Notes and References

Chapter One

I. Augustine, The City of God, bk xix, ch. XII (Everyma n's Library,1950) p. 249.

2. There are man y sources for this ana lysis, but see especia lly H. L. A.Har t's acco unt of 't he simple trui sms' that constitute ' the core of goodsense in the doctrine of Natural Law' : The Concept of Law (Oxford :Clarendon Press, 1961) p. 194.

3. For an attempt to view intern ational relat ions as a special case of therelat ions of powers, see Arthur Lee Burns, Of Powers and theirPolitics: A Critique of Theoretical Approaches (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prent ice-Hall, 1968).

4. Raymond Aron, Peace and War: A Theory of International Relations(Londo n: Weidenfeld & Nicolson , 1966) p. 94.

5. See Martin Wight, Systems of S tates (Leicester University Press andLond on School of Economics, 1977) ch. I.

6. Ibid.7. See especially Sys tem and Process in International Politics (New Yor.,;

Wiley, 1957).8. Kapl an defines a system of action as 'a set of variables so related in

contradistinctio n to its environment, that describable behaviouralregulari ties cha racterise the inte rna l relation ships of the varia bles toeach other, and the externa l relat ionships of the set of individualvariables to combinations of exte rnal variables' : ibid . p. 4.

9. l owe this point to Mar tin Wight, Systems of States .10. See A. H. L. Heeren, A Manual of the History of the Political System

of Europe and its Colonies, Gottingen, 1809 (Oxford: Talb oys, 1834)vol. I. p. v.

I I. See note 8.12. Heeren , Manual, pp . vii-viii.

Chapter Two

I. This threefold division derives from Martin Wight. The best publ ishedaccount of it is his 'Western Values in International Relati ons' , inDiplomat ic Investigations, ed. Herbert Butterfi eld and Martin Wight

309

310 Notes and References

(London: Allen & Unwin , 1967). The division is further discussed inmy 'Martin Wight and The Theory of International Relations. TheSecond Martin Wight Memorial Lecture', British Journal of Interna­tional Studies, vol. II , no . 2 (1976).

2. In Kant's own doctrine there is of course ambivalence as between theuniversalism of The Idea of Universal History from a CosmopoliticalPoint Of View (1784) and the position taken up in Perpetual Peace(1795), in which Kant accepts the substitute goal of a league of' republican' states .

3. I have myself used the term 'Grotian' in two senses: (i) as here, todescribe the broad doctrine that there is a society of states; (ii) todescribe the solidarist form of this doctrine, which united Grotiushimself and the twentieth-century neo-Grotians, in opposition to thepluralist conception of international society entertained by Vattel andlater positivist writers. See 'The Grotian Conception of InternationalSociety', in Diplomatic Investigations .

4. Otto Gierke, Natural Law and the Theory of Society 1500 to 1800,trans. Ernest Barker (Boston : Beacon Press, 1957) p. 85.

5. See 'Third Letter on the Proposals for Peace with the RegicideDirectory of France', in The Works of the Right Honourable EdmundBurke , ed. John C. Nimmo (London: Bohn's British Classics, 1887),

6. E. de Vattel, The Law of Nations (1758) Introduction, translated byCarnegie Institute (1916) p. 3.

7. Martin Wight , 'International Legitimacy', International Relations . vol.IV, no. I (May 1972).

8. James Lorimer, The Institutes of the Law of Nations (Edinburgh, 1883)vol. I , pp. 101-3.

9. See Igor de Rachewiltz, 'Some Remarks on the Ideological Founda­tions of Chingis Khan's Empire', Papers on Far Eastern History, 7(March 1973).

10. See, for example, Francisco de Victoria, 'De Indis et de Jure BelliRelectiones', trans. J. P. Bate, in The Classics of International Law, ed.E. Nys (Washington: Carnegie Institute, 1917).

II . Grotius, De Jure Belli ac Pacis, trans. Francis W. Kelsey (Oxford :Clarendon Press, 1925) II, xxii, 2.

12. Ibid .13. Vattel, Law of Nations, III, iii, 34.14. See The European Anarchy (London: Allen & Unwin , 1916) and The

International Anarchy (London: Allen & Unwin, 1926).15. See my 'Society and Anarchy in International Relations' , in Diplomat­

ic Investigations. The present section incorporates some material fromthis essay.

16. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Everyman's Library, 1953) ch. 13, p.65.17. Ibid . p. 66.18. Ibid . p. 64.19. Ibid . p. 65.20. Spinoza, Tractatus Politicus , III, ii, in The Political Works of Spinoza ,

ed. A. G. Wernham (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958) p. 293.

Notes and References 311

21. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, trans. Jolles (Modern Library Edition,1943) pt I, ch . I, p. 8.

22. Ibid . pp. 7-8.23. Hobbes, Leviathan. p. 63.

Chapter Three

I. This concept of the 'protection' of the rules may seem to carry thesinister implication of justifying conduct that is contrary to the rules,or of placing persons 'above' them, but I have not been able to thinkof a better term .

2. See, for example, M. Fortes and E. E. Evans-Pritchard, AfricanPolitical Systems (Oxford University Press, 1940); John Middletonand David Tait (eds) , Tribes Without Rulers, Studies in AfricanSegmentary Systems (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1958); and1. Southall, 'Stateless Societies', in Encyclopaedia of the SocialSciences, ed. David L. Sills (New York: Free Press, 1968). I am alsoindebted to Roger D. Masters's penetrating article 'World Politics as aPrimitive Political System', World Politics, vol. XVI , no . 4 (July 1964).

3. Masters, 'World Politics as a Primitive Political System' , p. 607.4. See Schapera, Government and Politics in Tribal Societies (New York:

Watts, 1956) ch . I. For Maine's view see Ancient Law (London: JohnMurray, 1930) p. 144.

5. Fortes and Evans -Pritchard, African Political Systems, p. 10.6. Ibid, p. 18.

Chapter Four

I. Ali Mazrui, Towards a Pax Africana (London : Weidenfeld &Nicolson, 1967).

2. The distinctions between general and particular justice, formal andsubstantive, arithmetical and proportionate, commutative and dis­tributive, are all to be found in Aristotle. For contemporary analysessee Morris Ginsberg, On Justice in Society (London: Heinemann,1965); and John Rawls , A Theory ofJustice (Oxford University Press,1972).

3. Laws, bk VI.

4. See Telford Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam, an American Tragedy(New York: Random House, 1970).

5. Kenneth Boulding, 'The Concept of World Interest' , in Economics andthe Idea of Mankind , ed. Bert F. Hoselitz (Columbia University Press,1965) p. 55.

6. Julius Stone, 'Approaches to the Notion of International Justice', inThe Future of the International Legal Order: Trends and Patterns, ed.

312 Notes and Ref erences

C. Black and Richard A. Falk, vol. I (Princeton University Press,1969).

7. Mazrui, Towards a Pax Africana, p. 137.

Chapter Five

I. 'Une disposition des choses au moyen de laqu elle aucune puissance nese trou ve en etat de predorniner absolument et de faire la loi auxautres': de Vattel, Droit des Gens, bk III, ch. ii , section 47, text in J. B.Scott, The Classics of Int ernational La w. Le Droit des Gens(Washington: Carnegie Institut e, 1916) p. 40.

2. In Morton Kaplan's terms the only historical 'bipo lar' systems havebeen 'loose' not ' tight' . See Sys tem and Process in InternationalPolitics, ch. 2.

3. See, for example , Quincy Wright, A Study of War (University ofChicago Press, 1964) abridged, p. 122.

4. Burke, 'Third Letter on the Proposals for Peace with the RegicideDirectory of France', p. 441.

5. Ibid .; Friedrich von Gentz, Fragments on the Balance of Power inEurope (Londo n, 1806); and Heeren, A Manual of the History of thePolitical System of Europe and its Colonies.

6. See J.-J . Rousseau, A Project of Perpetual Peace (London: Dand er­son, 1927); and Arnold Toynb ee, A Study of History (Oxfo rdUniversity Press, 1935- 59) vol. III , pp. 301-2.

7. See David Hum e, 'Of the Balance of Power ' , in Essays Moral,Political and Literary , vol. I (London: Longmans, G reen & Co., 1898).

8. Sir Herbert Butterfield arg ues persuasively that contrary to Hume'sfamous arg ument that it derived from the ancient world, the doctrinetha t a balance of powe r should be maintained th roughout theinternat ional system as a whole 'seems to come from the modernworld's reflection on its own experience'. See The Balance of Power' ,in Diplomatic Investigations, p. 133.

9. L. Oppenheim, International Law, 1st edn (London: Longmans, 1905)vol. I, p. 73.

10. Fo r valuable discussions of the multiple meanin gs of the term, seeWight , 'The Balance of Power' in Diplomatic Investigations; and InisL. Claude, Power and International Relations (New York : Rand omHouse, 1962).

I I. See J. H.von Justi, Die Chimare des Gleichgewichts in Europa (Altona,1758); and Richard Cobd en, ' Russia' , in Political Writ ings (London:Ridgeway, 1867 and Lond on : Cassell, 1886).

12. See I. Kant , Perpetual Peace, trans. H. O'Brien (Liberal Arts Press,1957).

13. See Lord Acton , Lectures on Modern History , ed. J . N. Figgis andR. V. Laurence (London: Macmillan , 1910).

Notes and References 313

14. Oeuvres choisies de Fenelon, tome IV; quoted in Charles Dupuis, Leprincipe d'equilibre et Ie concert europeen (Paris: Perrin & Cie, 1909)pp.26-7.

IS. For a survey of some of these concepts, see Morton H. Halperin,Limited War in the Nuclear Age (New York: Wiley, 1963).

16. See Kaplan, System and Process in International Politics. pp . 50-2.17. I have set this out in The Control of the Arms Race (London:

Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1961) ch . 2; and in 'Arms Control : AStocktaking and Prospectus', in Problems of Modern Strategy, ed .Alastair Buchan (London: Chatto & Windus, 1970).

18. Andre Beaufre, Dissuasion et strategic (Paris: Armand Colin, 1964).19. See Robert S. McNamara, The Essence of Security (New York:

Harper & Row , 1968).20. See The Control of the Arms Race, ch . 5.21. Ibid . ch . 9.

Chapter Six

I. See Myres S. McDougal and Associates, Studies in World PublicOrder (Yale University Press , 1960) esp . ch . I. See also RosalynHiggins, 'Policy Considerations and the International Judicial Pro­cess' , International and Comparative Law Quarterly, vol. 17 (1968) .

2. Hobbes, Leviathan (London: Blackwell, 1946) ch . 13, p. 83.3. John Austin, The Province of Jurisprudence Determined (originally

published in 1832, and London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1954) lectureVI.

4. Hans Kelsen, The General Theory of the Law and State, trans. A.Wed berg (Harvard University Press , 1946).

5. ibid . ch . VI.

6. I have elaborated this argument in 'The Grotian Conception ofInternational Society', in Diplomatic Investigations.

7. See Hart, The Concept of Law, p. 77.8. Ibid . p. 79.9. Ibid. p. 90.

10. Ibid. p. 92.II. Ibid . p. 90.12. Ibid. p. 231.13. For a discussion of this threefold division, see Georg Schwarzenber­

ger, The Frontiers of International Law (London: Stevens & Son , 1962)ch. I.

14. Oppenheim, International Law, vol. I, ch . I.15. See, for example, Myres S. McDougal , Harold D. Lasswell and W.

Michael Reisman, 'The World Constitutive Process of AuthoritativeDecision', in The Future of the International Legal Order, ed . RichardA. Falk and Cyril E. Black (Princeton University Press , 1969) vol. I.See also C. Wilfred Jenks, 'Multinational Entities in the Law of

314 Notes and References

Nations' , in Transnational Law in a Changing Society , Essays inHonour of Philip C. Jessup, ed. Wolfgang Friedmann, Louis Henkinand Oliver Lissitzyn (Columbia University Press, 1972).

16. See Philip C. Jessup, Transnational Law (Yale University Press, 1956).17. See C. Wilfred Jenks , The Common Law of Mank ind (London: Stevens

& Son, 1958); and Percy E. Corbett, The Growth of World Law(Princeton University Press, 1971).

18. B. V. A. Roling, International Law in an Expanded World (Amsterdam:Djambatan, 1960) p. 83.

19. Wolfgang Friedmann, The Changing Structure of International Law(London: Stevens & Son, 1964).

20. See J . L. Brierly, The Basis ofObligation in International Law (Oxford:Clarendon Press , 1958); and Hersch Lauterpacht, International Lawand Human Rights (London: Stevens & Son, 1950).

21. Richard A. Falk, The Status of Law in Int ernational Society(Princeton University Press, 1970) p. 177.

22. Ibid . ch . 5.23. See E. McWhinney, International Law and World Revolution (Leyden :

Sijthoff, 1967) ch. 4.24. Rosalyn Higgins, The Development of International Law Through the

Political Organs of the United Nations (Oxford University Press, 1963)p.5.

25. See C. Wilfred Jenks , Law, Freedom and Welfare (London: Stevens &Son, 1963) ch. 5.

26. Ibid . p. 83.27. See Higgins, 'Policy Considerations and the International Judicial

Process' .28. See Richard A. Falk , 'McDougal and Feliciano's Law and Minimum

World Public Order', Natural Law Forum, vol. 8 (1963) p. 172.29. Martin Wight, 'Why Is There No International Theory?', in Diplomat­

ic Investigations, p. 29.30. Ian Brownlie , Internat ional Law and the Use of Force by States

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963) p. 424.31. See, for example, ibid . pp. 432ff.32. For some cogent criticisms of the doctrine of consent, see Brierly, The

Basis of Obligation in International Law, ch. I .33. Higgins , 'Policy Considerations and the International Judicial Pro­

cess' , p. 62.34. For a further discussion of this point see my ' International Law and

International Order' , International Organisation , vol. 26, no . 3(Summer 1972).

Chapter Seven

I. Harold Nicolson, Diplomacy (Oxford University Press, 1950) p. 15.2. Sir Ernest Satow, A Guide to Diplomatic Practice, 4th edn (London:

Longmans, Green & Co ., 1957) p. I.

Notes and References 315

3. See Philippe Cahier and Luke T . Lee, 'Vienna Conventions onDiplomatic and Consular Relations', International Conciliation, no.571 (January 1969).

4. Michael Hardy, Modern Diplomatic Law (Manchester UniversityPress, 1968).

5. Ragnar Numelin , The Beginnings of Diplomacy. A Sociological Studyof Inter-tribal and International Relations (Oxford University Press,1950) p. 124.

6. Sir Geoffrey Butler and Simon Maccoby, The Development ofInternational Law (London: Longmans, Green & Co ., 1928) p. 74.

7. Ibid. p. 80.8. See Francois de Callieres, On the Manner of Negotiating with Princes,

trans. A. F. Whyte (University of Notre Dame Press , 1963).9. Ibid . p. II.

10. Ibid p. 9.II. Ibid. p. 47.12. See Alfred Vagts, The Military Attache (Princeton University Press,

1967).13. Johan Galtung and Mari Ruge , 'Patterns of Diplomacy', Journal of

Peace Research, no. 2 (1962) p. 127.14. See Nicolson, Diplomacy; and The Evolution of Diplomatic Method

(London: Constable, 1954).IS. See especially Eugene R. Black 's plea for a corps of 'development

diplomats' in The Diplomacy of Economic Development (HarvardUniversity Press, 1960).

16. R. B. Mowat, Diplomacy and Peace (London: Williams & Norgate,1935).

Chapter Eight

I. B. V. A. Roling, International Law in an Expanded World (Amsterdam:Djambatan, 1960) p. 19.

2. Raymond Aron, On War: Atomic Weapons and Global Diplomacy(London: Seeker & Warburg, 1958) ch. VI.

Chapter Nine

I. See, for example, George Liska, Imperial America. The InternationalPolitics of Primacy, Studies in International Affairs, no. 2 (Wa­shington: Centre of Foreign Policy Research, Johns Hopkins Uni­versity, School of Advanced International Studies, 1967).

2. See speech by Mr Eisaku Sato in the United Nations GeneralAssembly (October 1970), The Japan Times (22 October 1970); andspeech in the Diet (November 1970), The Japan Times (26 November1970).

316 Notes and References

3. Ranke wrote: 'If one could establish as a definition of a great powerthat it must be able to maintain itself against all others even when theyare united, then Frederick had raised Prussia to that position.' See TheGreat Powers, translation in T. H. von Laue, Ranke , The FormativeYears (Princeton University Press , 1950) p. 203.

4. This is the theme of Sir Herbert Butterfield's essay on 'The GreatPowers' , in Diplomatic Investigations.

5. W. T. R. Fox , The Super Powers: The United States , Britain and theSoviet Union - Their Responsibility for Peace (New York: HarcourtBrace , 1944).

6. But see Oran Young, The Politics of Force: Bargaining DuringInternational Crises (Pr inceton University Press , 1968); and CoralBell, The Conventions of Crisis: A Study in Diplomatic Management(Oxford University Press , 1971).

7. See Carsten Holbraad, Super Powers and International Confl ict(London: Macmillan, 1979) ch. 5.

8. See Georg Schwarzenberger, ' Hegemonial Intervention' , Yearbook ofWorld Affairs (London: Stevens & Son , 1959).

9. On the 'Brezhnev Doctrine' , see Theodor Schweisfurth, 'MoscowDoctrine as a Norm of International Law' , Aussen Politik, vol. 22, I

(1971 ).10. Lord Curzon, Frontiers (Oxford: Clarendon Press , 1907) p. 42.II. M . F. Lindley, The Acquisition and Government of Backward Territory

in International Law (London: Longmans, 1926).12. Quoted in ibid . p. 208 .13. Walter Lippmann, U.S. War Aims (Boston: Little, Brown & Co .,

1944).14. Curzon, Frontiers, p. 43.15. These terms are analysed at length by Carsten Holbraad in

'Condominium and Concert', in The Super Powers and WorldOrder, ed. Holbraad (Canberra: Australian National UniversityPress, 1971).

16. See John Strachey, On the Prevention of War (London: Macmillan,1962).

Chapter Ten

I. See the ' Revised Soviet Draft Treaty on General and CompleteDisarmament under Strict International Control' of 24 September1962, and the United States' 'Outline of Basic Provision of a Treatyon General and Complete Disarmament in a Peaceful World' of 18April 1962. Both are printed as appendices to Sir Michael Wright,Disarm and Verify (London: Chatto & Windus, 1964).

2. The argument of the next few paragraphs is set out in greater detail inThe Control of the Arms Race, ch . 2.

Notes and References 317

3. Litvinov first put forward the proposal at a meeting of thepreparatory commission of the League of Nations DisarmamentConference on the occasion of the first appearance of Sovietdelegates at Geneva in 1927, and elaborated it most fully at theWorld Disarmament Conference in February 1932. See League ofNations, 'Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Arma­ments', Verbatim Records of Plenary Meetings, vol. I, p. 82.

4. However, the speed, cost and destructiveness of war in a 'disarmedworld' would not be determined by the size or sophistication of armsalone but also by moral and social factors .

5. I have discussed this doctrine in 'The Grotian Conception ofInternational Society', in Diplomatic Investigations.

6. See Kaplan, System and Process in International Politics, pp . 50-2;and Arthur Lee Burns, 'F rom Balance to Deterrence', World Politics,IX, 4 July 1957).

7. Ibid.8. Kant, Perpetual Peace, pp . 19-20.9. Hegel's Philosophy of Right , trans. T. M. Knox (Oxford: Clarendon

Press , 1942) pt III.

10. Raymond Aron, Peace and War, A Theory of Internat ional Relations(London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1962) pp . 99-104.

II. See ' Rousseau on War and Peace', in Stanley Hoffmann, The State ofWar. Essays in the Theory and Practice of International Politics(London: Pall Mall Press , 1965).

12. This is quoted by Richard Cobden at the beginning of 'England,Ireland and America' : see The Political Writings of Richard Cobden(London: Cassel , 1886) p . 3.

13. Ibid. p. 216.14. John Stuart Mill , 'A Few Words on Non-Intervention', in Disserta­

tions and Discussions, vol. III (London: Longmans, Green, & Co .1867).

15. See, especially, Cobden, ' England, Ireland and America' and 'Russia,1836', in Political Writings.

16. Strachey, On the Prevention of War.

Chapter Eleven

I. On this point see S. Prakash Sinha, New Nations and the Law ofNations (Leyden: Sijthoff, 1967).

2. See Joseph Nye, Peace in Parts: Integration and Conflict in RegionalOrganisations (Boston: Little, Brown & Co ., 1971).

3. See, for example, Lord Gladwyn, 'World Order and the Nation-State:A Regional Approach', in Conditions of World Order, ed . StanleyHoffmann (New York: Simon & Shuster, 1970).

4. See Keesing's Contemporary Archives (February 12-18, 1973) p. 25,725.

3 18 Notes and R ef erences

5. See Internat ion al Co mmittee of the Red Cross, Draft AdditionalProtocols to the Geneva Conventions 0/ August 12, 1949 (Ge neva ,1973).

6. I have discussed these exa mples, an d the wide r questio n of privat einternationa l vio lence, in 'Civil Violence and Internation al Order',Adelphi Papers, no. 83 (197 1).

7. See Samuel P. Huntingdon , 'Tra nsnationa l Organ isations in WorldPolitics' , World Politics. vol. xxv, no. 3 (April 1973).

8. Ibid. p. 336.9. See George Ball , 'T he Prom ise of the Mul tina tion al Co rpo ration' ,

Fortune, vol. 75, no . 6 (1 June 1967); and J.-J. Servan-Schreibe r, LeDeft Americain (Paris, 1968).

10. Rob ert G ilpin , 'The Politics of Tran snat ion al Econo mic Relation s' , inTransnational Relations and World Politics, ed. Joseph N ye andRobe rt Keoh ane (Harva rd Uni versity Press, 1972).

11. Huntingdon , 'Tra nsna tiona l Organ isat ion s in World Politics' , p. 363.12. Z. Brzezinski, Between Two Ages (New York: Viking Press, 1970) p. 3.13. Ibid . p. 19.14. Karl W. Deutsch and Alexande r Eckstein, 'Na tional Industrialisat ion

and the Declining Shar e of the Internat ion al Eco no mic Secto r J890­1959' , World Politics . vol. XlII (Ja nuary 1961).

15. See Geoffrey Blainey, The Tyranny 0/ Distance: How Distance shapedAustralia 's History (Me lbo urne: Sun Book s, 1966).

16. This is stated most clearl y in Richard A. Falk, 'A New Paradigm forInternat ion al Legal Studies', Yale Law Journal, vo l. 84 ( 1975).Pro fessor Falk 's views are disc ussed also in Cha pte rs 6, 12 and 13.

17. Nye an d Keoh an e, Transnational Relations and World Politics.18. These views are not on the who le taken by Nye and Keoh an e, who

make so ma ny co ncession s to their poten tial critics that thei r thesisbecom es a very mild one. They do , however , hold the seco nd of thefive views I reject, na mely tha t tra nsna tio nal inte ractions arc nowclea rly mor e impo rta nt in world politics than in earlier era s. SeeTransnational Relations and World Politics, Int roduction .

19. Aron, Peace and War. p. 105.20. For a persu asive stateme nt o f th is view , see Osvaldo Sunke l

' Development, Unde rdeve lopmen t, Dep end ence, Marginal ity andSpat ial Imbalances - Towards a G loba l Approach' , a pap er pre­sented to the Con ferencia del Pacifico, Vina del Mar, Chile ( 197G),

Chapter Twelve

1. See Cyril E. Black an d Richard A. Falk (eds), The Future 0/ theInternational Legal Order, vol. I (1969); and Richard A. Fa lk, ThisEndangered Planet: Prospects and Proposals lor Human Survival (NewYo rk: Random Hou se, 1971).

Notes and References 319

2. See Karl W. Deutsch et al., Political Community in the North AtlanticArea (Princeton University Press, 1957).

3. I have developed these po ints in 'Society and Anarchy in Int ernationalRelations', in Diplomatic Investigations.

4. J. N . Bhagwati writes that 'one looks almost in vain in literature andsociological and political writing before the Second World War forany systema tic, coherent and sustained discussion of the "gap"': seeEconomics and World Order From the 1970s to the 1990s (Lond on :Macmill an, 1972) p. 6.

5. On this point, see ibid. pp . 5-10.6. This Endangered Planet, p. 98.7. The idea of ' the traged y of the Commons' is developed by Garett

Hardin in Science (13 December 1968). It refers to the destruction ofthe common pastures in England through the overgrazing of herds.

8. Linda P. Shields and Marvin C. Ott, 'The Environment al Crisis:Intern at ion al and Supranational Approaches' , International Relations,vol. IV, no . 6 (November 1974).

Chapter Thirteen

I . Falk, This Endangered Planet, ch. VII.

2. Rajni Kothari, Footsteps Into the Future: Diagnosis of the PresentWorld and a Design f or an Alternative (New Delh i: Orient Longman,1974) p. 10.

3. Ibid. p. 7.4. Nye, Peace in Parts, ch. I.

5. Kothari , Footsteps Into the Future, p. xx.6. Ibid. p. 141.7. Ibid . p. 156.8. 'Report to the Tenth National Congress of the Communist Party of

China, 24 August 1973', Asia Research Bulletin , vol. 3, no . 4(September 1973) p. 2116.

9. On the Chinese polemics see the collection of Chinese statements inWhence the Differences (New Era , no date) ; G . F. Hudson , R.Lowenthal and R. MacFarquhar (eds), 'The Sino-Soviet Dispute',China Quarterly (1961); and W. E. Griffi th , The Sino-Soviet Rift(London: Allen & Unwin , 1964).

10. See 'The Khrushchev Revisionists' Fear of Contradictions' , Red Flag(31 July 1965) pp . 34-41.

II . Apologists of Neo Colonialism. Comment on the Open Letter of theCentral Committee of the c.P.S.U. by the Editorial Departments ofRenmin Ribao and Red Flag (Peking: Foreign Languages Press)pp .I -2.

12. Ibid. p. 4.13. On these points, see especially Two Different Lines on the Questions of

War and Peace (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1963); and On

320 Notes and References

Khrushchev's Phoney Communism and Its Historical Lessons for theWorld (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1964).

14. Alternative strategies for structural change are reviewed in JohanGaltung, 'A Structural Theory of Imperialism', Journal of PeaceResearch. no. 2 (1971) especially pp. 106-9.

Index

Acton , Lord 106Ancillon, J. P. F. 12,32Aquin as, St Thomas, Thomist

tradition 29Aristotle 77, 313arms control

agreements on 206and general disarmament 226-7interest of world in 81, 82and nuclear weapons 277, 301see also disarmament

Aron , Raymond viii, 10, 190, 238,268

Association of South East AsianNations (ASEAN) 295

Augustine of Hippo, St 4Austin, John 124, 125

balance of power vii, ix, 49con temporary existence of 250,

254criticism of 18, 102-7description of 97-102development of concept 31,

35-6, 165general and local balances 98and the great powers 108-12,

201,287and international law 104, 138-9and justice 87-8and mutual nuclear

deterrence 116-18, 254simple and complex

balances 97-8and war 104-5, 181, 182-3, 192

Bacon, Francis 26Ball, George 261Beaufre, Andre 118Bentham , Jeremy 34, 130Bhagwati, J . N. 319

321

Black, Cyril E. 272Black, Eugene R. 315Bodin, Jean 30Boulding, Kenneth 84Brezhnev Doctrine 209,210Brierly, J . L. 142Britain

dom inance in Middle East 207as middle power 222and nuclear weapons 185, 186possible overlapping authorities

in 246,258primacy in Commonwealth 208relations with U.S. 167

Brownlie, Ian 148Brzezinski, Z. 263Burke, Edmund 32,99, 100, 103Burns , A. L. 232, 309Butler, Sir Geoffrey 161Butterfield, Herbert 312Bynkershoek, Cornelis van 32, 34

Callieres, Francois de 35, 162-3,165, 168, 175

Chinaas champion of Third

World 286and diplomacy 172and European states system 13,

37as a great power 98, 108-10,

197-9and nuclear deterrence 115-16,

118,234relations with Soviet Union and

U.S. 219,220views on Marxist

revolution 300-2Chingis Khan 41-2Chou En Lai 300

322 Index

Christian internationalsociety 26-7 , 31, 32, 42

Churchill, Winston 215, 251Clausewitz, Carl von 48, 180Cobden, Richard 105, 237, 242-3Cold War viii, xi, 97

continuance of internationalsociety despite 41, 171

diplomacy during 171-2, 198,250

transnational links despite 268colonialism

Chinese views on 300-1international consensus

condemning 142, 250, 259and 19th-century 'spheres of

influence' agreements 213communist states

and diplomacy 171and international conflict 238views of international

relations 36, 235-6, 300-2see also Marx, Marxism

Comte, Auguste 237Corbett, Percy 140Cuba

missile crisis in (1962) 202-5passim, 214, 216, 218

relations with Soviet Union,U.S. 210

Curzon, Lord 212,214,217

Deutsch , Karl 273diplomacy

changing nature of 166-72,250and democratic

governments 169description of 156-63 , 304development of 30, 35effect of Cold War on 250and information

gathering 164-5, 174and international society 160,

169-70, 176-7and negotiations 164, 173-4replacement by technical

management 170-1

role of diplomatists 162-3 ,165-8, 172-77

symbolic function of 166, 176-720th-century denigration of vii,

38

ecological, environmental problemsin diplomacy 170interest of world in 81, 82in international law 140possibilities of control by world

government 245, 291 -2whether insoluble in states

system 273, 282-4economic factors in international

relations x, xiand balance of power 108-9economic aid and justice 84,

86-7 , 278-82existence with minimal political

control 242and international law 140and multinational

corporations 261-3regional economic

associations 251, 255and transnational organisations,

as replacement fordiplomacy 167-8, 170

and 'transnationalsociety' 268-9

and war 188-9Elizabeth I, of England 161Engels, Friedrich 236, 299European Economic Community

contribution to order 295as a potential great power 287as a regional organisation 170,

255-6, 267, 271Evans-Pritchard, E. E. 61

Falk, Richard A. xiii, 142-3, 144,154, 266, 272, 282, 284

Fenelon, F. 106Fortes, Meyer 61Fox, W. T. R. 196

Franceas dominant European

power 16, 97, 100, 102, 162as a middle power 222and nuclear weapons 234revolutionary ideals of 235

Friedmann, Wolfgang 141

Galtung, Johan 167Geneva Conventions (on conduct

of war) 41Gentili, Alberico 27, 29, 30, 35Gentz, Friedrich von 12, 32, 100,

103Germany

containment of 219as a dominant power 16, 99as a middle power 222postwar division of 215and violations of international

law 132-3Gierke , Otto 26Gilpin, Robert 262great powers

avoidance and limitation of warby 206-7

and balance of power 108-12,201

concert of 36, 218-20, 286-9description of 3, 36, 48, 194-7and justice 89, 220-2and nuclear weapons 197and promotion of international

order 200-I, 220-I, 287-9relations of dominance with

neighbouring states 207-12relations with middle

powers 222rights and duties of 196, 222and spheres of influence 212-18,

252as structuring international

relations 200as super powers 196-7

Grotian (internationalist, solidarist)view of internationalrelations viii, 23, 25-6, 37-8,148-9,230-2,236,310

Index 323

Grotius, Hugo 27-30, 34, 37, 43,104, 191,231 ,266,310

Hardin, Garett 319Hart, H . L. A. xiii, 127-30, 309Heeren, A. H. L. 12,32, 100Hegel, G . W. F. 24,238Higgins, Rosalyn 143, 153Hobbes, Thomas 3, 26, 44-7, 124,

127Hobbesian (realist, Machiavellian)

view of internationalrelations vii, xi, 135, 253

description of 23--4in 20th century 36, 39,40,44-6,

241and universal possession of

nuclear weapons 233Hobson, J. A. 237Holbraad, Carsten 204, 316Holy Roman Empire, Emperor 9,

16,26,30, 159,245,268,276Hume, David 5, 101,312human rights x

and duties 79-81and international justice 85-6and international law 146-7and politics of states 86-7

Huntingdon, Samuel P. 260, 262

idealist view of internationalrelations see Kantian view ofinternational relations

ideas and values in internationalrelations x, xii, xvii, 6, 21, 93,252,304-5

ideology in internationalrelations 109, 188, 235--40

International Court of Justice 37,141 -2, 143,291

international law ix, xvii, 49, 64accepted principles of 66, 67,

133--4and the balance of power 104,

138-9challenges to 249

324 Index

international law (cont .)definitions of 122-30, 154-5and diplomatic institutions 150eastern European states in 210and 18th-19th-century

theorists 31-2, 34-5enforcement of 126-8, 181,182expansion into economic and

technical fields 140-1, 147and human rights 79-80, 146-7international lawyers 144, 152and justice 88-9, 139and order 131- 2, 134-9, 145,

147-50, 154-5and 16th-18th-century

theorists 28-30subjects of 139-40, 146-7sources of 141-5, 151-4and 20th-century concepts

of 37-8 , 139-45and the U.N. 143violations of 132-3

internationalorganisations xvi-xvii

in diplomaticnegotiations 157-8

overlapping organisations 245-6regional organisations xvii, 255,

294-9as subjects of international

law 140-1universal political organi sation

(world government) 244-5,2:>2-4, 274-5

and use of armed force by 149,226, 251

in world political system 266-71international society, society of

states vii, viii, ix, xiiabsence of rule in 44-9cultural and moral bases of 13,

15,32-3,37,61 ,81, 110,176,305

comparison with statelesssocieties 59-61

description of 13-15, 225and diplomacy 160, 166,304-5

18th-19th-century theoriesof 31-6

European international society in18th-19th centuries 32,36-7 , 101 , 110-11 ,218,219,304

examples of non-societalrelations 41-3

and great powers 196-9,201 -2,221

ideology in 235-40institutions of 71-3and international law 137limitations of 49-50and natural law theorists 27,

28-31need for strengthening 303-5,

307and non-state violence 259primary goals of 8, 16reality of 23, 38-44rules in 13, 28-9 , 33-5, 37-8,

64, 65, 70-3, 112, 142traditions of thought

about 23-620th-century theories of 36-40and war 181-2, 192-3weakening of 248-50

international system, system ofstates viii, x, xii

anomolies in 264-5balance of power in 101-2centralisation of, in 'global

centralisation' 290-4contribution to order 276criticisms of 272-3current situation in 248, 272description of 9-13, 225, 252and ecological control 284, 291and economic and social

justice 278-82examples of 43-5future of 226, 240-1 , 252, 265-6,

284-5ideology in 236-40regional organisation in 294war in 181 , 190,273-5

and world politicalsystem 266-71

internationalist view ofinternational relation s seeGratian view of internationalrelations

intervention in internationalrelations

acceptance of prohibition of 67and great powers 211- 13principle of non-

intervention 243Islamic view of international

relations 42-3

Jap an 13,37as potential great power 98,

108-10, 195, 197,222,287Jenk s, C. Wilfred 140, 143Jessup, Philip 140Justi, J. H. von 105justice x, xvi

definit ion of 73-8in a disarmed world 229-30economic justice 85, 278-82, 302and great powers 89, 220-2human and cosmopol itan 84-7between individuals 79- 81, 278and international law 89, 139Marxist views of 299- 303and order 83-94, 212, 300, 308and spread of nuclear

weapon s 234-5and regionalism 296-7between states 78-9, 87- 9, 278and world government 245

just war, doctrine of 18, 29, 34,38, 88, 183, 191 -2

Kahn, Herman 244Kant, Immanuel 106, 238, 244,

253,310Kantian view of international

relations viidescription of 23-5, 235and international law 146-7

Index 325

and justice 81-7, 90in 20th-century 36, 39-40

Kaplan, Morton A. II , 116,232-3, 234, 309

Kellogg-Briand (Paris) Pact(1928) 38, 182, 231

Kelsen, Hans 124-7Keohane, Robert 267, 268, 269Kissinger, Henry: 'Kissinger model'

of internationalrelations 286, 296

Kothari , Rajni 293, 295- 9, 304

Laue, T. H. von 263Lausanne, Treaty of (1923) 14Lauterpacht, Hersch 142League of Nations xvii-xviii, 49,

138,290actions against Italy and Soviet

Union 231Covenant of 38, 66, 182, 231disarmament proposals in 227expression of solida rist

views 237recognit ion of great powers 196

Lenin, V. I. 237Lindley, M. F. 212Lippmann, Walter 215-16Litvinov, Maxim 227- 8, 317Locke, John 46Lorimer, Jame s 36Lowes Dickinson,

Goldsworth y 44

Maccoby, Simon 161McDougal, Myres S. 122, 154Machiavelli, Niccolo 24, 26McLuhan, Marshall 263McNamara, Robert 115, 118Maine , Sir Henry 57,61Maitland, F. W. 57Marx, Karl 77, 236, 278, 299Marxist views of intern ational

relations 53, 236, 299-303Masters, Roger 59, 311Mazrui , Ali 74, 83, 85, 88, 94Mazzini, Gui seppe 236

326 Index

Mill, John Stuart 243Morganthau, Hans viiMowat, R. B. 176

NA TO (North Atlantic TreatyOrganisation) 167, 170,208,217-18,219,270

natural law 6, 19, 26-32, 79, 142Nettelbladt 12new mediaevalism 245 254-5

266,275 "neutrality 34, 38, 196Nicolson, Harold 156, 166, 169,

175Nkrumah, Kwarne 294nuclear deterrence 108, 112-21,

185-6, 190, 232-4Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty

(1968) 219,234nuclear weapons

abolition of 229and balance of power 119-21effect on international

society 48effect on war 183encouraging 'crisis

management' 202, 204encouraging limitation of

wars 206,219,277and great powers 195-7,202spread of 115, 232-5threat to humanity 81, 273, 277,

301Numelin, Ragnar 158, 160Nuremberg and Tokyo War Crimes

Tribunals 37, 80, 140, 146Nye, Joseph 267, 268, 269, 294

O.A.S. (Organisation of AmericanStates) 210-11 ,255

Oppenheim , L. 104, 139order in international relations

alternatives to states system inpreservation of 225-47274-5 '

and civil violence 190-1 , 192-3,258

compared with that in statelesssocieties 59-62

compatibility with statessystem 273-7

and crisis management 202-5definition of xv, 8, 16-19 ,21and diplomacy 163-77and a disarmed world 229and great power s 199-201 207

212,218,220-1 "and international law 131,

134-8and justice 83-94, 245, 300, 308Marxi st views on 300, 302-3and nuclear proliferation 234-5and regional

organisations 255-7, 294-9rules making for xvii, 64-9,

204-5and technological unification of

world 264and war and violence 181-3,

192, 206, 237-8and world government 244-5world order 21, 22as a value xvi, 4,21 ,93-4,201

ou, Marvin C. 284

Paine, Thomas 237Paris , Treaty of (1856) 14, 32peace and security

in Hobbesian view 23and international law 137and nuclear deterrence 119 121as a pr imary goal 17-18, 102between 'secur ity-

communities' 273-4Phillimore, Robert 36Pope, Papacy 9, 16,26,30,42,

268,276Pufendorf, Samuel 12, 27

Ranke, Leopold von 36, 195, 200316 '

realist view of internationalrelations see Hobbesian viewof international relations

Roh an , Henri, due de 31, 163Roling, B. V. A. 141, 145, 183Roo sevelt , Franklin D. 105Rou sseau , Jean -Jacques 12, 100,

242,251Ruge , Mari 167Russell, Bertrand 157

Satow, Sir Ernest 156-7, 168Schwarzenberger, Georg 209Servan-Schreiber, J .-J. 261Shield s, Linda P. 284society, within states and global

development of globalcommunity 22, 290-3

economic and social ju sticein 278-80

government in 55-7interests of 63-4prim ary goals of 4--6, 19,51 -2,

278rules of 6-7, 52-4, 61- 2state of nature in 44--6sta teless societies 57-60technological unification

of 263-4value s of 6,7,64, 81,278

solida rist view of interna tiona lrelations see Grotian view ofinternational relations

sovereignty 17, 29- 30, 35, 246Soviet Union

and avoidance of internationalcrises 203-5, 277

in balance of power 98-9, 106,112

co-operation with U.S. xviii,41,219

critic of diplomacy, con cert ofpowers 169,286

and disarmamentproposals 226-7

as a great power 97, 108-10,195-8

and ideology 238-9implicit agreement with U.S. on

spheres of influence 216-1 8and international law 133

Index 327

invasion of Finland 138, 231relations with eastern

Europe 199-200, 209-12,216

as a super power 196-7,295spheres of influence

division into dominance, primacyand hegemony 207-12

history of agreements on 212-13impli cit recognition of 17,

213-17prevention of disputes

with in 199and 'spheres of

responsibility' 215-16Spinoza, Benedict de 47states

absence of governmentover 44--9

abolition of 24--5autonomy of 295-6and balance of power 100--1 ,

106-7co-operation between viii, ix,

16-19,25-6,67contrasted with other political

communities 9description of 8-10development of 28, 32- 3and diplomacy 156-7disintegration of 256-7dominant states 10--11 , 16and ecological threat s 283-4,

293-4and economic justice 86, 281- 2and human rights 86inapplicability of structural-

functional explanationto 71-3

and integration into largerunits 255-6

interests of 63-4as nation states 78, 256possibility of existence without

global system of 241-2,251

regional groupings of 294--5rules within states 55-7

328 Index

states (cont .)as subjects of international

law 124, 140, 146subordination to world

government 252and technological global

unification 263-4and transnational

organisations 261-3as units of international

society 65-71violence within 190-3, 258-60war as instrument of policy

of 180-4, 189war restricted to 178-9, 258

Stone, Julius 86, 87Strachey, John 219,244Suarez, Francisco 27, 28, 30, 34super powers see great powers

Third World, Afro-Asian stateschallenges to international

law 133, 149criticism of great powers 220demands of 289-90,292-3,297,

303-4economic aid to 84, 290, 301and economic justice 281,

296-7 , 303-4and international law 133, 149and international terrorism 259and Marxist views 300priority of justice over order

amongst 74, 85and regionalist proposals 295-9as upholding state

sovereignty 281, 292-3Toynbee, Arnold 100transnational factors in

international relations xi, xii,36, 39,49

transnational law 260-3 ,267-71Turkey, Ottoman empire 13-14,

28, 32, 37, 205

United Nations xvii-xviii, 37,49as actor in international

relations 16, 157

and anti-colonialism 30ICharter of 18, 38, 74, 80, 85, 89,

148-9, 188,220,231in diplomacy 159and enforcement of international

will or law 231, 258expressing solidarist views 237General Assembly of 142-3and international law 143and international terrorism 259possibilities of strengthening, of

transformation to worldgovernment 230, 244, 291

recognition of great powersby 196

and spread of nuclearweapons 233

survival of 250, 251symbolic function of 176, 250

United Statesavoidance of crises 203-5, 237and balance of power 97-8, 106and concert of powers 286and co-operation with the Soviet

Union xvii, 41,219and criticisms of diplomatic

system 168and Cuban missile crisis

(1962) 187,202-5,216,218

and disarmament proposals 226dominant culture of 271as a great power 97, 108-10,

194-8,286hegemony in Central

America 207, 210-12implicit acceptance of Soviet

sphere of influence 216-18and ideology in international

relations 239and international law 133, 140and nuclear deterrence 113-19,

184-7, 286primacy in NATO 208as a super power 196-7 ,295

Universal Declaration of HumanRights 37, 80, 140

Utrecht, Treaty of(1713) 35,102

Vattel , Emmerich de 32-7 passim,44,97,99, 104,310

Victoria (Vitoria), Franciscode 27, 28, 42

Vienna, Congress of (1815) 17, 35,36, 160

Vienna Convention on DiplomaticRelations (1961) 157, 160,171

Waltz , Kenneth vii, viiiwar viii, ix, 49

'aggressive' war 38changes in role of 190-2definition of 178, 274-5domestic consequences of 188effect on international

society 41, 181in 18th-19th-century

theorists 34effect on theories of international

relations 39, 40effect of nuclear weapons

on 183-8, 273--4in Hobbesian view 23as instrument of state

policy 181-2and international law 29, 148-9and justice 88, 183, 191limitation by

disarmament 226--8limitation by great

powers 206--7, 288

Index 329

in natural law tradition 29reasons for 188, 237-9rules of 29, 66, 179-80, 182outlawing of 231war crimes 80, 85-6

Warsaw Pact 209,211 ,217-18,219

Washington, George 242Westlake, John 33Westphalia, Peace of (1648) 17,

31,39,266Wight , Martin xiii, xviii, 10-11 ,

33, 145, 309Wilson, Woodrow vii, 38, 236,

237world government 244-5, 252--4,

275, 280-1see also international

organisations, UnitedNations

world political systemcommunication in 269-70description of 19-21, 266--7differentiation from system of

states 20-1historical comparisons of 268-9interdependence in 270justice in 278non-state groups in 267-9order in 22, 308relation of society of states

to 308and world society 269-70, 290