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http://books.google.co.in/books?id=wS_v_EBcBtQC&pg=SA7-

PA7&dq=o.c+test+bakshi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zUoMT-

HsLsvJrAeRiNyYBA&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=falseINTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

1.1 Scope of Civil Engineering

Civil Engineering is the oldest branch of engineering which puts scientific knowledge

to practical use. It involves planning, design, construction and maintenance of

structures such as bridges, roads, canals, dams, tunnels and multi-storeyed buildings. It

also involves in water treatment units, waste management system, preserving,

protecting and restoring the environment etc.

Civil engineering aims at providing basic facilities, services, amenities and needs

of the public in urban as well as rural areas for efficient and economical distribution of

the available resources in nature.

1.2 Different fields of civil engineering:

1. Surveying2. Geotechnical and Foundation engineering3. Structural engineering4. Hydraulics5 W t R d I i ti i i

http://books.google.co.in/books?id=wS_v_EBcBtQC&pg=SA7-PA7&dq=o.c+test+bakshi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zUoMT-HsLsvJrAeRiNyYBA&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=wS_v_EBcBtQC&pg=SA7-PA7&dq=o.c+test+bakshi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zUoMT-HsLsvJrAeRiNyYBA&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=wS_v_EBcBtQC&pg=SA7-PA7&dq=o.c+test+bakshi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zUoMT-HsLsvJrAeRiNyYBA&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=wS_v_EBcBtQC&pg=SA7-PA7&dq=o.c+test+bakshi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zUoMT-HsLsvJrAeRiNyYBA&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=wS_v_EBcBtQC&pg=SA7-PA7&dq=o.c+test+bakshi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zUoMT-HsLsvJrAeRiNyYBA&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=wS_v_EBcBtQC&pg=SA7-PA7&dq=o.c+test+bakshi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zUoMT-HsLsvJrAeRiNyYBA&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=wS_v_EBcBtQC&pg=SA7-PA7&dq=o.c+test+bakshi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zUoMT-HsLsvJrAeRiNyYBA&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=wS_v_EBcBtQC&pg=SA7-PA7&dq=o.c+test+bakshi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zUoMT-HsLsvJrAeRiNyYBA&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=wS_v_EBcBtQC&pg=SA7-PA7&dq=o.c+test+bakshi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zUoMT-HsLsvJrAeRiNyYBA&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false

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5 Water Resources and Irrigation engineering

Applications:

1. To obtain the areas of fields or plots and other figures with irregularboundaries.

2. Layingthe roads or gas /water pipes at designed gradient3. Determination of elevations of stations and preparing contour maps4. Calculation of earthwork involved in the construction of project.5. Design and setout curves on communication routes such as roads, railways etc

for bringing about the change of direction gradually.

Geotechnical engineering:

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The Knowledge of geotechnical engineering is helpful in the following problems of

civil engineering

1. Foundation design and construction2. Highway pavement design3. Design of underground buildings and drainage structure4. Design of earth retaining structures.5. Design of earth dams6. Estimation of bearing capacity of soil and improving the bearing capacity

Structural Engineering:

This is the branch of civil engineering that deals with the safe and economical design

of structures.

A structure is the assemblage of two or more basic elements connected together in

such a way that it serves the function to carry the loads. Finding the internal stresses in

the components of structure is known as structural analysis. Finding suitable size of the

structure is known as design

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3. Design of super structure and sub structure4. Investigation of failure of member or structure for assigning responsibility and

avoiding causes of failure.

Hydraulics:

Study of mechanics of water and its flow characteristics is known as

hydraulics.

Applications:

1. Design of pipe lines and pumping system for oils gas water etc2. Design of valves, gates for control of flow in pipes as well as in open

channels.

3 Dimensional analysis and model studies

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Applications:

1. Calculation of reservoir capacity, catchments area, command area etc.2. Design and construction of reservoir and dams.3. Water supply schemes for cropping, drinking and other purposes.4. Design and laying canals, pipes, pumps and allied structures such as gates,

weir, notches etc

5. Flood control arrangements, diversion work etc.

Transportation Engineering:

It includes design, construction, maintenance of roads, railways, navigation and air

routes, design, construction and maintenance of railway lines, signal system are part of

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3. Design and provision of curves and allied structures such as bridge, culvert,tunnel etc.

4. Survey, design and provision of different modes of transportation i.e. airport,railways, roads, harbours etc.

Environmental Engineering:

It deals with study of natural environment, co system, relation between biotic and

biotic factors. Safety of people against different types of pollution and treatment

disposal of wastes.

Industrialization and increase in traffic are creating air pollution problems.

Environmental engineering while tackling all these problems provides healthy

environment to the public.

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Material technology:

It deals with wide range of construction materials in use along with their physical,

chemical and mechanical behavior. Material technology aims at inventing new

materials with better properties, durability and economy

Stone, brick, timber, lime, cement, sand, jellies and tiles are the traditional building

materials. The mixture of lime, cement and sand is known as mortar. The mixture of

cement, sand and jelly with water is known as concrete. The use of concrete with steel

bars placed in appropriate position helped in building strong and durable structures.

This composite material of steel and concrete is known as reinforced cement concrete.

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1.4 Impact of Infrastructural developments on the economy of the country:

The term infrastructure is used to denote the conditions which are available foreconomic development of a region. In other words infrastructure can be defined as the

facilities to be provided by the state or central government or local administration for

overall development of a region. The facilities include power generation,

transportation, health, education, water and sanitation and other public utilities.

The investments made on infrastructural developments have a profound impact

on the economy of the country. Some of the effects of investment made oninfrastructure is given below.

Investment on infrastructural facilities results in increased job opportunities forboth skilled and unskilled and literate and illiterate people. Eg: Construction of

new roads, bridges & canals provide employment to large number of poor

people.

The creation of better infrastructure in a region motivates entrepreneurs toestablish their own industries, service centers, commercial establishments etc.

This will open up job opportunities to a number of unemployed people in the

region. The improvements in job opportunities will have positive effect on

economy.

Summary :Civil Engineering involves planning, design, construction and maintenance of

structures such as buildings, bridges and roads. An Engineer who is competent to carry

out Civil Engineering works is recognized as a Civil Engineer

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2. FOUNDATION

2.1 Introduction:

Foundation is that part of the structure which in direct contact with the ground and

transmits the loads of the structure to the ground.

2.2 TYPES OF FOUNDATION:

1. SHALLOW FOUNDATION:If the depth of foundation is less than or equal to width of foundation is called shallow

foundation.

EX; Masonry footing, Isolated footing, combined footing, strap and RCC footing

etc

G.L.

Df

Bf

2. DEEP FOUNDATION:If the depth of foundation is greater than the width of foundation is called Deep

foundation

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2.3 TYPES OF FOOTING:

1.

WALL FOOTING:They are used to support structural walls that carry loads for other floors or to support

nonstructural walls. When the wall carries heavy load or when the SBC of soil is not

very high, then one can go for stepped masonry footing.

Masonry footing comes under stepped footing category which is the one that provides

a continuous longitudinal bearing. The spread footing for a continuous wall is calledstrip footing.

According to National Building Code in Brick and stone masonry slope is 0.5

H: 1V.

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If more than one column is placed on the bottom of the footing is called combined

footing. The shape is generally rectangular, trapezoidal in section. A Combined footing

is so proportioned that the center of gravity of the supporting are in line with the center

of gravity of the two column loads.

4. STRAP R.C.C FOOTING:A Strap footing comprises of two or more footings of individual columns, connected

by a Beam, called a Strap. The function of the strap beam is to transfer the load of

heavily loaded outer column to inner one.

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wall and columns loads of a structure or a large portion of structure.

Raft is used in following situations:

- When the loads are heavy and soil is very weak or highly compressible and to avoid

differential settlement in erratic soil.

- Raft is very useful in resisting large hydraulic uplift.

Types of Raft foundation:

1. Flat plate2. Flat plate thickened under columns3. Box Structure4. Matt placed on piles

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7. PILE FOUNDATION:Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to carry and transfer the load of the

structure to the bearing ground located at some depth below ground surface.

Following situations, Pile foundation is preferred.

1. The load of the super structure is heavy and its distribution is uneven.2 The top soil has poor bearing capacity

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END BEARING PILES:End Bearing Piles are used to transfer load through the pile tip to a suitable hard

bearing stratum passing soft soil or transforming load through water.

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5. Springing Point: These are the points from which the curve of thearch springs Springing Line: It is an imaginary line joining the

springing points of either end Abutment: This is the end support of anarch.

6.Pier: This is an intermediate support of an arch.7.Span: The clear horizontal between the supports.8. Rise: The clear vertical distance between the highest point on the intrados

and the springing line.

According to the shape, arches may be classified as the following:

1. Flat Arch2. Segmental Arch3. Semicircular Arch4.

Horse Shoe Arch5. Elliptical Arch

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4. Stone Masonry

Depending upon the arrangement of stones in the construction, degree of

refinement used in shaping the stone and finishing adopted, stone masonry can be

classified as following:

1. Rubble Masonry2. Ashlars Masonry Through Stone It is a stone header. Through Stones are placed across the

wall at regular intervals. They should be strong, non porous and should be of

sufficient thickness.

4.1 Rubble masonry

1. Un-coursed Rubble masonry

The stones used vary in their shape and size and are directly obtained from thequarry. The stones are carefully laid so as to break joints as much as possible. To

avoid thick joints, interior of the wall is properly filled with chips and mortar. The

thickness of the joint is kept not more than 13 mm. In case of stone walls less than 60

cm in thickness, bond stones provided to interlock the two faces should extend up to

the full thickness of wall. The quoins are chisel or hammers dressed and are laid as

header and stretcher alternately.

2. Random Rubble Masonry

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4.2 Ashlar Masonry

The work built from carefully dressed stones with accurate bedding and jointing istermed as ashlar masonry. It is costly and is of superior quality. By arranging the stone

blocks in various patterns, different types of appearances can be obtained. The backing

of ashlar masonry walls may be built of ashlar or rubble masonry. The size of the stone

blocks should be in proportion to wall thickness. Ashlar masonry can be classified

under the following categories:

o Ashlar Fineo Ashlar rough tooledo Ashlar Rocko Ashlar Chamferedo

Ashlar facingo Ashlar block in course

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6. LINTELS

Lintel

6.1 Lintel:

A lintel is a horizontal member which is placed across an opening to support the

portion of the structure above it.

6.2 Types and Classification:

1. Wood Lintel2. Stone Lintel3. Brick Lintel4. Steel Lintel5. Reinforced Cement Concrete Lintel

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thickness. Bricks are so arranged that 1.9 cm to 3.8 cm wide space is left length wise

for the insertion of reinforcements. The gap is then filled with rich cement mortar or

cement concrete.

5. Reinforced Concrete Lintels:

Used for span greater than 1 meters. Minimum thickness upto 1.2 m length of span

a 15 cms deep lintel is found to be safe. As a general rule add 25 mm for every

additional 30 cm span.

Sterrips2L8

-

Supporting R/f

Main

R/F

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7. BALCONY CANOPY & CHEJJA

7.1 Balcony:It is an external balustrade platform with access from an upper floor.

Functions: For relaxation and from architectural point of view.

7.2 Canopy:

It is a shelter to an opening in a building consisting of a small roof with or without side

walls

Functions: It can be used for parking vehicles.

7.3 Chejja:

The chejja gives protection to the opening space against rain water and direct sunshine.

Method of construction:

1. Centering plates are fixed at the chejja bottom level with the help of acre span

&manual apparated jack.

2. Oil is smirred on the top of the plates.3. Reinforcement rods with proper cover are placed.4. Side shuttering is fixed.5. Height of concrete at the wall side as well as at the end of chejja is marked.6.Concrete is laid while laying concrete care is taken to see that reinforcement is topnot at bottom.

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8. ROOFS

8.1 Roof:

It is defined as the uppermost part of a building which is constructed in the form of a

framework to give protection to the building against rain, heat, snow, wind etc.

8.2 Requirements of a Roof:

It should have adequate strength and stability to carry the superimposeddead and live load.

It should protect the building against rain, sun, wind etc. It should be water proof. It should be fire resistant.

- Flat Roof:

A roof lay at an angle of less than 10 degree to the horizontal is called flat roof.

All the flat roofs in the modern age are generally constructed by R.C.C.

- R.C.C roof:

Its design may be done in two ways as one way slab and two way slabs. The code

IS: 456- 2000 recommends maximum center to center spacing of beams in a RCC

slab is 3 meters only.

- Sloped Roof:

A sloped roof is also known as Pitched roof.

8 3 Parts of a Roof:

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7. Principal Rafter: These are the inclined members of the truss.

8. Span: The horizontal distance between the internal faces of walls or supports are

known as a span or a clear span.

9. Effective span: The horizontal distance between the centers of walls or

supports.

8.4 TILES ROOFINGs:

Advantages: Residential buildings and country houses are using these types of tileroofings. This is because country tiles are manufactured from locally available

earth. Process of manufacture is same as brick.

The various types of tiles generally used are:

- Plain or flat tiles made up of clay and having a size of 25 cm X 15 cm X 9 to 15 cm

thick.- Curved or pan tiles

- Pot tiles or half round country tiles

- Spanish tiles

- Italian or Allahabad tiles

- Inter-locking tiles.

8.5 LEAN-TO-ROOF:

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9. TRUSS

9.1 Trussed Roof

A roof is the uppermost part of a building which is supported on structural membersand covered with a roofing material

Roof trusses are generally used when the span exceeds 5m and when there are noinside supporting walls or partitions for the purlins.

King-Post Truss

It is suitable for spans varying from 5 m to 9m. King post truss consists of twoprincipal rafters, a tie beam, king post and two struts. The spacing of the king posttruss is limted to 3m centre to centre. The trusses are supported on the bed blocks ofstone or concrete, embedded in the supporting walls.

The principal rafters support the framework of the roof. The tie beam receives the end

of the principal rafters and prevents the wall from spreading outwards due to thethrust. The king post prevents the tie beam from sagging at its centre. The strutssupport centres of the principal rafters and prevent their sagging.

Queen-Post Truss

It is suitable for spans varying from 9 to 14m. It differs from king post as it has twowooden uprights or vertical members known as queen posts. Queen posts consist oftwo queen posts, twp principal rafters, struts, tie beam, straining beam, straining sills,cleats, purlins.

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Some commonly used ones:

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5. Purlins:Structural members which are supported on the principal rafter and which runtransverse to the trusses. Purlins support the roof covering.

Principal rafters and main ties are generally made of two angle sections placed side byside. Struts and ties are generally made of single angle sections. The members of aroof truss are joined together using gusset plate either by welds, bolts or rivets.

9.4 Tubular Truss:

They are quite popular as they are light in weight and economical. They are fabricatedfrom round steel tubes. Round Tubular section has less surface area and less weightthan an equivalent rolled steel shape. The members of a roof truss are joined together

by welding. To support the purlins (rectangular plates with hole) are also welded tothe principal rafters at the joints.

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10. WEATHER PROOFING COURSE

The process of treating the surface of the roof against the weather is called asweather proofing course.

It is done by several ways .They are listed as follows:

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11. Stairs

11.1 Stairs:

It is a set of steps leading from one floor to other.

11.2 Stair case:

The room or enclosure of the building where stair is located.

11.3 Stair way:

The opening or space occupied by the stair.

11.4 Components of stair:

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7. Going: It is the horizontal distance between two successive riser faces.8. Nosing: It is the projecting part of the tread beyond the face of riser.9. Strings or stringers: These are the sloping members which support the steps of

the stair.

10. Newel post: It is a vertical member which is placed at the ends of the flights toconnect the ends of the strings and hand rails.

11. Baluster: It is Vertical member of wood or metal supporting the hand rail.12. Baluster: It is a row of balusters surmounted by hand rail, to provide protection

for users of stair.

13. Hand rail: It is rounded or moulded member of wood or metal following thecontour of nosing line, and fixed on the top of balusters.

14. Head Room: It is the min clear vertical distance between the tread andceiling.

15. Run: It is total length of stairs on a horizontal plane, including landings.16. Header: It is the horizontal structural member supporting stair stringers or

landings

17. Line of Nosings: It is an imaginary line parallel to the strings and tangential tothe nosings.

18 Pi h l I i h l hi h h li f i f i k i h h

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1. Straight stairs: The stairs runs straight between the two floors. Used for small houses

where there are restrictions on available width. The stair may consist of either one

single flight or more than one flight with a landing.

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i. Newel stairs: It is the one which has a newel at the foot and head of each flight of the

stair.

ii. Open Newel stairs: In this type, Lateral space is left between the turning flights.

iii. Geometrical stair: The strings and hand rails are continuous and are set out in

accordance with the geometrical principles. They may be circular, spiral, helical or

elliptical.

3. Quarter turn stairs: A quarter turn stairs is the one which changes its direction either

to the left or to the right. Turn is effected by introducing quarter space landing or by

providing winders.

Quarter turn stairs are of 2 types.

i. Newel quarter turn stairs

ii. Geometrical stairs.

i. Newel quarter turn stairs: These have newel post at the beginning and ending of each

flight. At the quarter turn there may be quarter space landing or winders.

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iii. Geometrical half turn stairs: The stringers and hand rails are continuous, without

any intervening newel post.

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7. Continuous stairs: These stairs do not have either landing or any intermediate newel

post. They are geometrical in shape & are of following types.

a. Circular stair

b. Spiral stair

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