L, Fortunato Bermudez to Junta de Sanidad, Tarma, March 23, 1887.

42. El Tarmeño, July 14, 1897.43. La Aurora de Tarma, September 18, 1907.44. TMA:L, Juan Demarini to doctor, Tarma, May 10, 1902. 45. TMA:L, Juan Demarini to Prefect, Tarma, May 19, 1902. 46. TMA:L, Adolfo V ienrich to Mayor of La Oroya, May 11, 1903.VV47. TMA:L, Aurelio Leó n to Tarma’s Deputy in Lima, April 8, 1904;

Aurelio Leó n to Federico Philipps, Tarma, April 23, 1904.48. TMA:L, Aurelio Leó n to Inspector de Hygiene, Tarma, July 2,

1904.49. La Aurora de Tarma, September 30, 1905.50. TMA:L, Aurelio Leó n to the Inspector Concejal de Instrucció n

P ública, Higiene y Asuntos Contenciosos, September 2, 1904.51. TMA:L, Segundo Briceñ o to Adolfo Vienrich, Tarma, September 14,

1906.52. TMA:L, Benjamí n Mendizabal to Prefect, Tarma, February 14, 1905;

Aurelio Leó n to Prefect, Tarma, September 13, 1905.

5 The Politics of Folklore: 1900–1930

1 . A new generation of intellectuals would abandon this approach all together and lay claim to Peru’s Hispanic heritage.

2 . Quoted in an article by Abelardo Gamarra, La Integridad, No. 752,December 19, 1903.

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3 . The booklet was first printed by the editorial, La Aurora de Tarma, in1905 and reprinted in 1959 and 1999 with different introductions.

4 . This booklet was also first published by the editorial, La Aurora de Tarma, in 1906 and reprinted in 1961 and 1999.

5 . This discussion builds on Wachtel (1977), Flores Galindo (1986),Burga (1988), Millones (1992), and Stobart and Howard (2002).

6. My thanks to Rosaleen Howard for pointing out the discrepancy between Quechua and Spanish versions.

7 . For example, in Chiquián, Ancash, in a reworking of the danza, theSpaniard assumed the central position; this reaffirmed the town’sdominance over the surrounding indigenous villages (Flores Galindo 1986 : 53–57; Burga 1988: 99).

8 . Hidalgo (1938).9 . Garcí a Pantoja (1973: 22–24).

10. Writing about Cusco in the 1930s, de la Cadena ( 2000) explores how the working classes of the town gave the concept of mestizo meaningsvery different from the colonial past. “Indigenous mestizo” was anidentity claimed by people who were literate and economically suc-cessful in the town and who shared traditional-indigenous culturalpractices.

6 Indigenismo and the Second Radical Wave: 1910–1930

1 . Quipus are knotted cords, a pre-Hispanic way of keeping records.s2 . However, leaders of the Asociaci ó n were well aware that their efforts

at publicity were often sabotaged. Material published had the habit of disappearing from bookshops and the public domain, according to Mayer (1984) many years later.

3 . Minutes of the Sociedad de Obreros de Auxilios Mutuos, Tarma,October, 1910.

4 . El Imparcial, Tarma, August 14, 1912.ll5 . Castillo had become a schoolteacher in the district of Juní n following

Vienrich’s death. 6. El Imparcial, Tarma, January 16, 1910. ll7 . Ibid.8 . El Imparcial, Tarma, December 3, 1911.ll9. La Aurora de Tarma, June 15, 1905.

10. La Aurora de Tarma, May 1, 1906. Through the action, workers wona nine hour day but only 1.50 soles in pay.

11. El Peruano, Lima, August 25, 1906.12. See the discussion in Chatterjee (1993).13. Juan Hipó lito P évez, a peasant leader from Ica, was initially inspired

by the speeches he had read by Joaquí n Capelo. Many years later, Pévez recalled the foundation of the Tahuantinsuyu movement in his memoirs (1983) and in an interview with Wilfredo Kapsoli (1984).

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14. Also in Puno, R éRR nique (2004: 91) underlines the importance of exchanges between communities and unions and the convergence of their political ideas. Similar kinds of alliances were being fostered at the same time in Ecuador; see Becker (2004).

15. Among the founders were Samuel Nuñ ez Calderon, Hipó lito Salazar,Juan Hipó lito Pévez, Carlos Condorena, and Ezequiel Urviola.

16. Insight into Mariátegui’s role is brought out by Pévez (1983).17. Thanks to Pévez (1983: 359–361), there is a record of the discussions

that took place especially at the first Congress of 1921.18. Quoted by Kapsoli (1984: 243–244).19. Ibid.20. Mayer (no date) in a pamphlet on the Oncenio reported that the

government had first concluded that the damage had been inevitableand refused to accept liability. In 1924, Congress insisted the govern-ment take action against the mining company, but this was watereddown with assurances that the technical means had now been foundto protect against further damage.

21. La Voz de Tarma, February 24, 1922.22. La Voz de Tarma, August 23, 1923.23. This section draws on the minutes of the Junta de Conscripció n

Vial and correspondence of its presidents, in the Tarma Municipal Archive.

24. The breakdown according to district for 1921 was as follows: Tarma,3,758 men; Acobamba, 891 men; Carhuamayo, 790 men; Palcamayo,751 men; Juní n, 501 men; and Huasahuasi, 320 men.

25. La Voz de Tarma, December 2, 1922.26. See Sulmont (1975: 56); Laite (1980: 326).27. The first Adventist mission schools had opened in the 1910s around

Lake Titicaca and Puno in southern Peru and offered indigenous children a much superior, all-round, education. Indigenous teachers coming through the schools shared not only religious conviction but also had transformed themselves into “indios nuevos” (new Indians);adopting a sober lifestyle that seemed to be far removed from that of the old “oppressed race” (Hazen 1978; Arroyo 2004). The story of the Adventists in the Perené is told by Barclay (1989: 124).

28. In his book, In the land of the Incas, Stahl (2006) set out his ideas andssexperiences in southern Peru.

29. La Voz de Tarma, January 2, 1926.30. Kept by his family after his death in 1951, Amarrillo’s memorial

was given to David Bayer, a North American social scientist in the 1970s. Recognizing the great value of this testimony, with the fam-ily’s permission, Bayer published the memorial as a Working Paper at the Departamento de Ciéncias Humanas of the Universidad NacionalAgraria in Lima in the mid-1970s. This document is without date.

31. Huasahuasi was formally recognized as an indigenous community on June 12, 1935.

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7 The Promise of APRA: 1930–1950

1 . The federation protested against Leguía’s plan to consecrate thePeruvian nation to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and used this as a plat-form to oppose his authoritarian rule.

2 . El Inca was a chain of chemist shops supplied with credit and productsfrom Lima.

3 . Workers in Cerro de Pasco took action for higher wages that led toserious confrontations in September 1930. The Communist Party organized a congress of mine workers in La Oroya to press home the demands, and this led to a series of strikes during which two US func-tionaries were taken hostage. Workers from the mining camp of Mal Paso travelling to La Oroya clashed with the police in a confrontation that left 23 dead and many wounded (Klaren 2000: 271).

4 . La Voz de Tarma, March 23, 1931. The editor of this newspaper was now a supporter of APRA.

5 . In 1931, the National Federation brought together 107 teachers’associations across the country. The interest in unionization increased among teachers after 1929 when the government, in the face of eco-nomic crisis, cut education budgets and reduced teachers’ salaries(Pezo, Ballon, and Peirano 1981).

6 . Rima Rima, Tarma, August 13, 1933.7 . In the early 1930s, the population of Tarma province numbered

around 70,500 who lived in some 540 settlements. Tarma district was by far the most populous with some 19,000 people and 70 settle-ments: La Voz de Tarma, Tarma, June 12, 1939.

8 . La Voz de Tarma, July 24, 1931.9 . Rima Rima, Tarma, January 1, 1931.

10. Rima Rima, Tarma, December 16, 1933.11. Rima Rima, Tarma, January 16, 1934. 12. Rima Rima, Tarma, October 8, 1933. 13. Rima Rima, Tarma, October 22, 1933. 14. Demarini had fought alongside Oscar Benavides when storming the

presidential palace in the military coup of 1914, according to Ecos de Tarma, September 20, 1936.

15. TMA:L, Carlos Demarini to Subprefect, Tarma, October 6, 1938. 16. TMA:L, Carlos Demarini to Subprefect, Tarma, September 20,

1938.17. TMA:M, Petition from the people of Tarma to President Manual

Prado, April 6, 1940.18. Founded in 1941, Rumbos supported the political party, Frente s

Democratico Nacional.19. Rumbos, Tarma, April 21, 1941. 20. TMA:L, Arturo Cantella to Fernando Vienrich, April 30, 1942.21. TMA:L, Pedro Arrieta to Secretary General, Student Center, Tarma,

October 29, 1945.

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22. Mercurio Peruano: Revista Mensual de Ciencias Sociales y Letras, Lima,ssA ñAA o XX, Vol. XXVI, No. 216, March 1945, pp. 130–135.

23. La Voz de Tarma, May 7, 1945.24. Rumbos, Tarma, September 10, 1945.25. Municipal Archive of La Merced: Letters, Luis Peralta to Mayor of La

Merced, March 24, 1947.26. La Patria, Tarma, May 1, 1927.27. TMA:L, Report on the Asamblea Nacional Aprista Municipal by the

delegate from Tarma, Pedro Macassi, April 7, 1946. 28. Rose Ugarte (1945).29. La Voz de Tarma, October 29, 1945.30. Rumbos, Tarma, September 22, 1945. 31. Rumbos, Tarma, December 29, 1945. 32. Rumbos, Tarma, January 5, 1946. 33. TMA:L, Pedro Macassi to district mayors, January 26, 1946.34. Rumbos, Tarma, January 5, 1946. ss35. La Voz de Tarma, July 28, 1937.36. Tarma, organo del Centro de Colaboración Provincial, vol. 1, no, 1, ll

July, 1954; the number of teachers employed in the highland districtswere as follows: Acobamba, 34; San Pedro de Cajas, 23; Palcamayo, 20; Huasahuasi, 15; La Unió n, 14; and Tapo and Palca, 12 each.

37. Rumbos, Tarma, January 26, 1946.38. Rumbos, Tarma, June 8, 1946. ss39. Ibid.40. Rumbos, Tarma, July 1, 1946. 41. La Voz de Tarma, July 17 and July 18, 1945.

8 Teachers Defy the State: 1950–1980

1. José Antonio Encinas, Nueva Escuela Peruana, Lima, A ñ AA o I, No. 1, 1936.

2 . APRA had made an ill-advised tactical alliance with Odrí a in anattempt to block Bela ú nde’s candidature for presidential office, and Soviet-line communist parties had given some support to the military government of the 1970s.

3. During fieldwork in the mid-1990s, I talked to some 60 schoolteach-ers in the province from rural and urban localities.

4. Yovera Ballona (1991).5. SUTEP was composed of 5 levels, starting with the school, then with

elected bodies at district, province, regional, and national levels.6 . Material comes from Thorndike (1997) who wrote a “documentary

novel” on SUTEP. 7 . The names of teachers I talked to in the 1990s have been changed.8 . Seligmann (1995: 185) describes a similar situation in the department

of Cusco.9 . This section draws on material in Wilson (2007).

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10. At the time of the expropriation, 37 of the socios, most of them women, had been illiterate, leaving a thumbprint by way of signature on official documents.

11. See the fuller discussion by Portocarrero (1990: 234).

9 Citizenship in Retrospect

1 . Interview, Palcamayo, February, 1997.

Bibliography

Primary Sources

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Carranza, L. 1887. Colección de artítt culos publicados por Carranza, medicoíí , Lima: Imprenta del Comercio, p. 53 (Lima: Biblioteca Nacional, Sala deInvestigaci ón, Colecció n Paul Rivet).

Castro Pozo , H. 1924 . Nuestra comunidad indígenaíí , Lima: El Lucero.Corona FúFF nebre, dedicado a la memoria de don Adolfo Vienrich por su co-

religionarios y amigos. 1908. Tarma: Imprenta Cahuide (Lima: BibliotecaNacional, Sala de Investigaci ón).

Diaz Ortiz, P . 1999 . Introducción, in Adolfo Vienrich, Azucenas Quechuas y Fabulas Quechuas de Adolfo Vienrich, Lima: Ediciones Lux.

Ferrer Broncano , J. 1959 . La labor educativa de don Adolfo Vienrich en la provincia de Tarma, Tarma: Imprenta La Aurora.

Garc í a Pantoja, J. M. 1973. Folklore y poesíss a de la muliza tarmíí eña, Tarma. Germí n Cerrera, J. 1899. Exposci ón que presenta a la Direcci ón de Gobierno

el visitador de municipalidades en el centro de la Rep ú blica, Tarma, June 13 (Lima: Biblioteca Nacional, Sala de Investigaciones).

Gonz ález Prada , M. 1964. Nuestras Licenciados Vidriera, in Horas de Lucha, Lima: Editora Lima, pp. 271–286.

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Hidalgo, J. 1938. Mulizas Tarmeñas, homenaje al IV Centenario de la fun-dación de Tarma, 1538–1938, Tarma.

Mar ía del Valle , M . 1876. Cartas escritas de los departamentos de Junín,ííHuánuco y las montañas de Chanchamayo, Lima: Imprenta La Nacional.

Mayer , D. 1984 (1913). La conducta de la Compañía Minera Cerro de Pascoíí , Lima: Fondo Editorial Labor.

——— . 1921 . El indígena Peruano: A los cien aíí ños de república libre e inde-pendiente, Lima: Imprenta Peruana de E.Z Casanova.

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——— . No date. El Oncenio de Leguía, segunda parteíí , Callao, Peru.Per ú, Dirección de Estad í stica, 1878, Resumen del censo general de habi-

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ciencias sociales y letras, Lima, vol. 24, no. 216, pp. 130–135.———. 1961. Prologo, Fabulas Quechuas de Adolfo Vienrich, Lima: Difusión

del libro del Centro, Imprenta Minerva.Raimondi , A . 1895 . De Lima a las monta ñas de Huancayo, Tarma, Pampa

de Jun í n y Pasco, Boletítt n de la Sociedad de Geografíí íff aíí , Lima, Setiembre, pp. 121–203.

Rodr í guez y Ramírez , J. 1888. Memorial que el Prefecto de Junín, eleva a ííla Dirección General del Ministerio de Policía, Gobierno y Obras Píí úPP blicas,June 23 (Lima: Biblioteca Nacional, Sala de Investigaci ón).

Rose Ugarte , L . 1945 . La situación alimenticia en el Perúrr , 1943–4, Ministeriode Agricultura, (Lima: Biblioteca Nacional, Sala de Investigaci ón).

Sociedad de Beneficencia P ú blica de Tarma. 1946. Centenario, 1846–1946, Tarma: Imprenta La Voz de Tarma.

Stahl , F . 2006 (1920). In the land of the Incas, Brushton: Teach Services.Thorndike , G . 1997. Maestra vida, Lima: Mosca Azul.Valcá rcel , L . 1972 (1925). Tempestad en los Andes, Lima: Editorial Universo. Vienrich , A . 1999 (1905 and 1906). Azucenas Quechuas; FáFF bulas Quechuas,

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Index

Page numbers in italics refer to maps and figures.s

Abancay, 79Abercrombie, T., 86Acobamba, 42, 62, 68administrative hierarchy, three-

tiered, 13, 56, 62, 155Aesop, 104agrarian cooperatives, 179agrarian reform, 11–12, 22, 121,

171, 173, 176–77, 179–83, 188Agrarian Reform Office, 183Agricultural Bank, 158agricultural workers, 60–61,

129–30, 155alcaldes varas (indigeous

mayors), 42Alianza Popular Revolucionaria

Americana (Popular American Revolutionary Alliance,APRA), 24, 140, 143–69, 177,183, 193, 205 n2

clandestine period, 150–52, 163founded, 143, 146–48government by, 21, 153–62plan de acción immediata,

148–49Tarma and, 144–46, 148–50

Aljovín de Losada, C., 13Allende Llavería, Gustavo, 100,

111–13, 117Alvariño, José Manuel, 34

Alvariño, José María, 71–72Amarrillo, Hermógenes Leonardo,

137–42, 150, 203 n30anarchism, 54, 56, 76, 80, 87, 147anarcho-sindicalista unions, 128Ancash, 145Andrade, Alfredo, 86–87Angela Moreno school, 177, 186Angell, A., 167, 170Apaicancha strike of 1922, 132–34APRA-Rebelde, 163Apurimac department, 128Arellano, C., 6Arequipa, 14, 128Argentine music, 100–101, 111–12Arguedas, José María, 160, 184armed forces, 3, 157, 169, 171artisans, 15, 45, 60–61, 65–66, 68,

83–84, 88, 93, 113, 122, 148Asamblea Nacional Aprista

Municipal (APRA National Municipal Assembly), 155

Asociación de Agricultores y Ganaderos (Associationof Farmers and Stock Breeders), 158

Asociación Pro Derecho Indígena (Association for Indigenous Rights), 20, 119–20,123–26, 128

INDEX218

Aurora de Tarma, La (newspaper),a70–71, 84–87, 89, 91–92, 124, 126

Aurora — Pacha Huarai(newspaper), 85

authoritarianism, 10, 95–97, 99, 115–17, 148, 163–65, 167–68

Aves sin Nido (Mato de Turner), 101oAyacucho, 14, 23, 148, 171, 187–88Ayas hacienda, 182Aymara language, 129Aza, José Manuel, 55Azángaro, 53, 128Azucenas Quechuas (Vienrich), 100,s

106

baile del Inca, el, 100, 103–10, 113,117, 200 n20

Bakhtin, Mikhail, 116Baldwin, P., 97barrios, 6–7, 30–31, 34–36, 38–40,

42–44, 46, 61, 93, 113–14, 124, 195 n4

Basadre, Jorge, 73Batallón Tarma de Guardia

Nacional, 64–65Baud, M., 81Bayer, David, 203 n30Bedoya, Augusto, 88Bedoya, Eusebio, 85Belaúnde, Fernando, 167, 170, 177,

179, 205 n3Benavides, Oscar, 140, 150–51,

204 n14Beraún, José María, 36–37Bernal, Dionicio Rodolfo, 112–13Bigenho, Michelle, 112biological metaphor, 30, 50,

90–92, 97Bolivia, 86, 112, 181Bourdieu, Pierre, 17Briceño, Segundo, 96bubonic plague, 92–96Bueno, Bruno, 97Burga, Manuel, 105Bustamante, Juan, 63, 195 n8

Bustamante y Rivero, José Luis, 143, 152–53, 157, 159

Cabildo de Españolas (Council of Spaniards), 7

Cabildo de Indios (Council of Indians), 7

Cáceres, Andrés, 35, 56–57, 62, 65Cajamarca, 103, 105, 148Calixto, don (Lord of Misrule),

113–15Callao port, 8, 95Canessa, A., 181Cantella, Arturo, 37Capelo, Joaquín, 120–21, 125,

202 n13capital, “informational,” 17capitalism, 147, 150Cárdenas, Pedro, 12–13, 33, 38, 63Carhuamayo, 42, 62, 134–35, 137Carmen, El, boys’ school, 44carnavales, 99–100, 110–17, 188Carnavalón (Lord of Misrule), 101,

114, 115–16Carpio, Erasmo, 85–86Carranza, Albino, 35, 42, 48Carvallo, Emiliano, 35Casca hacienda, 137caseríos (hamlets), 40, 47, 135, 160,

167, 174, 180Castillo Atencio, José, 85, 122–23,

202 n5Castro, Aristides, 132Castro Pozo, Hildebrando,

127–28Catholic Church, 7, 16, 66, 82, 86,

91, 108, 115, 122–23, 132, 136–39, 150, 177

Cayán hacienda, 137, 140–41census of education (1902), 48Central de Asuntos Municipales

(Central Office of MunicipalAffairs), 156

Central Railway Company, 145central square, 6–7, 29–31, 69–70,

105, 107

INDEX 219

Centro de Artesanos Confederadosde Tarma (Center of Confederated Artisans of Tarma), 45, 84, 87–88, 122, 135

Centro Socialista Primero deMayo (Socialist Center Firstof May), 87

Cerro, Sanchez, 140, 150Cerro de Pasco, 4, 7, 9, 14, 53, 55,

65, 112, 113, 120“revolution of,” 145, 204 n3

Cerro de Pasco Mining Company, 43, 121, 124–25, 145

pollution deaths and, 131Chachapoyas, 148Chamber of Deputies, 9, 73, 162Chancha barrio, 61, 155, 176Chanchamayo, 7–8, 37–38, 42, 58,

62, 120, 136, 149–50Chiaramonti, Gabriella, 27, 55, 56,

195 n9Chiclayo, 79Chilean occupation, 29, 34, 37, 48,

57, 64–65, 77, 92Chinese immigrants, 91cholera, 94Cinta Verde caserio, 162citizenship, 2–4, 10–13, 15–18,

22, 24, 27, 35, 47, 53, 55, 82, 191–94

Civilista Party (civilistas), 56,63–66, 70–71, 77

civilization, 30, 122–23, 161, 180, 181, 185, 192

clandestine political activity, 4, 20–21, 23, 73, 102, 150–54,165, 193

clase letrada, 46, 59, 76, 110, 175class structure, 161, 174–75, 188

see also specific classesClub 2 de Mayo, El, 88coffee estates, 7, 8, 120cofradías (lay religious

brotherhoods), 7, 105–6, 147Cold War, 164

Colegio de Electores (College of Electors), 59, 63, 64

Colegio Nuestra Señora deGuadalupe, 77

Colegio San Ramón, 29, 45–46, 59, 63–64, 77, 82, 85, 100, 145, 171

Collana barrio, 6, 42, 59–61collective bargaining, 169Comercio, El (newspaper), 66lComité Pro Derecho Indígena

Tahuantinsuyu, 24, 110, 119, 126–37, 148

Tarma Sub Comité, 131–37, 141Comités Femininos (APRA), 148communal land, 6, 11–12, 32–36,

55, 121, 128–29, 138–41, 144–45

communist conspiracy, 130,133–34, 137, 140–41

Communist Party, 147–50, 153–54, 158, 168, 170, 204 n3

concejos escolares (school councils), 43, 49

Concepción, 4, 53, 55, 65Confederación de Artesanos Unión

Universal (Confederation of Artisans Universal Union), 83

Congress, 35, 49, 53, 56, 120–21Education Committee, 160

Congress of Indigenous Communities, 129–30, 133, 160

Declaration of Principles,129, 142

conscripción vial, 39, 129, 131, 134–36

conservatives, 54, 63–67Constitution, 10, 12, 15–16, 43, 191

Cadiz, of 1812, 27of 1860, 53–54of 1920, 39, 127, 139

Contreras, C., 13, 56, 161, 198 n2contribución personal (head tax),

12, 41

INDEX220

cooperatives, 143, 147, 149–50,155, 159, 163

Corona Fúnebre (Funeral Wreathefor Vienrich), 97

Corontacay hacienda, 137Crónica Medica, La (journal), 77, a

90–91Cuba, 22, 172Cueto, Marcos, 97Cusco, 4, 34, 104–5, 119, 128,

159, 177, 181–82, 202 n10SUTEP teachers’ Congress of

1972, 173

danzas, 100, 103–10, 202 n7Das, Veena, 18, 19data collection, 17–19, 28, 35, 43,

48–49Deber Pro Indígena, El (newspaper),l

120debt servitude (enganche), 38,

125–26, 150decentralization, 4, 24, 55–56, 68,

80, 149, 154–56fiscal, 56, 65

Degregori, Carlos Iván, 3, 185–86, 195 n2

de la Cadena, Marisol, 15, 105, 119, 202 n10

de la Canal, Concepción, 76Demarini, Carlos, 151, 204 n14Demarini, Juan, 43Departmental Councils, 41, 56,

62, 67Departmental Juntas, 9, 56, 65, 70depression, 145–46Diario Judicial, El (journal), 77lDiaz, Enrique, 85Dirección de Gobierno (Directorate

of Government), 35, 37, 62Dirección de la Enseñanza Primaria

(Directorate of Primary Teaching), 19, 43, 48, 49, 90

Dirección de Obras Publicas (Directorate of Public Works), 134

dirt, 30disease, 90–97dissent-dissidence debate, 3–4,

19–25, 117–18, 164–65District Councils, 9, 41, 44–45,

48–49, 56, 62districts, 13, 45, 135dominio (dominion), 31–36, 39, 55,

83, 192Douglas, Mary, 30

economic inequality, 22economic problems, 144–46, 154,

156–59education, 15–16, 18–19, 22,

24–25, 34–35, 40–51, 55, 61, 63, 66

agrarian reform and, 179–84APRA and, 144, 152, 154,

159–62central district and, 41–44citizenship through, 15–16, 34,

121, 123, 192indigenous, rural, 35, 44–47, 61,

121, 123, 128–29, 136–37,139, 142, 159–61, 171–72,176–77, 179–86, 192

reforms, 22, 25, 170–74, 188state take-over of, 19, 43–44,

48–51Vienrich and, 69, 71, 76, 79, 82,

88–90see also teacherso

electoral democracy, 4, 13–16, 53, 56–57, 66–70, 73, 149, 155

see also presidential elections;oTarma municipal government; voting

Encinas, José Antonio, 159–60, 167enganchadores (labor recruiters),

123, 125, 135enganche, as term, 196 n20

see also debt servitudeoEscobar, José, 67Escuela de Policía Municipal (School

for Municipal Police), 156

INDEX 221

Esparza Zañatu, Alejandro, 165European political ideas, 22, 54,

75, 76, 83, 102, 146–47, 168Exhelme, Manuel, 34

fascism, 147Federación Nacional de Educadores

del Perú (National Federationof Peru’s Teachers, FENEP), 169, 173, 204 n5

Federación Nacional de Maestros (National Federation of Schoolteachers), 149

Federación Nacional de Preceptores(National Federation of Instructors), 47

Federación Obrera RegionalIndígena (Regional Federation of Indigenous Workers), 136

federalism, 4, 79, 154Felipillo (traitor figure), 107, 140feudalism, 22, 83, 122, 147, 182Flor de Retama (Flower of a

Broom), 171Flores Chinarro, Francisco, 85Flores Galindo, A., 125folklore, 1, 75, 78, 99–117, 180fondo de escuela (school fund),

41–42food shortages, 144, 154, 156–59forced labor, 32, 36, 39, 44, 51, 68,

109, 124, 129, 136, 149see also enganchadores; labor o

serviceforeign investment, 147–48Freire, Paulo, 172Frente Democratico Nacional,

152–53Fujimori, Alberto, 168

Gamarra, Abelardo, 78, 104gamonales, 20, 45, 122–23,

128–29, 131, 138–41, 145,148, 154, 182

García, Roberto, 144, 145, 146, 158García-Bryce, Iñigo, 83

García Pantoja, Juan, 114–15Giraldo, Santiago, 87gobernadores (district governors),

32, 62, 125, 135Goillorisquilla coal mines, 126González Prada, Manuel, 66,

77–82, 90–91, 96, 102, 147Gootenberg, Paul, 65Gramsci, Antonio, 76Gruzinski, Serge, 113guano trade, 18, 55, 198 n2Guardia Civil, 151Guardia Urbana, 76Guardino, P., 14Guerrero, Andres, 10–11, 13Guevara, Che, 187Guzman, Abimael, 117, 186, 194

hacendados (hacienda owners), 61,83, 104, 130, 139–40, 182

haciendas, 4, 7–8, 11, 13, 31, 35,38, 45, 48, 67, 104, 108, 129,135–38, 140, 149–50, 155

agrarian reform and, 22, 173,182–85

Seventh Day Adventists and, 136,138, 142, 160, 203 n27

strike of 1922, 132–33Hale, C., 77Haya de la Torre, Víctor Raúl, 21,

143–48, 150Heilman, J., 141, 148Herr, Enrique, 68, 71–72, 87Hidalgo, J., 112Historia de Mayta, La (Vargas a

Llosa), 98Howard, R., 109Howard-Malverde, R., 181Huacuas hacienda, 137Huancané

uprising of 1866–68, 12, 195 n8uprising of 1923, 130

Huancavelica, 35, 128Huancayo, 4, 38, 53, 55, 65, 174,

182, 200 n20Huanta, 171

INDEX222

Huánuco province, 79Huánuco town, 14, 53, 79Huaráz, 14Huasahuasi, 8, 42, 134, 137–41,

150, 158, 203 n31Huasahuasi District Council, 139huayno (music of indigenous

origin), 100, 112–14hydro-electric power, 155hygiene and health, 24, 28–30, 47,

50, 69, 71, 90–97, 180–81,192, 196 n3

Idea, La (newspaper), 85aImparcial, El (newspaper), 123, 124limperialism, 147Inca

folklore, 100–109law, 102

Inca rule (Tahuantinsuyu), 6, 128Independence, 16–17, 31, 33, 83indígena, 21, 39, 45, 128, 196 n1indigenista discourse, 92, 95,

124–25, 176, 180–81, 186indigenista movements, 20, 22, 24,

117, 119–42, 150conservative, 123–26, 142radical, 126–41

indigenous community, 4, 7, 32, 39APRA and, 146, 149–50, 154–56,

159–61central state under Leguía and,

127, 129–31Chilean occupation and,, 65citizenship and, 10–13, 24,

27–29, 56, 192, 192–93culture of, 100–117, 123education and, 34, 43, 124, 129,

136–37, 142, 159–61, 167equality and, 33–34hygiene and, 91, 92, 95indirect vs. direct suffrage and,

59–60labor service and, 31–32, 36–40,

127, 129, 134–36

land and, 35–36, 55, 121, 123,128–29, 131–34

laws on, 127literacy and, 56, 60modernity and, 29–31protests and, 137–41radical union and, 128–31teachers and, 161, 167–68,

183–85Vienrich and, 75–79, 85, 90,

101–5, 109–10wage work and, 124workers movements and,

87, 136see also barrios; communalo

land; indigenista discourse;indigenista movements; and specific organizations and locales

indio, as term, 30, 38–39, 44, 172, 196 n1

inflation, 157, 170Instituto Científico (Scientific

Institute), 77Instituto Pedagógico Gustavo

Allende Llavería, 1, 186Integridad, La (newspaper), 69,a

78, 104intellectual, “organic,” vs.

“traditional,” 76, 185internal war, 1, 193irrigation, 155

Jacahuasi caserio, 162Jacobsen, N., 12, 13, 128Jauja province, 8, 38, 53, 55, 65,

124, 183Jauja town, 4Junín, 7, 12, 35, 42, 48, 53,

62, 65, 87, 123, 128, 144, 148

junta económica, 84Juntas de Conscripción Vial

(Committees for the roadbuilding service), 134–35

INDEX 223

juntas de mayores contribuyentes (committees of wealthy men),67, 73, 132

Juntas Municipales Transitorias(Transitional Municipal Juntas), 153–55

Juventud Aprista Peruana (JAP), 163

Kapsoli, Wilfredo, 130Keynsianism, 156Klaren, P., 130Knight, A., 18Korean War, 164Kruijt, D., 23kuarakas (indigenous chiefs), 6–7

labor service (mita de plaza), 31–32, 36–40, 127, 129, 134–36

labor strikes and unrest, 126,132–34, 150, 158

see also teachers’ strikesoLa Fontaine, Jean de, 104Lagos, Edith, 187–88La Madrid, José, 123land-for-labor, 32, 127, 136

see also labor serviceoland reform, 35–36, 51

see also agrarian reformoLa Oroya, 43, 61, 94–95, 131, 135,

178, 204 n3Larson, B., 10, 11laws

Decree Law 19326 (educationreform, 1972), 172

education funding (1902), 43equality of indigenous people

(1878), 33–34fiscal decentralization (1886),

65, 70internal security (1949), 164municipalities (1861), 54municipalities (1873), 28, 41,

55–56, 57, 62municipalities (1892), 56,

199 n22

road conscription (conscripciónvial), 39, 129, 134–36

Supreme Resolution outlawingComité Tahuantinsuyu (1927), 130

Leguía, Augusto, 20, 24, 39, 114,119, 127, 129–32, 134, 136,139–40, 145, 154, 169, 204 n1

Leibner, G., 87León, Aurelio, 19, 49, 68–71,

96, 151Liberal Party, 19, 56–57, 67–69, 151

radical alliance of 1902–4, 61,68–73

Liceo Tarma, 84literacy, 14, 55, 60, 83, 92, 139, 160Literary Circle, 77–78, 99, 101Loja, Julian, 108, 110López, Casimiro, 84,Lurquín, Baldomero, 64

Macassi, Pedro, 144–46, 153, 155, 164

Macassi, Ramón, 65Maco hacienda, 61, 183–85malaria, 94Mallon, F., 10Manco Capac, Inca ruler, 102, 123Manrique, Nelson, 16, 200 n20Mantaro river, 131Mantaro valley, 4, 65Maoists, 1–3, 21, 23, 116–17, 168,

170–71, 173, 175, 179, 183,185–89, 193–94

Marcapomacocha, 62María del Valle, Manuel, 63Mariátegui, José Carlos, 23, 103,

128, 146, 154, 156Márquez, Luis A., 77Martinez Alier, J., 183Marxism, 21–23, 117, 146, 156, 163Marxism-Leninism, 187Marxism-Maoism, 169Mato de Turner, Clorinda, 101May Day, 86–88

INDEX224

Mayer, Dora, 120–21, 125–26, 203 n10

McEvoy, Carmen, 55Méjar, Gerardo, 85“Memorias del personero de la

comunidad campesina de Huasahuasi” (Amarrillo), 137

Mendizabal, Francisco Borja,63, 64

Mercurio Peruano (journal), 152omestizaje (cultural-racial mixing),

15, 111, 113, 117, 175, 193Mexico, 160middle classes, 21, 143, 147, 159,

163, 164, 173, 177military coups

of 1914, 204 n14of 1948, 164–65of 1968, 23, 115–17, 167, 171,

173–74mine workers strike of 1930, 145mine workers union, 145, 178mining, 7, 8, 13, 31, 38, 40, 58, 63,

120, 123–26, 129, 131, 135,145–46, 148, 155

Ministerio de Fomento (Ministry of the Economy), 95

Ministerio de Fomento y ObrasPublicas (Ministry of Economy and Public Works), 127, 134

Ministerio de Gobierno (Ministry of Government), 35, 68, 164

Ministry of Agriculture, 157, 158Ministry of Education, 19, 162,

169, 176, 177, 180modernity, 3, 24, 29–31, 40, 50,

54, 69, 82, 91, 147, 150, 152, 160–61, 182, 186

mojonazgo (alcohol and luxury taxes), 41–44

Moreno family, 132Morococha mining zone, 4,

126, 135muliza (music of Argentine origin),

100, 111–13, 115Municipal, El (newspaper), 85l

Muñoz, José M. y, 41mutual aid associations, 14, 65,

83–84, 159

National Assembly of 1919, 127National Students Federation, 145nation-builders, 4, 10–11, 13, 18,

40, 53Niño-Murcia, F.M, 45North, Liza, 147Nueva Simiente (newspaper), 87eNugent, D., 148, 196 n5

Odría, Manuel, 164–65, 180, 205 n3Oncenio, 39, 114, 116, 127,

131, 169Orlove, B., 137Otero, Martín, 46Otuzo, 79

Pachacutec, Inca ruler, 102Palca, 42Palcamayo district, 42, 68, 158,

162, 175, 178, 193Palomino, Francisco, 144–46Panama Canal, 88papel sellado (stamp duty), 41Pardo, José, 70Pardo, Manuel, 49–50, 55, 57, 63, 65Parias, Las (newspaper), 91sPartido Civil, 55, 70–71Partido Communista del Perú:

Sendero Luminoso, see Shining ePath

Partido del Pueblo (APRA), 153Partido Vanguardia Socialista del

Perú (Socialist Vanguard Party of Peru), 153

“Parties and the National Union, The” (González Prada), 80

Pasco mining area, 148Patria Nueva, 127–28Patria Roja, 173–74, 193Patronato de la Raza Indígena

(Trusteeship of the IndigenousRace), 130

INDEX 225

Payne, James, 169–70, 176peaje (road tolls), 41Pechú, Manuel, 63–64, 77penal settlements, 165, 174, 179Perené colony, 136Pévez, Juan H., 128–29, 131,

202 n13Pichis Trail, 37, 68, 120Piérola, Nicolás de, 37Pimienta, ña (wife of Lord of

Misrule), 114–15Pizarro, Juan (Spaniard in el baile

del Inca ), 106–8aplague, 91–92Platt, Tristan, 11Polar, Jorge, 49police, 127, 152, 157political violence, 2–4, 18, 22, 118,

130, 151, 163, 168–69, 186,188–89, 191, 193–94

pollution, 131Pomachaca caserio, 162pongaje, see forced laborepongo, 39, 195 n7pontazgo (bridge tolls), 41, 43Poole, Deborah, 18, 20popular culture, 20, 24, 86,

99–118, 188Portocarrero, Gonzalo, 147,

156, 174potatoes, 33, 138Prado, Mariano Ignacio, 63–65Prado Ugarteche, Manuel, 151prefects, 13, 32, 40, 44, 56, 62, 68,

71, 72, 97–98, 156presidential elections

of 1872, 55of 1875, 63–64of 1945, 152–53of 1962, 170of 1980, 179

price controls, 157Primero de Mayo, El (First of May

sports club), 84, 88Progreso, El (newspaper), 85lpublic employee salaries, 156–57

public works, 28, 37, 149, 157, 164see also roads and infrastructureo

Puno, 128, 203 n14

Quechua language, 75, 79, 85,101–2, 104, 107–8, 112–13, 129, 160, 180

Rabelais and His World(Bakhtin), 116

race and racism, 15–17, 30, 76,79, 82, 119, 128, 176, 177,185, 188

Radical, El (newspaper), 85lradicalism

first wave, 24, 53–74, 192second wave, 24, 119–42teachers and, 47, 167, 179–88third wave, 24, 152see also specific movements and

political partiesRadical Party, see Unión NacionaleRaimondi, Antonio, 7, 195 n4Rama, Angel, 21–22Rasnake, R., 195 n3reciprocity, 11–12, 28, 31, 36, 39,

129, 136Regeneración, La (The

Regeneration, antialcohol league), 84–85

Regional Congresses, 132, 154Rénique, José Luis, 78, 121,

203 n14república de letras (lettered

republic), 78Restoration Movement, 164Revista de Lima, 101Revolutionary Government of the

Armed Forces, 23Ricrán district, 184Rima Rima (newspaper), 149–50aroads and infrastructure, 28, 39, 55,

69, 127, 135–36, 149, 155Rodríguez y Ramírez, Prefect, 44ronda campesina (peasant

militia), 186

INDEX226

Rumbos (newspaper), 151, 161, 162, s204 n18

Rutten, R., 81

Salazar, Manuel, 153Salomon, F., 45San Pedro de Cajas, 140, 144Santa Anna de Pampas (later

Tarma), 4–5Santa María, Manuel Reyes, 71Santa Rosa school, 47Santa Teresa girls’ school, 44Santiago, feast of, 104Santos Atahualpa, Jan, 7Sección de Asuntos Indigenas

(Bureau of Indigenous Affairs),127, 130, 139–40

Seligmann, Linda, 177, 181, 205 n8Sempertegui, Dolores, 47Sepa, El, penal colony, 174Seven Interpretive Essays

(Mariátegui), 103Seventh Day Adventists

(adventistas), 136, 138, 142, 159–60, 203 n27

Shining Path, 3, 23, 25, 85,117–18, 142, 171, 179,186–88, 193–94

Silbario Tarmeño (Vienrich), 89–90oSindicato de Educadores de la

Revolución Peruana (Teachers’Union of the Peruvian Revolution, SERP), 174

Sindicato de Maestros (Union of School Teachers), 149, 159

Sindicato Único de Trabajadores de la Educación Peruana (Union of Peruvian Education Workers, SUTEP), 173–79, 186, 188–89, 193, 205 n5, n6

Sindicato Unión de Propietariosy Choferes (Union of Truck Owners and Drivers), 149

small pox, 30, 93, 97Smelter mining town, 126, 135

socialism, 47, 54, 76, 79, 83, 86–87, 103, 121, 168

Socialist Party, 20, 119, 128, 146Socialist Workers’ Association, 87Sociedad Amantes de la Ciencia

(Society for the Lovers of Science), 77

Sociedad Amiga de los Indios (Friends of the Indian Society), 12, 63, 195 n8

Sociedad de Beneficencia Pública de Tarma, 76, 93, 201 n37

Sociedad de Obreros y Auxilios Mutuos (Workers’ Society for Mutual Assistance), 121–23, 126, 135

Sociedad de Preceptores (Society of Instructors), 47

Sociedad Independencia Electoral(Society for Electoral Independence), 55

Sociedad Recaudadora de Impuestos (Society for TaxCollection), 19

Soviet Union, 160, 187Spanish rule, 6, 27–28, 102–3,

105–9, 115–17, 140Stahl, Fernando A., 136, 203 n28Stallybrass, P., 116state of emergency of 1932,

140, 150subprefect, 32, 65, 72, 97, 133–34Supreme Court, 140“symbolics of sameness” vs.

“difference,” 176symbolic violence, 181

Tahuantinsuyu movement, 104–10,117, 120, 138–39, 148, 202 n13

see also Comité Pro DerechooIndígena Tahuantinsuyu

Tapo district, 8, 42, 158, 183Tarma Municipal Archive, 8–9, 14,

18–19

INDEX 227

Tarma municipal government, 3, 27formal end of, 131–32legal framework of, 28, 54–57municipal elections and, 57, 61,

66–73, 88, 153, 167office bearers, 57–59stripped of power, 72–73, 192

Tarmapap Pachahuarainin, Fábulas Quechuas (Vienrich), 104s

Tarmap Pacha Huaray—Azucenas Quechuas (Vienrich), 102s

Tarma Provinceanniversary of foundation

of, 111APRA and, 144–52as case study, 8–9citizenship and, 191–94debates framing, 10–21early history and geography of,

4–8Junta Municipal Transitoria of

1945, 153–55, 158–59, 162map of, 5population of, 204 n7SUTEP teachers and, 168,

170–71, 175, 178–79, 188Tarma Provincial APRA

Committee, 144Tarma Provincial Council, 12–14,

16, 27–72administrative organization and,

61–62archives of, 8–9Chilean occupation and, 64–65district representatives on, 67–68education and, 15, 19, 40–46,

48–50elected local governments of, 24,

27–28, 61–73hygiene and, 92, 94–97labor service and, 31–32, 36–40land rights and, 33–36legal framework of, 28, 54–57modernization and, 28–31office holders and, 54, 57–59, 58

powers stripped from, 19,49–51, 97

protests of 1938 and 1940 and, 151

radical civilistas and, 54, 57, 59,61, 63–73

Sub Comité of Tahuantinsuyuand, 131–37, 141

truck drivers and, 145Vienrich and, 76, 89voters and, 54, 59–61see also specific office holders

Tarmatambo, 6, 42, 59–60Tarma town

cemetery, 92–93early history, 4–7indigenous relations and, 32–40municipal electoral registers,

59–61, 60, 67municipal library, 9, 152

Tarmeño, El (newspaper), 94ltaxes, 19, 28, 41–43, 149, 151, 156Taylor, L., 148teachers, 1, 24–25, 45–47, 49, 61,

78–79, 146, 167–92agrarian reform and, 179–84ambiguous position of, 167,

173–75, 182–86APRA and, 148–49, 157, 160–62radicalism and, 179–88salaries of, 157, 170–74, 178, 197

n48, 204 n5teachers’ associations, 169–71teachers’ cooperatives, 175teachers’ strikes, 177–79

of 1960, 169of 1971, 173of 1973, 174of 1978, 177–79, 186–87of 1979, 178–79, 186

teachers unions, 161–62, 168outlawed, 25see also specific unions

Tempestad en los Andes (Valcárcel),s136, 142

INDEX228

tenientes gobernadores, 32, 125, 135Thurner, M., 17tierras de composición (composition

lands), 34–35tierras de repartición (repartition

lands), 33trade guilds, 7, 14, 83–84, 86, 100,

105–6, 109, 122, 147tribute, 10–12, 31, 33truck drivers, 145, 157–58Truck Drivers Union, 21,

144–45, 149Truth and Reconciliation

Commission, 3, 23, 195 n2Túpac Amaru, Inca ruler, 105Tupín, 42typhus, 30, 94–97

“un-imagined” national community, 17

Unión, La (newspaper), 85aUnión Nacional (National Radical

Party), 1, 15, 20, 24, 36, 57, 66–70, 79–80, 141, 144, 147

collapse of, 97education and, 84–85folklore and, 99, 108–10Liberal alliance and, 61, 68–73workers and, 82–88

unions, 143, 147, 150, 159, 175organizing vs. sophisticating and,

170, 176outlawed, 169see also labor strikes and unrest; o

and specific unionsUnión Tarmeña, 66United States, 8, 88, 159, 164Universidades Populares, 160, 175Universidad Nacional del Centro in

Huancayo, 174, 184Universidad Nacional de San

Cristóbal de Huamanga, 23, 171Universidad Nacional González

Prada, 163Universidad Nacional Mayor de San

Marcos, 77, 120, 144, 145

vaccination, 30, 91, 96–97Valcárcel, Luis E., 136, 142, 159Váldez Figueroa, Federico,

29–30, 91Vallejo, Cesar, 184Vargas Llosa, Mario, 98Velasco Alvarado, Juan, 23,

171–72, 174Vienrich Bünter, Adolfo, 76Vienrich de la Canal, Adolfo

Diego, 51, 67–72, 75–109, 143, 147, 151

background of, 75–77, 82education and, 15, 43, 45–46,

48–49, 75, 82, 84, 88–90, 195 n11

elections and mayoral terms of,24, 61, 67–72, 86–89, 95

folklore and, 99–109hygiene and, 75, 90–97inaugural address of, 69,

199 n25indigenous society and, 36, 38,

75–79, 123leadership and, 81–82legacy of, 97–98political opponents and, 16, 87,

97–98portrait of 1942, 152Radical Party and, 76–81reevaluation of 1940s, 152resignation of, 70, 96seminars on, 1–2suicide of, 72, 97–98, 121, 122teaching manuals of, 89–90workers’ movement and, 75,

82–88Villar, Pedro, 149Vitoc, 62voting, 54–57, 59–61, 66–67, 71,

147–48, 155, 199 n23Voz de Tarma, La (newspaper), 133, a

136–37

Wade, Peter, 176Waris, 6

INDEX 229

War of the Pacific, 34, 42, 56,64–65, 76, 77

war vs. Ecuador, 87water, piped, 69, 155White, A., 116women, 14, 30–31, 47, 83, 106,

123, 129, 148, 175–76, 180,188, 192

voting rights, 155workers’ associations, 83–85,

121–22, 143workers’ movement, 65–66, 76,

78, 82–88

workers’ night school, 84, 89workers’ rights to organize,

169–170working classes, 76, 78, 82–88,

120–22, 124–25, 143, 147, 153, 160–61, 164, 177

World War II, 157

Yauli province, 4, 43, 61, 62, 68yellow fever, 30, 95

Zevallos Gámez, Horacio, 173Zulen, Pedro, 120, 121, 128