Notes

CHAPTER ONE

I. Ivan Vallier, ' Extr action, Insulation and Re-entry: Toward a Theory ofReligious Change' , in Henry Landsberger, ed . The Church and SocialChange in Latin America (Notre Dame, 1970) p. 9.

2. Daniel Levine, Religion and Politics in Latin America: The CatholicChurch in Venezuela and Colombia (Princeton, 1981) p. 35.

3. Thomas O'Dea, The Catholic Crisis (Boston, 1968) pp. 16-20.4. Renato Poblete SJ, ' F ro m Medellin to Puebla', in Daniel Levine, ed .

Churches and Politics in Latin America (Beverly Hills , 1980) p. 45.5. Ken Medhurst, 'The Latin American Church', JournalofLatin American

Studies, vol. 17, part 2, (November 1985) p. 429.6. The sign ificance of Vatican II and Medellin has been discussed by a

number of authors. See for example, Thomas O'Dea, op . cit .; PeterHebblethwaite, The Runaway Church (London, 1975); Daniel Levine,Religion and Politics . . . pp . 34-41 ; Renato Poblete SJ, 'From Medellinto Puebla', op. cit. ; and Pablo Richard, La Iglesia Latino-americanaEntre el Temor y la Esperanza: Apuntes Teologicos para la Decada de losAlios 80 (San Jose, 1980) pp. 49--57.

7. Phillip Berryman, 'What Happened at Puebla?' in Daniel Levine, ed .Churches and Politics in Latin America (Beverly Hills , 1980) p. 58.

8. Medhurst, op . cit., pp. 427-8.9. Comunidades eclesiales de base are small groups of Christians from the

same barrio or rural community who gather to discuss their dailyproblems in the light of the Bible.

10. ' Institutional Church' refers to the Church 'as institution', with a heavyemphasis on hierarchy and centralized authority.

II . For a discussion of this theme with relation to the Catholic Church inColombia, see Daniel Levine, 'Continuities in Colombia', Journal ofLatin American Studies, vol. 17, part 2, (November 1985) pp . 295-317.

12. Thomas Bruneau, The Church in Brazil: The Politics of Religion (Austin,1982) pp. 3-10.

13. Ibid ., p. 3.14. 'Socia l insertion' refers to the Church's identification with particular

groups in society and with their political positions.

183

184The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

15. Ivan Vallier, op. cit ., pp . 9- 35.16. Ibid ., p. 23.17. Thomas Sanders, 'The Politics of Catholicism in Latin America'. Journal

of Interamerican Studie s and World Affairs. vol. 24, no . 2, (May 1982) p.257.

18. Ibid.19. Ibid .20. Daniel Levine and Alexander Wilde, 'The Catholic Church. " Po litics" .

and "Violence" : The Columbian Case', Review ofPolitics, vol . 39, no . 2.(April 1977) p. 244.

21. Bruneau, op. cit ., p. 7.22. Levine and Wilde , op . cit., p. 225.23. Sanders, op . cit ., p. 257.24. Levine, Religion and Polit ics . . ., p. 305 .25. For a good discussion of the notion of Christendom and the historical

models associated with it, see Pablo Richard. La Iglesia Latino­americana . . ., pp . 96-9.

26. Levine, Religion and Politics . . ., p. 305.27. Leonardo Boff, Iglesia: Carisma J' Poder (Santander. 1982) p. 19.28. Levine. Religion and Politics . . ., p. 305.29. This compares with recent studies of the Church in Central America

which have focused exclusively on the Church's role under authori­tarian regimes . See, for example, Phillip Berryman, The ReligiousRoots of Rebellion: Christians in Central American Revolutions (Lon­don, 1984).

CHAPTER TWO

I. See Edgar Zuniga, Historia Eclesiastica de Nicaragua : La CristiandadColonial ( /542-/82/) (Managua, 1981). for a good historical account ofthe Nicaraguan Church during the colonial period .

2. Enrique Dussel, A History of the Church in Latin America: Colonialism toLiberation ( /492-/979) (Grand Rapids, 1981) p. 43 .

3. Encomenderos were granted encomiendas (wh ich included land and theIndians on the land) by the Spanish Crown.

4. Manzar Foroohar, 'The Catholic Church and Socio-Political Conflict inNicaragua' (UCLA, 1984) p . 93.

5. See Zuniga, op . cit ., pp . 95-6.6. John A. Booth. The End and the Beginning: The Nicaraguan Revolution

(Boulder, 1982) p. 13.7. Ibid ., p. 12.8. Matilde Gutierrez D., et al., 'Investigaciones para la Historia de la

Iglesia en Nicaragua' (Managua , 1975) p. 64.9. Pablo Antonio Cuadra, ' Breve Historia de la Iglesia en Nicaragua'. in

Richard Pattee, EI Catolicismo Contemporaneo de Hispanoamerica(Buenos Aires, 1948) p. 349.

10. Foroohar, op . cit ., p. 102.II . See 'Concordato Celebrado Entre la Santa Sede Apostolica y la Republica

de Nicaragua', in Gutierrez, op . cit ., pp. 407-22.

Notes 185

12. The national right of presentation gave the government the power tonominate ecclesiastical autho rities .

13. Fran co Cerutti, Los Jesuiras en el S iglo XIX (San Jo se. 1984) pp . 62, 85.14. Foroohar, op . cit ., p . 105.15. Ja ime Wheelo ck Roman , Nicaragua: Imperialismo r Dictadura (La

Habana, 1980) pp . 26-7.16. Jorge Eduardo Arellano, Breve Historia de la Iglesia en Nicaragua

( 1523-1979) (Mana gua. 1979) pp . 57-70.17. Revista de la Academia de Geografia e Historia. no. 39. (Managua.

January-June 1971) pp . 62-68.18. Wheelock , op . cit. , pp . 107-8 .19. Cuadra, op . cit. , pp . 340-1.20. Gregorio Seiser, Sandin o (New York , 1981) p. 122.21. Ibid., p. 105.22. 'Pastoral del Ilustrisimo Arzobispo y Obispos de Nicaragua Sobre la

Necesidad Nacional de Pacificar Las Segovias', in Gutierrez. op . cit., pp .432-9.

23. See Jean Meyer, The Cristero Rebellion: The Mexican People BetweenChurch and State 1926-1929 (Cambridge, 1976).

24. Foreign Relations of the United States, Department of State, vol. III(Washington D.C., 1928) p. 567.

25. Cuadra. op. cit., p . 351.26. Wheelock , op . cit. , p. 117.27. Guardia Nacional, Afio IX, no s. 104-5 (Managua , October-November

1941). Th is entire issue of the Guardia Nacional was ded icated to thecrowning of Lillian Somoza Debayle as 'Queen of the Arm y' . Much wasmade of the fact that Lillian had previously been procla imed 'Queen ofthe Apple Blossom' in Schenadoah, Virginia.

28. Ibid., p. 23.29. Guardia Nacional, Afio XXIV, nos . 286-7 (Managua. September­

October 1956)pp. 12-13.30. Frederick Pike , 'The Catholic Church in Central America ', Re view of

Politics, vol. 21, no . I , (January 1959). pp . 95-6 and J. Lloyd Mccham.Church and State in Latin America (Chapel Hill , 1966) pp. 329-31.

31. Arellano, op . cit ., pp . 88-9.32. Booth, op . cit ., p . 62.33. 'Declaraciones de los Prelados de las Provincias Eclesiast icas de

Nicaragua, Costa Rica y Panama, a sus Diocesanos, Sobre clComunismo' , Mensajero del Clero, no. 8 (San Jose , August 1935) pp .981-4.

34. Arellano, op . cit ., pp . 82-3..35. 'Primera Carta Pastoral de Centro America y Panama' (San Jose, 27

May 1956).36. A Dominican priest in Leon, Luis Suarez, described in a Icttcr dated

23.1.61 to Luis Somoza his struggle to combat communism in theUniversity of Leon. He organized some 80 Catholic students to infiltratecommunist groups at the university, and he himself spoke to parents ofcommunist students, convincing them to send the ir children abroad. Inthis way, he succeeded in stamping out leftist ideas, supplanting themwith 'catholic inspi red social doctrine' . He concluded the letter saying ,

186 The Catholic Church and Polit ics in Nicaragua and Costa R ica

'today no one is sympathizing with Fide l.' See Archivo Nac ional deNicaragua, Secretaria de la Presidencia, Serie B, Caja no. 40, (29) Clero ,1961.

37. Interview with Mons . Bismark Carballo (Director of Radio Catoticat 3August 1983, Managua; interview with Luis Cesar Nunez (Administra­tive Director of Caritas de Nicaragua) 27 July 1983, Managua.

38. 'Carta Pastoral Eclesiastica de Vicente Alejandro Gonzalez y Robleto'(Managua,3AugustI959)p.13.

39. Ibid., p. 12.40. Ibid., p. 14.41. Charles D. Ameringer, Don Pepe : A Polit ical Biography ofJose Figueres

ofCosta Rica (Albuquerque, 1978) pp. 159-60.42. 'Sexta Carta Pastoral del Octavio Jose Calderon y Padilla ' (Matagalpa,

15August 1959)pp . 13-14.43. Ibid.44. Looking through various years of corre spondence between the Somoza

government and clergy, one can find numerous instances of priests andbishops being granted personal 'favours'. These ranged from free airlinepasses for travel abroad, to gifts of automobiles, to outright cashadvancements. In May 1965, for example, the Archbishop Mons .Gonzalez y Robleto was sent a 'special contribution' of $1500.00towards his expenses while he was in New York for a week to have an eyeoperation. Of course , his airfare had already been covered. See ArchivoNacional de Nicaragua, Secretaria de la Presidencia, Serie B, Caja no. 7.(33a) Clero , 1965.

45. See next chapter for a discussion of this .46. Booth, op. cit., pp. 77-80.47. Primer Encuentro Pastoral en Managua, 'De Cara al Futuro de la Iglesia

en Nicaragua', Documentos (Managua , 1969) pp . 38-9, pp. 100-122.48. Booth, op . cit., p. 73.49. Julio Lopez c., et al., La Caida del Somocismo )' la Luella Sandinista en

Nicaragua (San Jose, 1980) pp. 26-7.50. La Prensa, 17July 1969.51. La Prensa, 20 July 1969.52. La Prensu, 17January 1970.53. The Jesuit-run university in Managua, which was founded in the

early 1960s by the three capitalist factions in Nicaragua: BANIC,BANAMERICA and the Somoza group.

54. In July 1970, an opposition front had been founded - the CoalicionOpositora Nacional (CON) - which included the Independent LiberalParty (PLI), the Social Christian Party (PSC) , and the AuthenticNicaraguan Conservative Party (ANC). The CON was formed to protestSomoza's political designs to continue in power , but disbanded just twomonths after the second student protest (which the CON supported).Obviously, the political parties which made up the CON recognized thattheir efforts were useless in the face of'Somoza's malintent .

55. La Prensa, 8 May 1971.56. Interview with Mons. Frederico Argiiello (parish priest in Diriamba), 28

December 1984, Diriamba.

Notes 187

57. La Prensa, 7 March 1970, 15 March 1970.58. La Prensa, II March 1970.59. La Prensa , 26 March 1971.60. La Prensa, 19 November 1971 .61. Conferencia Episcopal de Nicaragua (CEN), 'Sobre el Deber del

Testimonio y de la Accion Cristiana en el Orden Politico' (Managua ,29.6.71)p. II.

62. Ibid ., p. 20.63. In January 1972, Obando removed Mons. Chavez Nunez from his duties

as auxiliary bishop. The immediate reason was his presenceat the signingof the Kupia-Kumi pact.

64. CEN, 'Sobre los Principios que Rigen la Actividad Politica de Toda laIglesia Como Tal' (Managua, 19.3.72) p. II .

65. La Prensa, 6 April 1972.66. La Prensa, 15 April 1972, 19Apr il 1972.67. Donaldo Chavez Nunez, Una Ventana Abierta: Vision Retrospectiva de

una Vida (Managua, 1974) p. 174.68. La Prensa , 6 May 1972.69. Jose Coronel Urtecho, 'Cornentarios Sobre la Pastoral', Revista

Conservadora, no . 139(April 1972)p. 25.70. Pablo Antonio Cuadra, 'Construir el Futuro: Obligacion Cristiana' ,

Revista Conservadora, no . 139(April 1972),pp. 27-8 .71 . Dr. Amando Lopez and Dr. Juan B. Arrien, 'EI Papel de la Iglesia en la

Coyuntura Nacional', Encuentro, no. 14, (July-December 1978)p. 129.72. Novedades, 23 March 1972.73. Booth , op. cit., p. 81.74. Michael Dodson and Tommie Sue Montgomery, 'Churches in the

Nicaraguan Revolution', in Thomas Walker ed., Nicaragua in Revolution(New York, 1982)p. 168.

75. La Prensa, 22 December 1973.76. La Prensa , 29 December 1973.77. Alejandro Bendafia, 'Crisis in Nicaragua', NACLA Report on the

Americas (November-December 1978)pp.13-14.78. La Prensa, 2 March 1974.79. This was obviously in reference to the wave of strikes which racked the

economy throughout 1973 (construction workers, hospital workers,nurses, and textile workers).

80. UDEL was composed of the Nicaraguan Socialist Party (PSN), a factionof the Social Christian Party (PSC), labour groupings (CTN and CGT),Conservatives, and the Independent Liberal Party (PLI).

81. Bendafia, op . cit., p. 15.82. CEN, 'Declaracion de la Conferencia Episcopal de Nicaragua Reunida

en Sesion Extraordinaria' (Managua, 27.5.74); CEN, 'EI Hombre, laIglesia y 1aSociedad, (Granada, 6.8.74).

83. La Prensa, 26 June 1974. It was this same group whichfive months laterjoined to form UDEL.

84. La Prensa, 7 August 1974. Also see Phillip Berryman, The ReligiousRoots of Rebellion: Christians in Central American Revolutions (London,1984)pp. 68-9 on this point.

85. Claribel Alegria and D. J. Flakoll, Nicaragua: La Revolucion Sandinista

188 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

(Mexico, D .F., 1982) p. 230.86. SeeAmnesty International Report on Nicaragua for 1977.87. CEN, 'Mensaje de la Conferencia Episcopal de Nicaragua Renovando la

Esperanza Cristiana al Iniciarse el Ano 1977' (Managua, 8.1.77).88. Novedades, 5 May 1977.89. Lopez and Arrien, op . cit ., p. 133.90. Bendafia , op . cit ., p. 23.91. Los Doce included several respected professionals and two priests.

Fernando Cardenal SJ and Miguel D'Escoto.92. Servicio de Informacion y Documentacion (SID) (November-December

1977)p. 6.93. Lopez, et al., op . cit ., pp . 141-5.94. Lo Prensa, 23 October 1977.95 . Lo Prensa, 26 October 1977.96 . La Prensa, 25 November 1977.97. Booth, op . cit ., p. 155.98. La Prensa, 17January 1978.99. La Prensa, 9 February 1978.

100. CEN, 'Mensaje al Pueblo de Dios al Iniciarse el Afio 1978' (Managua,6.1 .78).

101. Booth, op . cit ., p . 160.102. CEN, 'Conferencia Episcopal de Nicaragua a los Hombres de Buena

Voluntad', Encuentro, no. 14 (July-December 1978) p . 109.103. Ibid., pp . 108-11.104. See 'Programa Democratico del Gobierno Nacional del Frente Amplio

Opositor (FAO)', in Lopez, et al., op. cit ., pp . 357-9.105. Encuentro, no. 14, (July-December 1978) pp . 112-14.106. Novedades, 6 August 1978.107. George Black , Triumph of the People: the Sandinist Revolut ion in

Nicaragua (London, 1981) p. 319.108. 'Programa de Gobierno Sandinista ', Eco Catol ico (San Jose, 24

September 1978) p. 12.109. LaPrensa , 29 September 1978.110. Booth , op. cit., pp . 165-6.III. Ibid., p. 166.112. LaPrensa, 29 November 1978.113. LaPrensa, 23 November 1978.114. La Prensa, 30 March 1979.115. La Prensa, 26 April 1979.116. CEN, 'Mensaje al Pueblo Nicaragiiense: Momento Insurreccional'

(Managua, 2 June 1979).117. Pablo Richard, 'La Iglesia que Nace en America Central por la Fuerza

de Dios ', mimeo (San Jose, March 1984) pp . 4-5.118. The Instituto de Promocion Humana (lNPRHU), based in Managua,

conducted a survey in 1969 and again in 1973 to measure the CatholicChurch's prestige amongst the faithful. In 1969, less than 5 per cent ofthose surveyed characterized the Church's attitude toward political andeconomic problems as 'good and very good' . By the time of the 1973survey, however, the percentage of those surveyed who held a favourableopinion of the Church had risen to 37.2 per cent. Even so , 31.2 per cent

Notes 189

still characterized the Church's attitude as 'normal' and 22.3 per cent as'bad and very bad' . Obviously, the Church still had a long way to go toreinforce its positive influence amongst Nicaraguans. La Prensa, 14February 1974.

119. Richard, op . cit., pp. 7-8.

CHAPTER THREE

I. Robert Pring-Mill, 'Profile : Ernesto Cardenal', in Index on Censorship,vol. VIII, no. 3 (May-June 1979)p. 50.

2. La Prensa, 24---26 September 1972.3. Interview with Florian Ruskamp, OFM Cap., (Capuchin Father), 28

January 1985,Managua.4. Phillip Berryman, The Religious Roots of Rebellion: Christians in the

Central American Revolutions (London , 1984) p. 60.5. Rosa Maria Pochet and Abelino Martinez, 'Nicaragua. Iglesia: Manipu­

lacion Politica 0 Profecia?', unpublished mimeo (San Jose, February1985)chapter 2, pp. 18-20.

6. Concientizacion is a Latin American concept without a literal translation .The nearest would be 'consciousness-raising' or a lifting of socialawareness .

7. Ibid., pp . 21-4 .8. Berryman, op. cit., p. 60.9. Pochet and Martinez, op . cit., p. 24.

10. Ibid., pp. 36-44.11. Maryknoll Sisters, 'Ciudad Sandino Evaluation', unpublished /undated

mimeo (Managua) p. 1.12. Interview with Sister Rita Owczarek, 26 November 1984, Ciudad

Sandino; interview with Valentin Martinez SJ, 12 December 1984,Ciudad Sandino.

13. La Prensa, 19and 20 December 1977; see also Penny Lernoux, Cry ofthePeople (New York, 1982)pp. 93-4.

14. Interview with Maryknoll sister.15. See Urie1 Molina, 'Sendero de una experiencia',Nicarauac, no. 5

(April-June 1981) pp. 17-37 ; and Margaret Randall, Cristianos en laRevolucion (Managua, 1983)pp. 135-166.

16. La Prensa, 19May 1977;Novedades, 19May 1977.17. Dodson and Montgomery, op. cit., pp. 170-71.18. Gregorio Smutko , 'Cristianos de 1a Costa Atlantica en 1a Revolucion',

Nicarauac, no. 5 (April-June 1981) pp. 52-3.19. Ibid., p. 53.20. Gregorio Smutko, 'Informes: Implicaciones Politicas de los Programas

de Accion Social de la Iglesia Catolica en Centroamerica', Boletin delArchivo General de la Nacion, nos. 2-3 (January-June 1980)p. 18.

21. Interview with Teodoro Niehaus OFM Cap., (Capuchin Father) , 26 July1983,Managua.

22. Interview with Bernard Wagner OFM Cap., (Capuchin Father), 20November 1984,Managua.

23. Manuel Rodriguez Garcia, Gaspar Vive (San Jose, 1981)pp. 120-21.

190 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

24. Ibid.25. Ibid., p. 122.26. CEPA, Cristo Campesino, no . 3 (Managua, (975) p. 8.27. Ibid., p. II.28. Confidential interview.29. See Rodriguez, op. cit., p. 123.30. Interview with Justinian Liebl (Director of CEPA). 4 August 1983.

Managua .31 . Rodriguez, op. cit., p. 126.32. Teofilo Cabestrero, Revolucionarios por el Evangelio (Bilbao , 1983) pp .

153-4.33. lbid ., p. 156.34. Luis Serra, ' Ideologia, Religion y Lucha de Clases en la Revolucion ', in

Richard Harris and Carlos M. Vilas eds, La Revolucion en Nicaragua(Mexico D.F., 1985)p. 276.

35. Interview with Gregorio Barriales OP (parish priest in Rivas), 7 January1985, Rivas.

36. Interview with Bernard Wagner OFM Cap. (parish priest in Wiwili andQuilali), 20 November 1984, Managua; interview with Ramon PardinaMSC (parish priest in San Juan del Sur) , 10 January 1985, San Juan delSur; interview with Enrique Coursol (parish priest in Totogalpa), 2December 1984,Totogalpa.

37. In the EI Jicaro parish (Nueva Segovia), for example, nine Delegates ofthe Word have been assassinated by the contra . This represents about athird of the total number working in the parish. Interview with AlfredoGundrum OFM Cap., op. cit. ; for a collection of first-hand accounts ofcontra atrocities against Catholic lay leaders, see Teofilo Cabestrero,Bloodofthe Innocent (London, 1985).

38. Interview with Bernard Wagner OFM Cap ., op . cit.39. Interview with Alfredo Gundrum OFM Cap., op . cit.40. Confidential interview.41. Interview with Enrique Coursol, op . cit .; interviews with Jose Luis

Ortega 8J and Augustin Torranza SJ, I December 1984,Ocotal.42. Envio, no. 30 (December 1983) p. 6b.43. CDSs are organized at the urban block level and function as political

decision-making bodies concerned with production, distribution, health,education and militia organization.

44. Rosa Maria Pochet and Abelino Martinez, op . cit. , chapter 2, p. 60.45. Amanecer, nos. 7-8 (March-April 1982) p. 13.46. Pochet and Martinez, op. cit., chapter 2, pp . 63-4.47. Interview with Domingo Gatti OFM, 17-18 May 1985, Juigalpa.48. CEN, 'Jesucristo y la Unidad de su Iglesia en Nicaragua' (Managua,

22.10.80)p. II.49. It is not surprising that the majority of the removals were carried out in

the Archdiocese. £1 Nuevo Diario, 4 November 1983.50. For a good account of the conflict, see Pat Hynds , 'The Catholic

Church in Nicaragua', in Central American Update (November 1982)pp. 3-4.

51. The Dominicans are particularly united in their support for therevolutionary process. Interview with Juan Merino OP, (former

Notes 191

Regional Superior of Dominicans in Central America), 24 April 1985,San Jose, Costa Rica .

52. In October 1985 Obando met with Vatican Secretary of State, CardinalCasaroli , asking his intervention in the matter. See Update, no. 84a(21.1.86).

53. Envio, no. 30 (December 1983) pp. 22b-23b ; EI Nuevo Diario, INovember 1983.

54. Confidential interview .55. Confidential interview .56. Mons . Ruben Lopez Ardon, 'Instruccion Diocesana "Eminente Voca­

cion" Sobre los Delegados de la Palabra' (Esteli, 24.9.84). Despite thesemeasures, the Bishop of Esteli is one of the more moderate bishops.However , as the only Nicaraguan among them, he is under constantpressure from the hardline bishops (all of whom are Nicaraguans) tocome down on their side.

57. Miguel Ernesto Vigil, 'Sospechoso Interes del CELAM sobre la Iglesiaen Nicaragua', EI Nuevo Diario, 21-2 September 1980.

58. The total budget for the Plan was $320,000. CELAM. 'Proyecto dePrograma de Ayuda a la Iglesia de Nicaragua, undated memo.

59. CELAM, no. 159(February 1981)pp. 16-18.60. 'Sagrada Congregacion para el Clero', (Rome), letter dated 14July 1982.61. See next chapter.62. 'Sagrada Congregacion para el Clero', op . cit.63. Barricada, 23 July 1983.64. Archivo de CONFER, 'Observaciones de la Sagrada Congregacion de

Religiosos e Inst itutos Seculares (SCRIS) al Proyecto de Estatutos deCONFER', undated memo ; also see CONFER, 'Estatutos de laConferencia Nacional de Superiores Mayores de Nicaragua' , 21 Novem­ber 1983.

65. Interview with Rosalia Cereda MSC (Former Secretary of CONFER),27 November 1984, Managua.

66. Interview with Jose Manuel Guijo SDB (President of CONFER), 18January 1985, Managua.

67. Article 34, in fact, provides for a comision mixta to be composed ofbishops and religious, who will meet periodically to discuss differences.See CONFER, 'Estatutos ...',21 November 1983.

CHAPTER FOUR

I. CEN, 'Compromise Cristiano para una Nicaragua Nueva' (Managua,17.11.79).

2. Robert Ullman, 'At War with Nicaragua', Foreign Affairs (Fall, 1983)pp.48-9.

3. The typology is based on information collected during more than fiftyinterviews with bishops, priests and religious in Nicaragua (all dioceseswere represented). The interviews were conducted during three visits toNicaragua: July-August 1983; October 1984-February 1985; and May1985. While the typology is an attempt to describe a particular historicalconjuncture, it may also be of a more general use.

192 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

4. Examples are Xabier Gorostiaga SJ, who served in the Ministry ofPlanning until 1982, and Peter Marchetti SJ, who works for the Centrode Invest igaciones y Estudios de la Reforma Agraria (CIERA).

5. Teofilo Cabestrero, Ministros de Dios, M inistros del Pueblo (Bilbao ,1983) p. 36.

6. Interview with Ernesto Cardenal (Minister of Culture), 15January 1985.7. Interview with Fernando Cardenal SJ (Minister of Education), 8

February 1985, Managua.8. Interview with Ernesto Cardenal, op . cit.9. Fernando Cardenal SJ, 'Carta a mis Amigos ' , in Barricada, II December

1984.10. Anabel Torres, et al., 'Lucha Ideologica en el Campo Religioso y su

SignificadoPolitico', unpublished mimeo (Managua, 1981)p. II-3.II . The Central was originally affiliated with CONFER. It became an

independent organization in 1984, when a group of conservativereligious took control of CONFER's directorate. Conversations withAni Wihbey of the Central de Servicios Multiples, November-December1984, Managua.

12. Maryknoll Sisters, 'Ciudad Sandino Evaluation" unpublished /undatedmirneo,Managua.

13. Interviews with Maryknoll sisters in Ciudad Sandino (26 November1984), Ocotal (2 December 1984), and Leon (I January 1985).

14. The clearest statement of this group's criticisms of the revolutionaryprocess is contained in the Jesuits' response to the bishops' 22 April 1984pastoral letter. See 'Declaracion del Delegado de los Jesuitas con suConsulta', Barricada,9 May 1984.

15. Confidential interview.16. Interview with Mons. Julian Barni OFM (Bishop of Leon), 23 August

1983, Leon; interview with Mons . Carlos Santi OFM (Bishop ofMatagalpa), 21 July 1983, Matagalpa.

17. Priestsand religious within group 4 carry out a pastoral strategy which isbased on apostolic movements, such as the Charismatics and Catecumen­ados, rather than CEBs . The former tend to concentrate on personalconversion as opposed to socio-political commitment.

18. La Prensa, 10September 1984.19. Interview with Mons. Pablo Antonio Vega (Bishop of Juigalpa), 18

December 1984,Managua.20. Interview with Mons. Miguel Obando y Bravo (Archbishop of Mana­

gua), 16August 1983,Managua.21. The analogy is misleading, however. In Cuba, the Catholic Church's loss

of influence was caused more by its relative weakness before therevolution and the exodus of clergy after it, than by governmentpersecution. For a discussion on this, see Margaret Crahan, 'SalvationThrough Christ or Marx : Religion in Revolutionary Cuba', Journal ofInter-American Studies and World Affairs, vol. XXI, no. 2 (February1979) pp. 156-84.

22. Interview with Mons. Vega" op. cit.23. Envio, no. 30 (December 1983) p. 9b.24. Becauseof the scarcity of native-born clergy, the Nicaraguan Church has

alwaysrelied heavily on foreign religious , who make up 60 per cent of the

Notes 193

total number of priests in the country. The percentage is even higher inthe Archdiocese because of the existence of several Catholic schools andthe Jesuit-run university.

25. Luis Serra, op . cit ., p . 276.26. Margaret Randall, Cristianos en la Revolucion (Managua , 1983)p. 57.27. Tomas Borge, EI Axioma de la Esperan:a (Bilbao, 1984) p. 101 .28. Interview with Teodoro Niehaus OFM Cap .. (former parish priest in

Siuna), 26 July 1983, Managua; interview with Alfredo Gundrum OFMCap., (parish priest in EI Jicaro), 7 December 1984, El Jicaro; also seeGregorio Smutko, op. cit.

29. See Margaret Randall , op . cit ., pp . 150-54, 159.30. Giulio Girardi , Fe en la Revolucion , Revolucion en la Cultura (Managua.

1983) p. 69.31. Quoted in Luis Serra, op . cit ., p. 277.32. Ibid.33. Instead of being confined to jails. some prisoners are assigned to farms

where they live and work . Although a government responsable assiststhem during the day, they are left unguarded at night.

34. Barricada, 7 October 1980.35. Cesar Jerez SJ, The Church and the Nicaraguan Revolution (London,

1984) pp . 15-16.36. For a useful typology of the various attitudes towards religion within the

FSLN, see ibid ., pp . 16-17.37. Luis Serra, op . cit ., p. 279.38. EI Nuevo Diario , 15 August 1982; La Prensa . 13August 1982.39. For a full account of the Carballo incident, see Pat Hynds, 'The Catholic

Church in Nicaragua', Central America Update (November 1982)p. 4.40. Barricada, 12August 1982.41. CEN, 'Carta Pastoral del Episcopado Nicaragiiense Sobre la Reconcili-

acion' (Managua, 22.4 .84).42. La Prensa, 22 June 1984.43. Amanecer, nos. 28-9, p. 10.44. Ibid ., p. II .45. Barricada, 10 July 1984; EI Nuevo Diario, 10 July 1984; La Prensa, 10

July 1984.46. Barricada, 9 July 1984.47. Barricada, 10July 1984.48. One can also point to the manipulation of religious symbols by polit ical

opposition groups. A good example was La Prensa's stories on the'Virgen de Cuapa' . La Prensa interpreted the Virgin's appearancesbefore a poor campesino in Cuapa as signalling the Virgin's desire tosave Nicaragua from its present suffering - implicitly suggesting that therevolution was responsible for the suffering. See La Prensa. 30 March1981, 21 and 28 April 1981.

49. 'Decreto de la JGRN Sobre la Navidad', in CEP , Nicaragua : La Hora delos Desafios(Lima, 1981) pp . 101-2 .

50. CEN, 'Respuesta de la Conferencia Episcopal de Nicaragua' (Managua,17.10.80)p.17.

51. This author was in EI Jicaro (near the Honduran border) during the 1984La Purisima celebrations. There, members of the army distributed small

194 The Catholic Church and Polit ics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

toys, candy and fruit to hundreds of young children.52. Barricada.S December 1984.53. For a discussion of the Pope's visit to Nicaragua, see IEPALA. £1 Papa

en Nicaragua: Analisis de su Visita (Madrid. 1983) and £111'10 . no . 21(March 1983).

54. EI Nuevo Diario, 3 March 1983.55. Confidential interview .56. IEPALA, op . cit., pp. 86-7.57. After his resignation. Robelo dedicated his energies to the Movim iento

Democratico Nicaragiiense (MDN), a business-backed pro-reform move­ment he had founded in April 1978. During the next two years the MDNdirected its attacks against the political and economic policies of theFSLN . In 1981, Robelo went into exile in Costa Rica . where he and theMDN joined ARDE, one of the contra groupings.

58. Interview with Norman Bent (Moravian Pastor). 18 August 1983.Managua.

59. Afterwards. the government admitted it was wrong in carrying out therelocation. Throughout 1985, the Miskitos were allowed to return totheir villages.

60. CEN . 'Mensaje de la Conferencia Episcopal de Nicaragua ' (Managua.18.2.82).

61. The US Secretary of State. Alexander Haig, and the US Ambassador tothe United Nations, Jean Kirkpatrick. later pointed to the government'streatment of the Miskitos as additional justification for the Reaganadministration's policy towards Nicaragua.

62. CEN . 'Consideraciones Generales de la Confcrencia Episcopal dcNicaragua Sobre el Servicio Militar' (Managua. 29.8.83).

63. The CON is made up of the Social Christian Party (PSC) . the SocialDemocratic Party (PSD), the Constitutionalist Liberal Party (PLC), theConservative Party of Nicaragua (PCN). labour groupings (CTN andCUS), and COSEP.

64. CEN . 'Comunicado de la Conferencia Episcopal de Nicaragua' (Mana­gua.22.3 .85).

65. EI1I'lo, no. 46 (April 1985) pp . Ia-2a.66. Mons . Pablo Antonio Vega. 'Nuestro Aporte de Iglesia a la Humaniz­

aci6n de la Historia: Una Invitacion a la Reflexion Cristiana Ante elMomento Nicaragiiense' (Managua. 24.10.84) .

67. It was, in fact, Obando's first mass after being appointed Cardinal inApril 1985. See Update. no . 84a (21 January 1986) p. 6.

68. See Ana Maria Ezcurra , Agresioll Ideologica Contra la RevolucionSandinista (Mexico D.F ., '1983) pp . 71-89.

69. Caritas de Nicaragua has branch offices in each diocese. These are underthe control of the local bishops, who exercise free reign over thecontracting of outside funding.

70. Ezcurra, op. cit., p. 51.71. Interv iew with Father Rene Espinoza Jiron (Director of Caritas), 4

August 1983, Managua.72. Ezcurra, op, cit., p. 55.73. Interview with Lie. Roberto Rivas (Director of COPROSA). 13 January

1985, Managua.

Notes 195

74. Ezcurra, op . cit., pp. 59-70. More recently, it has been suggested that theArchdiocese 'received hundreds of thousands of dollars in covert aidfrom the United States - from the CIA until 1985 . .. ' See 'Covert aidand the Church';Newsweek, IS June 1987.

75. Ibid., pp. 89-93.76. Envio, no . 30 (December 1983) p. 14b.77 . EI Nuevo Diario, 5 July 1986.78. Central America Report, 12 December 1986, p. 381.79. Envio, September 1986, pp. 10-12 .

CHAPTER FIVE

1. Ricardo Blanco Segura, Historia Eclesiastica de Costa Rica: 1502-1850(San Jose, 1983)pp.147,218.

2. Miguel Picado, 'Para una Historia de la Iglesia en Costa Rica ' , Senderos,Afio 2, no . 3 (January-March 1979) p. 10.

3. This compares with Nicaragua, where large esta tes, especially haciendas,developed to a much greater extent.

4. Picado, ' Para una Historia ... ' (January-March 1979)p. 24.5. In those zones not dominated militarily , the Church had no presence

whatsoever. See Picado, ibid ., p. 14.6. Blanco Segura, Historia Eclesiastica . . ., p. 109.7. The Church's economic poverty was decisive in its relations with the

State. In fact, in moments of Church-State tension, the State did notconfiscate Church property, since it was minimal. See Picado, 'Para unaHistoria . . . ' (January-March 1979)p. 29.

8. Ricardo Blanco Segura, 1884: £1 Estado, la Iglesia J' las ReformasLiberales (San Jose , 1984) p. 23.

9. Ibid ., p. 16.10. Ibid ., p . 24.II . Thi s partly explains why Costa Rica was so quick to switch over to coffee

production.12. Frederick Pike, 'The Catholic Church in Central America', Review of

Politics, vol. 21, no . I (January 1959)p. 89.13. Blanco Segura, Historia Eclesiastica . . ., p. 286.14. Blanco Segura, 1884 . . ., p . 39.IS. Picado, ' Pa ra una Historia .. . ' (April-June 1979)p. 112.16. The constitutional modifications must have had some effect, since

between 1864 and 1892 the population grew from approximately 120,000to 240,000 . For more on the origins of Protestantism in Costa Rica. seeArturo Piedra, 'Origenes y Efectos del Protestantismo en Costa Rica' ,Senderos, no . 20 (May-September 1984)pp . 3-28 .

17. Eugenio Rodriguez. Biografia de Costa Rica (San Jose, 1982) p. 67.18. Blanco Segura, Historia Eclesiastica . . ., pp . 225-326 .19. Blanco Segura, 1884 .. . , p. 41. '20. Rodriguez, op . cit ., p. 75.21. J. Lloyd Mecham, Church and State in Latin America (Chapel Hill, 1966)

p.333.22. Pike, op . cit., p. 91.

196 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

23. Rodriguez, op. cit ., p. 91.24. This is not to suggest that there were no anti-clericals in Costa Rica .

Indeed, a number of influential Liberals adhered to Barrios' strain ofliberalism .

25. Rodriguez, op . cit ., p. 100.26. Mons. Victor Sanabria, Bernardo Augusto Thiel (San Jose, 1982) pp .

134-5.27. Blanco Segura, 1884 . . . , p. 148.28. On this point, see ibid., pp. 319-20.29. Ibid., pp . 157, 166-8 .30. Ibid., pp . )69-73.3) . Sanabria, op . cit., p. 202.32. Ibid., pp . 208-10.33. Blanco Segura, 1884 ... , pp . )73--4 and Sanabria, op . cit ., p. III .34. Mecham , op. cit ., p. 333.35. Blanco Segura, 1884 . . ., p . 320.36. Picado, 'Para una Historia . . .' (April-June 1979) p. 124.37. James Backer, La Iglesia y el Sindicalismo en Costa Rica (San Jose, 1978)

p.49.38. Sanabria, op . cit., p. 416.39. 'Trigesima Carta Pastoral de Mons. Bernardo Augusto Thiel' , in Miguel

Picado, La Palabra Social de los Obispos Costarricences (San Jose, 1982)pp.27-36.

40. Backer, op . cit., p. 49.41. 'Trigesima Carta Pastoral . . ., op . cit ., p. 30.42. Sanabria, op. cit ., pp. 436-7.43. Picado, ' Para una Historia . . .' (April-June 1979) p. 126.44. lbid., p. 124.45. Sanabria, op. cit ., p. 452.46. Ibid., pp. 391-2.47. Picado, 'Para una Historia . . .' (April-June 1979) p. 126.48. Sanabria, op. cit ., p. 392.49. Ibid., pp . 459-60.50. In May) 894, a group of Congressional deputies attempted to pass a law

prohibiting clergy from any form of political participation . The finaloutcome was a law prohibiting the use of religious symbols or motives(by either clergy or laity) for political propaganda purposes. Sanabria,op. cit., pp . 464-6.

51. Ibid., pp . 459-60.52. Picado, 'Para una Historia . . . ' (July-September 1979) p. 229.53. Backer, op . cit ., p. 57.54. Ibid., p. 58.55. lbid., pp . 58-60.56. In 1921, the Diocese of Costa Rica was divided into the Archdiocese of

San Jose, the Diocese of Alajuela, and the Vicariato Apostolico of limon.57. Backer, op. cit. , pp . 63--4.58. Rodriguez, op. cit ., p. 154.59. See Picado, 'Para una Historia . . . ' (July-September 1979) pp 231-3

and Backer, op . cit ., pp . 71--4.60. Backer, op . cit ., p. 73.

Notes 197

61. ' Declaraciones de los Prelados de las Provincias Eclesiasticas deNicaragua, Costa Rica y Panama, a sus Diocesanos, Sobre el Com un­ismo ' Mensajero del Clero, no. 8 (August 1935) p. 982.

62. Jose Luis Vega Carballo, Hacia una Interpretac ion del DesarrolloCostarricens e: Ensayo Sociologico (San Jose, 1983) p. 322.

63. The Costa Rican hierarchy obviously applied its own selective interpre-tation to the social encyclicals. Backer, op . cit ., pp . 76-7.

64. Ibid ., p. 75.65. Ibid ., p. 80.66. Marina Volio, Jorge Volio yel Partido Reformista (San Jose, 1983) p. 25.67. Ib id., pp. 35-41.68. Ibid ., pp . 75-7, 92.69. Ibid ., pp . 95-129.70. Ibid ., pp. 170-75.71. Picado, 'Para una Historia .. . ' (July-September 1979)p. 240.72. Volio , op . cit ., pp. 262-3.73. Coffee accounted for more than 50 per cent of the total export earnings.74. Vega Carballo, op . cit. , p. 315.75. Daniel Camacho, 'PorQue PersisteelJuego Democratico en Costa Rica' , in

Chester Zelaya ed ., Demo cracia en Costa Rica? (San Jose, 1983) p. 114.76. Vega Carballo , op . cit ., pp . 316-22.77. Jorge Mario Salazar, Politica y Reforma en Costa Rica: 1914-1958 (San

Jose , 1982) pp . 19-20,72-3.78. Jorge Rovira Mas, Estado y Politica en Costa Rica: 1948-1970 (San Jose,

1983) pp . 31-2.79. Salazar, op . cit ., pp . 57-60, 74.80. Rodriguez, op . cit ., p. 168.81. Salazar, op . cit., pp . 70-71.82. Rodriguez, op . cit ., pp. 171-2.83. Backer, op . cit ., pp . 100-101.84. 'Presentacion del Programa Pastoral de Mons. Sanabria como Obispo de

la Diocesis de Alajuela' , in Picado, La Palabra Social . . ., p. 46.85. Backer, op . cit ., p. 89.86. 'Carta Pastoral de Mons. Sanabria con Motivo de la Toma de Posesion

de la Sede Metropolitana de San Jose' , in Picado, La Palabra Social . . .,p.51.

87. 'Carta Pastoral Sobre el Justo Salario', in Picado, La Palabra Social . . .,p.68.

88. 'Cartas Cruzadas Entre el Presidente Rafael Calderon Guardia y losObispos de Costa Rica', in ibid ., p. 78.

89. Booth, op . cit., pp . 65, 121.90. The communists claimed that the government was handing over the

country's wealth to foreign investors. See Backer, op . cit., p. 91.91. Miguel Picado, 'Mons. Sanabria: Compromiso Social y Pensamiento

Teologico', unpublished mimeo (San Jose , 1985) p. 12.92. Salazar, op . cit ., p. 74.93. Picado, 'Mons. Sanabria . . . ' , p. 12.94. 'Carta del Jefe del Partido Comunista Costarricense don Manuel Mora a

Mons. Victor Sanabria M. Arzobispo de San Jose', in Picado, La PalabraSocial . . ., pp . 81-2.

198 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

95. 'Respuesta de Mons. Sanabria M. Arzobispo de San Jose a don ManuelMora', in ibid, pp. 83-7 .

96. 'Declaraciones de Mons. Sanabria ', in ibid ., pp. 89-95 .97. 'Presentacion del Program a Pastoral de Mons . Sanabria como Obispo de

la Diocesis de Alajuela', op . cit., p. 48.98. Ibid.99. 'Declaraciones de Mons. Sanabria'. op . cit ., p. 92.

100. Backer,op. cit., p. 107.101. Ibid.,pp.III-13.102. Ibid., pp. 113-20.103. lbid., pp. 121-5.104. Benjamin Nunez, 'EI Movimiento Sindical Rerum Novarum: Un Ensayo

de Aplicacion de la Doctrina Social de la Iglesia' . Senderos, Afio 4. no. 10(January-ApriI1981)pp.6-12.

105. Sanabria also personally advocated a position of mutual collaborationvis-Ii-vis the CTCR . See 'Discurso del Mons . Sanabria en la Convencionde la CCTRN celebrada el I de Mayo de 1945', in Picado, La PalabraSocial . . ., pp. 111-12.

106. Picado, 'Para una Historia . .. ' (October-December 1979)p. 353.107. Backer,op. cit., pp. 127-9.108. VegaCarballo, op. cit., pp . 331-6 .109. Salazar, op. cit., pp. 117-18.110. Jacobo Schifter, La Fase Oculta de la Guerra Civil en Costa Rica (San

Jose, 1981) pp. 68-73. For a more detailed discussion of the CEPN andthe PSD see Jorge E. Romero, La Social Democracia en Costa Rica (SanJose, 1982)pp. 69-116.

III . Schifter,op . cit., p. 75.112. Rovira Mas, op. cit., pp. 35-6.113. Schifter, op . cit., pp. 76-7.114. Salazar, op. cit., pp. 134-8.115. The official turnout was suspiciously low in traditional Calderonista

strongholds . SeeSchifter, op . cit., p. 80.116. Ibid., pp. 80-83.117. Ibid., pp. 78-9.118. The relative weakness of Figueres ' position was reflected in the PSD's

poor showing during the September 1948 national assembly elections,where it only polled 6.4 per cent of the popular vote. Ibid ., p. 88.

119. It is interesting that after Nunez assumed his position in the government,the CCTRN entered into a period of decline - an obvious reflection ofthe personalist nature of the movement. See Backer, op. cit., pp .151-6.

120. Picado, 'Para una Historia . .. ' (October-December 1979)p. 356.121. Backer, op. cit., pp. 161-3.122. Sanabria figured prominently in the protests against these proposals.

However. this was his last significant public intervention in politicalmatters before his death in 1952.

123. Pike, op . cit., pp. 94-5 .

CHAPTER SIX

Notes 199

I. Jose Miguel Rodriguez, 'Politica y Religion: La Funcion Politica de laIglesia Catolica en Cost a Rica', Revista de Ciencias Sociales , no. 13(April 1977),pp. 77-101.

2. Ruben Odio Herrera , 'Primera Carta Pastoral con Motivo de suConsagraci6n y Toma de Posesion del Arzobispado' (San Jose, 12December 1952)p. 9.

3. Although the Communist Party had been proscribed by the 1949Constitution, it was still very influential in the labour movement,particularly the banana workers' union.

4. Episcopado Costarricense, 'Carta Pastoral Colectiva con Motivo de laConsagracion de la Republica al Sagrado Corazon de Jesus' (San Jose,30 September 1953)p. 7.

5. Jose Miguel Rodriguez Zamora, 'Aspectos Ideologicos y Estructuralesde la Relacion Entre la Iglesia Catolica de Costa Rica y el SistemaPolitico Nacional' (Universidad de Costa Rica, 1976)p.47.

6. During the 1940s and 1950s, a number of Northamerican pentecostalgroups (induding the Assembly of God and Church of God) establishedmissions in Costa Rica, steadily gaining adherents. In contrast to themore established Protestant churches, these sects dedicated much of theirenergy to religious proselytism . See Senderos, no. 20 (May-September1984) pp. 36-7.

7. Backer, op . cit ., pp . 171-2.8. Ibid., pp . 174-8.9. Rodriguez Zamora, 'Aspectos Ideologicos . . . " p. 52.

10. The PLN was founded by Jose Figueres in 1951,with the PSD providingmost of its leadership cadres . For more on the political history of thePLN see Burt H. English, Liberacion Nacional in Costa Rica: TheDevelopment of a Political Party in a Transitional Society (Gainesville,1971);and Jaime Delgado, EI Partido Libera cion Nacional: Analisis de suDiscurso Politico-Ideologico (Heredia, 1983).

II . For a good overview of this period , see Salazar, op. cit., pp. 172-216 ; andRovira Mas, op . cit ., pp. 63-87,119-133.

12. One author has suggested that Sanabria had already set the pattern for amore passive role by the hierarchy . His relative silence regardingsocio-economic issues in the wake of the civil war signalled his retreatfrom the campo social. See Jorge Arturo Chaves, 'La Iglesia y laProduccion Material en Costa Rica', Prax is, nos. 5-6 (July-December1977)pp. 90-93.

13. Richard and Melendez, op . cit., pp. 264-5.14. The agro-export sector opposed membership in the CACM , as other

emerging sectors would challenge its economic hegemony. Nevertheless,the Orlich government maintained the policy of defending coffeeproduction, since it was so essential to the country 's economic well­being. See Rovira Mas, op . cit., p. 94.

15. Rodolfo Cerdas, 'Costa Rica: Problemas Actuales de una RevolucionDemocratica', in Zelaya, op . cit ., pp. 169-72.

16. Jacobo Schifter, 'La Democracia en Costa Rica Como Producto de laNeutralizacion de Clases', in Zelaya, op. cit., p. 227.

200 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

17. See Mitchell Seligson, EI Campesino )' el Capitalismo Agrario de CostaRica(SanJose,1984)pp.158-85.

18. Andres Opazo Bernales, ' La Iglesia Costarricense y el Orden SocialSacralizado', unpublished mimeo (San Jose, 1984) p. 27.

19. Rovira Mas, op . cit ., p. 92.20. Rodriguez Zamora, 'Aspectos ldeologicos . . . , pp . 55-6.21. The conservative sector of the clergy (which , of course, included

Rodriguez), was especially delighted with Trejos' election, since herepresented the interests of the traditional agro-export bourgeoisie,which opposed the State's growing intervention in the economy.

22. Mensajero del Clero, nos. 9-10 (September-October 1966) pp . 217-19.23. 'Carta Pastoral del Episcopado Costarricense' , Eco Catolico, 26

February 1978and 5 March 1978.24. Ibid.25. 'Obispos Denuncian la Corrupcion Moral', Eco Catolico, 2 December

1973.26. Quoted in Backer, op . cit ., p. 188.27. Rodriguez Zamora, op . cit ., p. 54.28. Rodriguez' preoccupation with the 'communist threat' was probably a

reaction to the successful Cuban Revolution, two years earlier.29. Mons. Carlos Humberto Rodriguez Quiros, 'Llamarnicnto e Invitacion

para el Proximo Primero de Mayo, Dia del Trabajo, en la Catedral deSan Jose ' (San Jose, 30 April 1970) p. 2.

30. Ibid.31. Backer, op. cit., p. 187.32. Ibid., p. 186.33. La Nacion, 30 September 1972, p. 8. For more on this, see next chapter.34. Backer, op. cit., pp. 196-7 .35. Mons. Carlos Humberto Rodriguez Quiros, 'Cornunicacion' (San Jose,

29 March 1963)p. 6.36. The communist labour movement was especially strong in the banana

zones.37. Mons. Rodriguez refused to establish links with the COCC, contending

that it had been infiltrated by the communists. See Backer, op . cit ., pp .201'-2.

38. Ibid ., pp . 191-3.39. Gustavo Blanco and Orlando Navarro, £1 Solidarismo: Pensamiento )'

Dinamico Social de un Movimiento Obrero-Patronal (San Jose , 1984) p.72.

40. Interview with Father Claudio Solano (Director of ESJ23), 22 July 1985,Curridibat.

41. Ibid.42. Blanco and Navarro, op . cit., p. 50.43. Ibid., p. 28.44. Ibid., p. 168.45. Interview with Solano, op . cit.46. Between 1973 and 1981, the number of Asociaciones Solidaristas de

Empleados (ASEs) in Costa Rica rose from 30 to 216. This compared to259 trade unions in 1981. See Blanco and Navarro, op . cit. , pp .106-13.

Notes 201

47. Blanco and Navarro, op. cit., pp. 178-9; and interview with Solano, op.cit.

48. Eeo Catolico, 22 July 1973, p. 10.49. Ibid.50. Blanco and Navarro, op. cit., p. 176.51 . Mensajero del Clero, no . 6 (June 1965)pp. 171-3.52. Roman Arrieta, 'Ante el Sesquicentenario de Nuestra Independencia'

(15 September 1971). Personal Archive of Javier Solis.53. Eco Catolico, 7 January 1973, p. 8.54. Javier Solis, La Herencia De Sanabria (San Jose, 1983) pp. 161-2.55. See Eco Catolico, 25 May 1969, p. 5.56. Apparently, this did not include direct criticisms of the regime's

shortcomings.57. Three quarters of the total land was owned by 17agricultural enterprises.58. Roman Arrieta, 'Las Tierras Irrigadas por el Proyecto del Arenal: A

Quienes Benificiaran?' (31 March 1975). Personal Archive of JavierSolis.

59. La Nacion , 14April 1975,p. 6A.60. 'Mons. Arrieta a la Conciencia del Pais' (27 April 1975) p. I. Personal

Archive of Javier Solis.61. Solis, op. cit., pp . 84-5 .62. 'Declaracion de los Sacerdotes de la Diocesis de Tilaran Sobre el

Proyecto de Ley de Creacion del Distrito de Riego de Moracia ', in Solis,op . cit., pp . 111-17; La Republica, 24 April 1975, pp. I and 13.

63. La Nacion, 9 May 1975,p. 2A.64. Roman Arrieta, ' Distrito de Riego de Moracia: Mi Posicion Oficial' (II

March 1978).Personal Archive of Javier Solis.65. This would become evident when he was appointed Archbishop.66. CODESA was created in 1972 during the Figueres administration

(1970-74), but did not really take off until 1975. During the Odubergovernment, a number of enterprises were 'set up as subsidiaries ofCODESA. See Carlos Araya Pochet, 'Crisis e Historia Economica ySocial en Costa Rica: 1970-1982', in Jorge Rovira Mas ed., Costa RicaHoy: La Crisis y sus Perspectivas (San Jose, 1984) pp. 27-8.

67. Helio Fallas Venegas, 'Crisis Economica y Transformacion Social enCosta Rica', in Rovira Mas, ed., op. cit., pp. 68-74.

68. Eugenio Rivera Urrutia, 'EI Fondo Monetario Internacional y laPolitica de Estabilizacion en Costa Rica: 1978-1982', in Rovira Mas,ed., op. cit., pp. 179-83.

69. In the words of Mons. Bolanos, •. .. some say Arrieta is more verde thanthe PLN banner' - which is, of course, green. Interview with Mons.Enrique Bolanos (retired Bishop of Alajuela), 6 August 1985, Heredia.

70. Interview with Mons. Bolanos, op. cit.71. Mons . Enrique Bolanos Quesada, 'Mensaje Pastoral' (San Jose, 24

January 1979)pp. 7-9.72. In an interview with the author, Mons. Bolanos recalled that pastoral

activities in the Archdiocese were in complete disarray when he took overas Apostolic Administrator. Interview with Mons. Bolanos, op. cit.

73. Miguel Picado , La Palabra Social . . ., p. 22.74. The timing of the pastoral is not inconsequential. It came exactly one

202 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

month after the Nicaraguan hierarchy's pastoral letter , 'CornprornisoCristiano para una Nicaragua Nueva' - its most progressive statement todate.

75. Conferencia Episcopal de Costa Rica (CECOR), 'Evangelizacion yRealidad Social de Costa Rica' (San Jose , 17December 1979)p. 8.

76. Ibid., p. 9.77. Ibid., p. 13.78. Ibid., p. 21.79. ibid.80. Ibid., p. 13.81. La Nacion, 23 December 1979, p. 14A.82. La Nacion, 8 January 1980, p. 15A.83. La Nacion, 18January 1980, p. 15A.84. La Nacion, 15January 1980, p. 6A .85. La Nacion, 20 January 1980, p. 3B.86. Eco Catolico, 20 January 1980.87. La Nacion, 29 January 1980, p. 9A .88. La Nacion, 31 January 1980, p. lOA.89. La Nacion, 23 August 1980, p. 4A.90. 'Iglesia y Momento Actual: Carta Pastoral del Episcopado Costarricense

Sobre la Actual Situacion del Pais y la Campana Electoral', in Picado. LaPalabra Social . . ., pp. 183-94.

91. Ibid.,p.187.92. CECOR , 'Unidos en la Esperanza: Carta Pastoral del Episcopado

Costarricense Sobre la Critica Situacion que Vive el Pais' (San Jose, IDecember 1981).

93. Ibid., p. 8.94. 'Alocucion de Mons . Roman Arrieta, Arzobispo de San Jose, con

Motive de la Eleccion de Don Luis Alberto Monge, como Presidente dela Republica', Mensajero del Clero , no . 8 (December 1982)pp. 4-5 .

95. 'Carta Circular al Clero de Costa Rica Sobre eI Programa Nacional deDistribuci6n de Alimentos', Mensajero del Clero, no . 8 (December 1982)p.22 .

96. Lowell Gudmundson, 'EI Conflicto Entre Estabilidad y Neutralidad enCosta Rica', Foro Internacional, vol. XXVI, no . I (July-September 1985)pp.37-54.

97. See Mensajero del Clero, nos. 8-16 (December 1982-January 1986).98. See Bibliography for list of interviews with Costa Rican Bishops.99. Since 1978, the growth of fundamentalist sects has been exponential.

Between 1978and 1983 these sects claimed to have gained close to 30,000newadherents. See Senderos (May-September 1984)p. 57.

100. Interview with Mons . Hector Morera (Bishop of Tilaran), 8 July 1985,Tilaran .

CHAPTER SEVEN

I. Solis, op. cit ., p. 151 .2. Eco Catolico, 7 May 1967.3. Eco Catolico, 16July 1967.

NOles 203

4. Interview with Javier Solis, (former Cathol ic priest), 5 August 1985, SanJose .

5. Eeo Catolico, 20 August 1967, 10December 1967.6. £Co Catolico, 6 October 1967,3 November 1968.7. Eeo Catolico , 17 November 1968, I and 15December 1968, I June 1969.8. Solis, op . cit., pp . 121-5.9. La Nadon , 13and 20 August 1968.

10. Eeo Catolico, 25 August 1968.11. La Nadon, 24 August 1968.12. La Nadon, 27 August 1968.13. La Nadon, 3 September 1968.14. Eeo Catolico, 23 November 1969. Echandi had accused the PLN

candidate, Jose Figueres, of being a communist.15. Solis, op . cit., p. 157.16. Eeo Catolico, 28 December 1969.17. Although an article in La Republica (11 December 1969) claimed that

Mons. Rodriguez had denounced the TSE's decision during a clergymeeting, Rodriguez denied ever having made such a statement. In fact.during the clergy meeting, Rodriguez sustained that he would notsupport either side in the conflict, as he did not wish to 'trigger a politicalbattle.' Mensajero del Clero, nos.9-10 (September-October 1969)p. 161 .

18. Solis, op . cit ., pp . 157-8.19. La Republica, 15 February 1970.20. Eeo Catolico, 31 May 1970.21. Eeo Catolico , 25 July 1971.22. Eeo Catolico, 19July 1970, p. 6.23. Backer, op . cit., pp . 209-10 ; La Nadon, 30October 1968.24. Solis, op. cit., p. 93.25. Eeo Catolico , 20 Apri11969, p. 10.26. Mensajero del Clero , nos . 3-4 (March-April 1969)pp. 45-6.27. Solis, op . cit., p. 91.28. Ibid. , pp. 58-61 .29. fbid. , pp. 47-57 .30. Universidad, 15 February 1971.31. 'Carta del Presidente de la CECOR a Mons . Leonidas Proafio'

(Tilaran, 30.12.70). Archivo de la Curia Metropolitana.32. Mora studied theology in Louvain between 1960 and 1965. In the late

1960s he worked with the Ju ventud Universitaria Catolica (JUC), whichtook on an increasingly radical position during this period. A number ofits members participated in demonstrations against ALCOA in April1970. Interview with Arnoldo Mora (former Catholic priest), 22 July1985,San Jose.

33. Interview with Arnoldo Mora, op. cit.; interview with Javier Solis. op.cit.

34. Grupo Ecumenico Exodo, 'Informe de Costa Rica', unpublished mimeo(San Jose, 1972). Archivo Personal de Arnoldo Mora .

35. CECOR, 'Declaracion de la CECOR Sobre el Encuentro de Chile"Cristianos para el Socialismo '" (August 1972). Archivo Personal deJavier Solis.

36. La Nadon, 30 September 1972, p. 8.

204 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

37. Interviewwith Javier Solis, op. cit.38. Ibid.39. In March 1974, the Episcopal Conference passed a resolution calling on

those priests 'out of communion' with their bishops to normalize theirsituation. Those who refused would be subject to sanctions according tocanon law. CECOR, 'Acuerdo Sobre Disciplina Eclesiastica ' (San Jose, IMarch 1974). Archivo Personal de Javier Solis.

40. Solis, op. cit., pp. 71-4.41. Richard and Melendez, op. cit., p. 282.42. Interviewwith Javier Solis, op. cit.43. Arnoldo Mora, for example, was one of the founding members of the

Partido Socialista Costarricense (PSC), participating in the PSC'selectoral campaign of 1973.

44. Interviewwith Arnoldo Mora, op . cit.45. Interview with Javier Solis, op. cit.; interview with Arnoldo Mora, op.

cit.46. A survey of seminarians conducted in January 1970 reflected the

deficient nature of their preparation. Only 5 per cent of the studentsthought they were receiving a formacion integral, and over half (57 percent) maintained that their training did not prepare them to confront the'problems of the future .' The lack of confidence on the part of thestudents probably arose from their almost cloistered existence at theSeminary, which isolated them from the 'outside world.' ConsejoEstudiantil, 'Evaluacion del Seminario Central de Costa Rica' (San Jose ,January 1970).

47. Interview with Juan Merino OP (Director of ITAC) , 24 April 1985, SanJose.

48. Richard and Melendez, op. cit., p. 284. It is no small coincidence thatmany of the most progress ive secular clergy in Costa Rica todaycompleted their first four years of theological studies while ITAC wasstilla part of the Seminary.

49. Pueblo, 28 August-4 September 1978, no. 295, p. 4; 30 October-6November, no. 303, p. 4.

50. CECOR, 'Comunicado de la Conferencia Episcopal Sobre la Huelga enel ITAC' (Tilanln , 25 August 1978).

51. Interviewwith Juan Merino OP, op . cit.52. Interview with Francisco Ulloa (Rector of the Seminario Central), II

April 1985, San Jose.53. Confidential interviews with three students at ITAC, 26 April 1985, San

Jose.54. Confidential interviews with three students at the Seminario Central, 16

April 1985, San Jose.55. For a good discussion of apostolic movements in Costa Rica , see

Mensajero del Clero, no. II (September 1983).56. Interview with Orlando Navarro (former Parroco of San Gabriel de

Aserri), 12April 1985.57. Andres Opazo, op. cit., chapter 2, pp. 36-42 .58. Interviewwith Lorenzo McCulloch MM (priest in Limon) , 12June 1985,

Limon: interviews with Eduardo Ramirez and Luis Alberto Herrera(priests in Guapiles), 13 June 1985, Guapiles; interv iew with Mons.

Notes 205

Alfonso Coto (Bishop of Limon), 10June 1985, Limon.59. Interviews with Luis Arocena and Santiago Tortosa (priests in

Chacarita), 22 March 1985, Chacarita. See also Andres Opazo, op. cit.,chapter 2, pp. 43-90.

60. Interview with Gerardo Brenes (Director of Caritasi , 9 July 1985, SanJose.

61. Interview with Orlando Navarro (Director of CECODERS), I.2 April1985, San Jose.

62. Quinto Sinodo Arquidiocesano, 'Decretos Sinodales' (San Jose, 2August 1985)pp . 66-8 .

63. SEPROLA, 'Informacion General ', unpublished mimeo (San Jose,1985).

64. Interview with Mons . Arrieta , op. cit.65. La Nacion, 21 July 1985,p. 14A.66. Ibid.67. La Nacion , 27 July 1985, p. 16A.68. La Nacion, 30July 1985,p. 14A.69. La Nacion, 13August 1985,p. 16A.70. Claudio Solano , 'Carta a Mons . Arrieta ' (Curridibat, 8July 1985).71. Interview with Claudio Solano, op. cit.72. Because the Anuario only lists secular priests for the Archdiocese of San

Jose, the figure is a projected estimate based upon data available from1971.

73. Richard and Melendez, op. cit., p. 270.74. Picado, 'Para una Historia . . . " Senderos, Afio 3, no. 9 (September­

December 1980)pp. 172-3.75. Richard and Melendez, op. cit., p. 271 .

CHAPTER EIGHT

1. Whereas in Costa Rica the willingness of the Calderon Guardiagovernment to implement reforms facilitated collaboration betweenChurch and State , in Nicaragua Somoza's intransigence ultimatelyresulted in confrontation.

Bibliography

GENERAL

Nicaragua, I am convinced, must be one of the most difficultcountriesin Latin America to conduct research in. A country at war cannotplace much priority on the development of libraries and archives, letalone upkeep. Moreover, numerous documents and archives weredestroyed during the 1972 earthquake. In short , facilities are veryinadequate and collections incomplete. During the research for thisbook it was occasionally necessary to rely on oral histories to fill ingaps on certain points (such as the preparations for the 1973EncuentroPastoral and the activities ofCEPA).

The best collections of Church documents can be found at theInstituto Historico Centroamericano and at the Centro AntonioValdivieso - the Conferencia Episcopal also has a fairly completecollection of pastoral letters after 1972. For newspapers and journals,the Instituto Historico and the Banco Central are the best sources.

Costa Rica, on the other hand, has excellent research facilities. TheCuria Metropolitana has an extensive library of Church documents .Mensajero del Clero, a periodic Church publication , is also a goodsource. Finally, the Biblioteca Nacional and the library of theUniversidad de Costa Rica have very good collections of newspapersand journals.

INTERVIEWS

Bishops

Arrieta Villalobos, Roman, Mons. Archbishop of San Jose. 31 July1985. San Jose.

207

208 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

Barni, Julian, Mons . Bishop of Leon . 23 August 1983. Leon.Barquero, Jose Rafael, Mons. Bishop of Alajuela. 18 July 1985.

Alajuela.Bolanos Quesada, Enrique, Mons. Retired Bishop of Alajuela. 6

August 1985.Heredia .Boscos Vivas, Mons . Auxiliary Bishop of Managua. 5 August 1983.

Managua.Coto Monge, Alfonso, Mons . Bishop of Limon. 10June 1985. Limon.Morera, Hector, Mons . Bishop of'Tilaran. 8 July 1985.Tilaran.Obando y Bravo, Miguel, Mons. Archbishop of Managua. 16 August

1983. Managua.Santi, Carlos, Mons. Bishop of Matagalpa. 21 July 1983. Matagalpa.Schlaeffer, Salvador, Mons . Bishop of Zelaya. 2 August 1983 and 16

November 1984. Managua.Trejos Picado , Ignacio, Mons . Bishop of San Isidro de El General. 29

May 1985.San Isidro de EI General.Troyo Calderon, Antonio, Mons. Auxiliary Bishop of San Jose. 23

April 1985.San Jose.Vega, Pablo Antonio, Mons. Bishop of Juigalpa. 14-15 July 1983

(Juigalpa) and 18December 1984(Managua).Vilichez, Pedro , Mons . Bishop ofJinotega. 25 October 1984.Jinotega.

OtherInterviews

Argiiello, Frederico, Mons. Parroco of Diriamba. 28 December 1984.Diriamba.

Arocena, Luis. Spanish Priest in Chacarita . 22 March 1985. Chacarita .Barriales OP, Gregorio. Parish Priest in Rivas. 7 January 1985. Rivas.Bent, Norman. Moravian Pastor. 18 August 1983. Managua.Brenes, Gerardo. Director of Caritas. 9 July 1985. San Jose .Carballo, Bismark, Mons. Director of Radio Catolica. 3 August 1983.

Managua.Cardenal , Ernesto. Minister of Culture. 15January 1985. Managua.Cardenal SJ, Fernando. Minister of Education. 8 February 1985.

Managua.Cereda MSC, Rosalia . Former Secretary of CONFER. 27 November

1984. Managua.Coursol, Enrique. Parish Priest in Totogalpa . 2 December 1984.

Totogalpa.Espinoza Jiron, Rene. Director of Caritas. 4 August 1983. Managua .Gatti OFM, Domingo. Parish Priest in Juigalpa. 17-18 May 1985.

Juigalpa.

Bibliography 209

Guijo SDB, Jose Manuel. President of CONFER. 18 January 1985.Managua.

Gundrum OFM Cap., Alfredo. Capuchin Father. 7 December 1984. EIJicaro.

Herrera, Luis Alberto. Parish Priest in Guapiles, 13 June 1985.Guapiles,

Leibl , Justinian. Director ofCEPA. 4 August 1983. Managua.Martinez SJ, Valentin. Parish Priest in Ciudad Sandino . 12 December

1984. Ciudad Sandino.Maryknoll Sisters. 26 November 1984 (Ciudad Sandino), 2 December

1984 (Ocotal), and I January 1985(Leon).McCulloch MM, Lorenzo. Maryknoll Priest in Limon. 12 June 1985.

Limon.Merino OP, Juan. Director oflTAC. 24 April 1985. San Jose .Mora, Arnoldo. Former Catholic Priest. 22 July 1985.San Jose.Navarro, Orlando. Director of CECODERS. 12 April 1985. San

Jose.Niehaus OFM Cap., Teodoro. Capuchin Father. 26 July 1983.

Managua.Ortega SJ, Jose Luis. Parish Priest in Ocotal. I December 1984. Ocotal.Owczarek, Rita. Maryknoll Sister. 26 November 1984. Ciudad

Sandino.Pardina MSC, Ramon. Parish Priest in San Juan del Sur. 10 January

1985. San Juan del Sur.Ramirez, Eduardo. Parish Priest in Guapiles. 13June 1985.Guapiles,Rivas, Roberto. Director of COPROSA . 13January 1985. Managua.Ruskamp OFM Cap., Florian. Capuchin Father. 28 January 1985.

Managua.Solano, Claudio. Director of ESJ23. 22 July 1985. Curridabat.Solis , Javier. Former Catholic Priest. 5 August 1985.San Jose .Students at the ITAC. 26 April 1985. San Jose .Students at the Seminario Central. 16April 1985. San Jose.Torranza SJ, Augustin. Parish Priest in Ocotal. I December 1984.

Ocotal.Tortusa, Santiago. Spanish Priest in Chacarita. 22 March 1985.

Chacarita.Ulloa, Francisco. Rector of the Seminario Central . II April 1985. San

Jose.Wagner OFM Cap., Bernardo. Capuchin Father. 20 November 1984.

Managua.Wihbey, Ani . Central de Servicios Multiples. November-December

1984. Managua.

210 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

ARCHIVES

Archivo de la Conferencia Episcopal de Nicaragua. Managua .Archivo de la Curia Metropolitana. San Jose.Archivo Nacional de Nicaragua. Managua.Personal Archive of Arnoldo Mora. San Jose.Personal Archive ofJavier Solis . San Jose .

CHURCH DOCUMENTS AND PUBLICAnONS

Arrieta Villalobos, Roman 'Ante el Sesquicentenario de NuestraIndependencia', 15 September 1971. Personal Archive of JavierSolis.

-Las Tierras Irrigadas por el Proyecto del Arenal: A QuienesBenificiaran?' , 31 March 1975. Personal Archive ofJavier Solis.

-'Mons. Arrieta a la Conciencia del Pais', 27 April 1975. PersonalArchive ofJavier Solis.

-'Distrito de Riego de Moracia: Mi Posicion Oficial', II March1978. Personal Archive ofJavier Solis.

'Alocucion de Mons. Roman Arrieta, Arzobispo de San Jose, conMotivo de la Eleccion de don Luis Alberto Monge, como Presidentede la Republica', Mensajero del Clero , no. 8, December 1982, pp. 4-5.

Bolanos Quesada, Enrique 'Mensaje Pastoral', San Jose, 24 January1979.

Calderon y Padilla, Octavio Jose 'Sexta Carta Pastoral', Matagalpa, 15August 1959.

'Carta Circular al Clero de Costa Rica Sobre el Programa Nacional deDistribucion de Alimentos', Mensajero del Clero, no . 8, December1982, pp . 21-2.

'Carta del Presidente de la CECOR a Mons. Leonidas Proafio',Tilaran, 30 December 1970. Archivo de la Curia Metropolitana.

'Carta Pastoral de Mons. Sanabria con Motivo de su Toma de Posesionde la Sede Metropolitana de San Jose' in Miguel Picado ed ., LaPalabra Social de Los Obispos Costarricenses (San Jose: DEI, 1982) .

'Carta Pastoral Sobre el Justo Salario' in Miguel Picado ed ., LaPalabra Social de Los Obispos Costarricenses (San Jose: DEI, 1982) .

'Cartas Cruzadas Entre el Presidente Rafael Calderon Guardia y losObispos de Costa Rica' in Miguel Picado ed., La Palabra Social deLos Obispos Costarricenses (San Jose: DEI, 1982).

CONFER 'Estatutos de la Conferencia Nacional de SuperioresMayores de Nicaragua', Managua, 21 November 1984.

Bibliography 211

- 'Observaciones de la Sagrada Congregacion de Religiosos eInstitutos Seculares (SCRIS) al Proyecto de Estatutos de CONFER',undated memo, Managua.

Conferencia Episcopal de Costa Rica (CECOR), 'Declaracion de laCECOR Sobre el Encuentro de Chile "Cristianos para el Social­isrno'", August 1972.Personal Archiveof Javier Solis.

-Acuerdo Sobre Disciplina Eclesiastica', San Jose, I March 1974.Personal Archive ofJavier Solis.

-'Comunicado de la Conferencia Episcopal Sobre la Huelga en elITAC', Tilaran, 25 August 1978.

- 'Evangelizacion y Realidad Social de Costa Rica,' San Jose, 17December 1979.

- ' Iglesia y Momento Actual : Carta Pastoral del EpiscopadoCostarricense Sobre la Actual Situacion del Pais y la CampanaElectoral', in Miguel Picado ed., La Palabra Social de Los ObisposCostarricenses (San Jose: DEI, 1982).

-'Unidos en la Esperanza: Carta Pastoral del Episcopado Costarric­ense Sobre la Critica Situacion que Vive el Pais', San Jose, IDecember 1981.

Conferencia Episcopal de Nicaragua (CEN) 'Sobre el Deber delTestimonio y de la Accion Cristiana en el Orden Politico', Managua ,29 June 1971.

-'Sobre los Principios que Rigen la Actividad Politica de Toda laIglesia Como Tal', Managua, 19 March 1972.

-'Declaracion de la CEN Reunida en Sesion Extraordinaria',Managua, 27 May 1974.

-'EI Hombre, la Iglesia y la Sociedad', Granada, 6 August 1974.-'Mensaje de la CEN: Renovando la Esperanza Cristiana al

Iniciarse el Afio 1977', Managua, 8 January 1977.-'Mensaje al Pueblo de Dios al Iniciarse el Afio 1978', Managua, 6

January 1978.-'CEN a los Hombres de Buena Voluntad' , Encuentro , no. 14,

July-December 1978, pp. 108-11.-'Mensaje al Pueblo Nicaragiiense: Momento Insurreccional',

Managua, 2 June 1979.- 'Compromise Cristiano para una Nicaragua Nueva', Managua,

17November 1979.- 'Comunicado Pastoral del CEN', Managua, 13May 1980.- 'Respuesta de la CEN', Managua, 17October 1980.-'Jesucristo y la Unidad de su Iglesia en Nicaragua', Managua, 22

October 1980.- 'Mensaje de la CEN', Managua, 18February 1982.

212 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

-'Consideraciones Generales de la CEN Sobre e1 Servicio Militar',Managua, 29August 1983.

- 'Carta Pastoral del Episcopado Nicaragiiense Sobre la Reconcili­acion', Managua, 22 April 1984.

-'Comunicado de la CEN', Managua, 22 March 1985.Consejo Episcopal Latinoamericano (CELAM) 'La Iglesia en la Actual

Transforrnacion de America Latina a la Luz del Concilio', Conclu­siones(Bogota: CELAM, 1968).

Consejo Estudiantil 'Evaluacion del Seminario Central de Costa Rica',San Jose, January 1970. Personal Archive of Javier Solis.

'Declaracion del Delegado de los Jesuitas con su Consulta', Barricada,9 May 1984.

'Declaraciones de los Prelados de las Provincias Eclesiasticas deNicaragua, Costa Rica y Panama, a sus Diocesanos, Sobre elComunismo', Mensajero del Clero, no. 8, August 1935, pp. 981­4.

'Discurso de Mons. Sanabria en la Convencion de la CCTRNCelebrada ell de Mayo de 1945', in Miguel Picado ed., La PalahraSocial de los Ohispos Costarricenses (San Jose: DEI, 1982).

Episcopado Costarricense 'Carta Pastoral Colectiva con Motivo de laConsagraci6n de la Republica al Sagrado Corazon de Jesus', SanJose, 30September 1953.

Episcopado de Centro America y Panama 'Primer Carta 'Pastoral delEpiscopado de Centro America y Panama" San Jose, 27 May 1956.

Gonzalez y Robleto, Vicente Alejandro 'Carta Pastoral Eclesiastica',Managua , 3 August 1959.

Lopez Ardon, Ruben 'Instruccion Diocesana "Eminente Vocacion"Sobre los Delegados de la Palabra' , Esteli, 24 September 1984.

National Conference of Catholic Bishops 'Puebla: Evangelization atPresent and in the Future of Latin America' , Conclusions, OfficialEnglishTranslation, Washington D.C., 1979.

Odio Herrera, Ruben 'Primera Carta Pastoral con Motivo de suConsagraci6n y Toma de Posesion del Arzobispado', San Jose, 12December 1952.

'Presentacion del Program a Pastoral de Mons. Sanabria como Obispode la Diocesis de Alajuela' in Miguel Picado ed., La Palabra Socialde los Obispos Costarricenses (San Jose: DEI, 1982).

Primer Encuentro Pastoral en Managua 'De Cara al Futuro de laIglesiaen Nicaragua', Documentos, Managua, 1969.

'Respuesta de Mons. Sanabria Arzobispo de San Jose a don ManuelMora' in Miguel Picado ed., La Palabra Social de los ObisposCostarricenses (San Jose: DEI, 1982).

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Quinto Sinodo Arquidiocesano 'Decretos Sinodales' , San Jose, 2August 1985:

Rodriguez Quiros, Carlos Humberto 'Cornunicacion', San Jose, 29March 1963.

-'Invitacion para el Proximo Primero de Mayo, Dia del Trabajo, enla Catedral de San Jose', San Jose, 30 April 1970.

'Sagrada Congregacion para el Clero'. Letter dated 14July 1982, Rome.SEPROLA 'Informacion General' , unpublished mimeo, San Jose,

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Miguel Picado ed., La Palabra Social de los Obispos Costarricenses(San Jose: DEI, 1982).

Vega, Pablo Antonio 'Nuestro Aporte de Iglesia a la Humanizacion dela Historia: Una Invitacion a la Reflexion Cristiana Ante elMomento Nicaragiiense', Managua, 24 October 1984.

BOOKS, ARTICLES AND OTHER DOCUMENTS

Aguilar Bugarelli, Oscar Costa Rica y sus Hechos Politicos de 1948 (SanJose: Imprenta Lehman, 1969).

Alegria, Claribel and Flakoll, D . J. Nicaragua: La RevolucionSandinista (Mexico, D.F. : Serie Popular Era, 1982).

Ameringer, Charles Don Pepe: A Political Biography ofJose Figueres ofCosta Rica (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1978).

- Democracy in Costa Rica (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1982).Amnesty International 'The Republic of Nicaragua: An Amnesty

International Report (including the finds of a mission to Nicaragua,10-15 May 1976)' , London 1977.

Arellano, Jorge Eduardo Breve Historia de la Iglesia en Nicaragua(1523-1979) (Managua, 1979).

Araya Pochet, Carlos 'Crisis e Historia Economica y Social en CostaRica' in Jorge Rovira Mas ed ., Costa Rica Hoy: La Crisis y SusPerspectivas (San Jose: EUED, 1984).

Arrieta Quesada, Santiago £1 Pensamiento Politico Social de MonseiiorSanabria (San Jose: EDUCA, 1982).

Backer, James La Iglesia y el Sindicalismo en Costa Rica (San Jose:Editorial Costa Rica, 1978).

Beals, Carleton Banana Gold (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippencott, 1932).Bell, John Patrick Crisis in Costa Rica: The 1948 Revolution (Austin:

University ofTexas Press, 1971).

214 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

Bendafia, Alejandro 'Crisis in Nicaragua'. NACLA Report on theAmericas, November-December 1978.

Berryman, Phillip 'What Happened at Puebla?' in Daniel Levine ed.,Churches and Politics in Latin America (Beverly Hills: SagePublications, 1980).

- The Religious Roots of Rebellion : Christians in Central AmericanRevolutions (London: SCM Press Ltd ., 1984).

Black, George Triumph of the People: The Sandinist Revolution inNicaragua (London: Zed Press, 1981).

Blanco, Gustavo and Navarro, Orlando EI Solidarismo: Pensamiento yDinamico Social de un Movimiento Obrero-Patronal (San Jose :Editorial Costa Rica, 1984).

Blanco Segura, Ricardo Historia Eclesiastica de Costa Rica: 1502-1850(San Jose: EUED, 1983).

-1884: EI Estado, La Iglesia y las Reformas Liberales (San Jose:Editorial Costa Rica, 1984).

Boff, Leonardo Jesus Christ Liberator: A Critical Christology of OurTime (New York : Orbis Books, 1978).

- Iglesia: Carisma y Poder (Santander: Editorial Sal Terrae, 1982).Booth, John A. The End and the Beginning: The Nicaraguan Revolution

(Boulder: Westview Press, 1982).Borge, Tomas EI Axioma de la Esperanza (Bilbao : DOD , 1984).Bruneau, Thomas The Political Transformation of the Brazilian

Catholic Church (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974).- The Church in Brazil: The Politics of Religion (Austin: University

of Texas Press, 1982).Cabestrero, Te6fi1o Ministros de Dios Ministros del Pueblo (Bilbao :

DDB,1983).- Revolucionarios por el Evangelio : Testimonio de 15 Cristianos en el

Gobierno Revolucionario de Nicaragua (Bilbao : DDB, 1983).- Blood ofthe Innocent (London: CIIR, 1985).Caceres, Jorge , et al. Iglesia, Politica y Profecia : Juan Pablo II en

Centroamerica (San Jose: EDUCA, 1983).Camacho, Daniel 'Par que Periste el Juego Democratico en Costa

Rica?' in Chester Zelaya ed., Democracia en Costa Rica? (San Jose :EUED, 1983), pp. 95-138.

Cardenal, Ernesto Nostalgia del Futuro (Managua, 1982).-Evangelio en Solentiname, 4 vols (Managua: Editorial Nueva

Nicaragua, 1983).Cardenal, Fernando 'Carta a Mis Amigos' , Barricada, II December

1984.'Carta del Jefe del Partido Comunista Costarricense don Manuel Mora

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Centro de Estudios y Publicaciones (CEP) Nicaragua : La Hora de losDesafios(Lima , 1981).

Centro .ruvenil 'Don Bosco' Juan Pablo II: Viaje Pastoral a Centro­america, Discursos, HomiHas y Mensajes (Managua, 1983).

Cerdas, Rodolfo 'Costa Rica: Problemas Actuales de una RevolucionDemocratica' in Chester Zelaya ed., Democracia en Costa Rica? (SanJose : EUED, 1982), pp . 139-81.

Cerutti, Franco Los Jesuitas en Nicaragua en el Siglo XIX (San Jose:Libro Libre, 1984).

Chaves , Jorge Arturo 'La Iglesia Catolica y el Proceso de ProduccionMaterial en Costa' Rica', Praxis, nos. 5-6, July-December 1977, pp.81-114.

Chavez Nunez, Donaldo Una Ventana Abierta: Vision Retrospectiva deuna Vida (Managua: Editorial Union, 1974).

Crahan, Margaret 'Salvation Through Christ or Marx: Religion inRevolutionary Cuba' , Journal of Interamerican Studies and WorldAffairs, vol. 21 , no . I, February 1979,pp. 156-84.

Cuadra, Pablo Antonio ' Breve Historia de la Iglesia in Nicaragua' inRichard Pattee ed., El Catolicismo Contemporaneo de Hispano­america (Buenos Aires: Editorial Fides, 1948).

- 'Construir el Futuro: Obligacion Cristiana' , Revista Conservadora,vol. 139, April 1972, pp. 27-8.

de Kadt, Emanuel Catholic Radicals in Brazil (London: OxfordUniversity Press, 1970).

Della Cava, Ralph 'Catholicism and Society in Twentieth CenturyBrazil', Latin American Research Review, vol. XI, no. 2, 1976, pp.7-50 .

Delgado, Jaime EI Partido Liberacion Nacional : Analisis de su DiscursoPolitico-Ideologico (Heredia: Editorial de la Universidad Nacional,1983).

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-Sacerdotes en el Gobierno Nicaragiiense: Poder 0 Servicio? (SanJose, 1981).

Direccion de Divulgacion y Prensa de la JGRN 'Respuesta a laConferencia Episcopal', Managua, 22 February 1982.

Dodson, Michael 'Church and Revolution in Nicaragua: The Issue ofDemocratization'. Paper Presented at Annual Meeting of Society forLatin American Studies, University ofCambridge, 13-15April 1984.

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Dodson, Michael and Montgomery, Tommie Sue 'The Churches in theNicaraguan Revolution' in Thomas Walker ed., Nicaragua inRevolution (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1981).

Dussel, Enrique A History of the Church in Latin America: Colonialismto Liberation (1492-1979) (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. EerdmansPublishing, 1981).

English, Burt Liberacion Nacional in Costa Rica: The Development ofa Political Party in a Transitional Society (Gainesville: University ofFlorida Press, 1971).

Ezcurra, Ana Maria Agresion Ideologica Contra la RevolucionSandinista (Mexico, D.F.: Ediciones Nuevomar, 1983).

-El Vaticano y la Administracion Reagan: Convergencias en Centro­america (Mexico, D.F.: Ediciones Nuevomar, 1984).

Fagen, Richard 'The Nicaraguan Revolution', Working Papers no. 78,Washington D.C.: Latin American Program of the WoodrowWilson International Center for Scholars, Smithstonian Institution,1970.

Fallas Venegas, Helio 'Crisis Economica y Transformacion Social enCosta Rica' in Jorge Rovira Mas ed. , Costa Rica Hoy : La Crisis ySus Perspectivas (San Jose: EUED, 1984).

Fernandez Vasquez, Rodrigo 'Costa Rica: Interpretacion HistoricaSobre Reforma Social y Accion Eclesiastica: 1940-1982', EstudiosSociales Centroamericanos, no . 33, September-December 1982.

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221

Index

accioncatolicain Nicaragua, 20--1, 177in Costa Rica, 104, 106, 109, 114-16 ,

123,129,130,177-8Accion Democrata, 116-17ACLEN,61,68ADEM,I54Agiiero, Fernando, 24, 27, 35Aguilar , Father Walter , 152Aguirre Garcia, Father Eduardo, 130Alfaro , Father Armando, 125, 148, 150Alliance for Progress, 1-2,39ANFE,I49Anglican Church , 21anti-clericalism

contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua,101,171

in Costa Rica, 99,100 ,101in Nicaragua, 14, 16, 19

apostolic movements, 158Apostol icNuncio

in Nicaragua, 29, 70, 93-4in Costa Rica, 119

Aragon OP, Rafael, 59Arevalo, Juan Jose, 117-18Argiiello SJ, Alvaro, 61, 68Arocena , Father Luis, 159Arrieta Villalobos, Mons. Roman, 132-4 ,

136,140,156,163,173on agrarian reform, 133-4, 144appointment as Archbishop, 137and CECODERS, 162collaboration with Monge government,

141-2contrasted with Mons. Rodriguez, 132,

134on social peace, 132, 133, 134, 141-2and Symposium on Theology of Libera ­

tion,IS3

222

ASEs, 131, 132, 162Asociacion de Empresarios Pro-Justicia

Social y Paz (AE), 131ATC,51-2

BANAM ERICA, 23BANIC,23Barni, Mons. Julian, 25, 26Barricada, 85Barr io Riguero

university community, 47Barrios, Justo Rufino, 100, 101Batalla OP, Manolo, 59bishops' (Costa Rican) att itudes

on communism, 144-5on the condition of the working class,

144on the economic crisis, 143on the land question, 143-4on Protestantism, 144-5

Bloque de Oposicion, 117Bolanos, Mons. Enrique, 136-7Borge, Tomas, 79,80, 85,87Borge Castrillo, Mons . Carlos, 25Brenes, Father Gerardo, 160, 163-4Bruneau, Thomas, 5, 7

CACM, 23, 39, 125Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social, 109Calderon Guardia, Rafael Angel (Cal-

deron government), 108-9, 113, 117,118,172

and the Church, 110--11and the communists, 111-12, 114and the Social Reforms, 109, 115, 116,

119Calderon y Padilla, Mons. Octa vio Jose,

22,23,25,26Calero, Adolfo, 91

Index 223

Calles . Plutarco Elias (Calles govern­menn. lS

Capuchins. 32. 55. 81and training of DPs. 48-9

Carazo, Rodrigo (Carazo government).135-6.139-40

Carballo. Mons. Bismark. 83-4Cardenal, Father Ernesto, 43. 80. 81

as government minister. 68-70Caritas de Costa Rica. 126. 141. 142

transformation of. 160-1. 162-3. 166Caritas de Nicaragua. 21. 91-2. 160Carrillo. Braulio , 99cartas cruzados, 112-13Carter administration

and Nicaragua. 35. 37. 38Castro Jimenez. Mons. Rafael Oton, 104-

5.106.107.110.114.123catecumenados. Yl -SCatholic Relief Services (CRS). 91. 160Catholic social doctrine. 9. 20. 106. 115.

127.137.163ANFEand.149CECODERSand.161Costa Rican bishops on. 104. 110. 123.

125ESJ23 and. 130-1impact in Costa Rica and Nicaragua

contrasted. 177-8CCTRN. 115-16. 118. 120. 123. 178CDN.90.91CDSs. 56. 71CEBs.3

and the ATC. 52contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua.

179in Costa Rica. 158-60. 176and the FSLN. 47. 49. 80and human rights abuses. 45. 81identity crisis of. 56-8and the final insurrection. 45. 46in Nicaragua. 29. 43. 51. 52-3. 54.166-7.

179and protests against removals of priests.

59CECODERS. 160. 161-3CELAM. 58. 60. 62. 162. 163Central American Federation. 14. 15.99Central de Servicios Multiples. 71Central de Sindicatos Costarricenses

Rerum Novarum, 115Centro Antonio Valdivieso (CA V). 73CEPA.48.49-52. 176. 179CEPN.116CGTC, 151

Chacarita 'experiment' . 159. 160. 179Chacon. Father Alfredo. 129Chamorro, Emiliano, 20Chamorro, Pedro Joaquin. 22. 30. 34Chamorro, Violeta , 66. 77. 89Chavez Nunez. Mons. Donaldo, 25. 26. 28Cherna Castillo raid. 30. 32Christendom. see models of the Churchchristian communities. see CESsChristians for Socialism Conference. 129.

153Church-State dialogue

in Nicaragua. 74. 76. 88. 93-4clergy (Costa Rican )

complacent attitude of. 166conservatism of. 164-6. 175

clergy's (Nicaraguan) attitudeson involvement in politics. 69-70. 72. 73.

74-5. 76on the revolutionary process. 68-77on US aggressions. 69. 71. 72-7. 74. 84

COCCo 130. 150. 151CODESA.135Codigo de Trabajo , 109. 114

reform of. 148Com ision Coordinadora de Dialogo Nacio­

nal, 33. 34Comite de Reflexion Patrioticu, 37communism. 108. 110.140. 150

fears of in Costa Rica. 105-6. 121.122-3. 127. 128. 129-30. 132. 134.144-5.148.173.178

fears of in Nicaragua. 20-1. 173. 178Sanabria on. I 13

Communist Party (Costa Rica). 105. 111 -12.123.154

and the banana strike. 108. 172and Calderon Guardia. 111 -12and the Catholic Church. 112-14registration of. 149. 150

concientizacion, 48-9. 56. 57Concordato (Costa Rica). 99-100. 101. 119Concordato(Nicaragua). 15-16. 17CONFER. 61-2. 71Congreso de Pastoral Rural. 49conquistadores

in Costa Rica. 97in Nicaragua. 14

Conservatives (Costa Rica). 99Conservatives (Nicaragua). 17. 18. 24. 35.

104.172. 179and the Catholic Church . 17. 19-20and the Kupia-Kumi pact. 27

contra. 67.71. 85. R9. 93. 180lay leaders victimized by. 54-5. 71

224 Index

Nicaraguan bishops on negotiationswith. 84. 86. 90

COPROSA.91-2Coronel Urtecho, Jose, 28Cortes, Leon , 116--17COSEP, 37, 91Costa Rican Civil War, 117-19Coto, Mons. Alfonso. 158-9Council ofState, 61. 66. 68Cristero Rebellion, 18Cristo Campesino, 50-ICruz, Arturo, 90CTCR. 115, 116Cuadra. Pablo Antonio, 28-9Cuban Revolution, 1-2. 178cursillos de concientizacion, 44-5, 46, 49.

176cursosdeformacion, 160-1

de Alvarado. Father Pedro. 98de la Jara, Father Jose, 43. 44Delegates of the Word, seeDPsD'Escoto, Father Miguel , 68. 70. 81DialogoNacional, 33-4District of Arenal

agrarian reform project in. 133-4Dominicans.59,158DPs (Delegados de la Palabra)

and the ATC. 51-2and the Capuchins. 48-9contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua.

179in Costa Rica , 158in Nicaragua. 53. 54. 56. 60

earthquake (Nicaragua), 29-30. 46Echandi, Mario, 149, 150Em Catolico , 140. 147-50Ejercitode Liberacion Nacional, 118encomenderos

contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua,170

in Costa Rica. 98in Nicaragua. 14

encomiendasystemcontrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua.

170in Costa Rica. 97in Nicaragua. 14

Equipode Pastoral Rural. 49-50ESJ23 (Escuela Social Juan XXIII), 130-1.

152,161 .162,163-4Exodo, seeGrupo Ecumenico Exodo

Family ofGod cursillos, 43. 44

FAO, 35, 36. 37FECCAS.51Fernandez.Prospero, 101Figueres Ferrer.Jose, 117-18. 124Fonseca, Carlos. 79,80Fonseca, Father Silvio , 59Freire, Paulo, 48FSLN. II, 25. 34. 39.41, 54. 65. 92. 174

and CEBs, 47. 80and the Chema Castillo raid, 30collaboration with progressive Christ-

ians, 49.53.69,79-82and dialogue with the contra. 90. 91and dialogue with Somoza, 33Document on Religion of. 82-3. 86and Marxism. 81. 83. 88and the MCR. 47.80-1and the military service law. 90Minimum Programme of. 36and the Miskitos, 89and moderate opposition groups. 35. 37.

66and the Nicaraguan bishops ; 38. 74. 75.

76.83-8.91. 93-4October offensive of. 33origins of. 79and the papal visit. 87-8in power. 66--7. 68and the Reagan administration . 67-8and religious celebrations. 86--7and the State of Emergency Law. 67. 68and the terceristas. 33

fundamentalist sects. 55

Garantias Sociales, 109. 110Garcia. Edgardo, 52Garcia SJ. Noel. 24G arcia Jerez. Mon s., 14G arcia Laviana, Father Gaspar, 8 1. 87Garcia S.. Mons. Antonio . 28Genie, Colonel Samuel. 25Gibbons. Cardinal James. 17Giglio, Mons. Paolo, 93-4Goebels, Mons.•85Gonzalez y Robleto, Mons. Vicente

AI~andro.21-2.26.51

Grande SJ. Rutilio , 51. 178granjas abiertas, 82grassroots initiatives

contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua.174-7

in Costa Rica. 157-62. 176in Nicaragua. 43-58. 62. 166--7. 175. 176and Parallel Magisterium, 53. 57. 58. 62.

94. 175. 176--7

Index 225

political implications of, 53, 58, 60, 62.94.175-6

see also CEBs. CEPA, and DPsGriteria, 86Grupo Ecumenico Exodo, 153-5.167, 179grupos de base (Costa Rica) . 16{}-1 , 162Guandique, Felix Esteban. 33Guardia. Tomas, 100. 101

health promotores, 61. 71Hermandades de Trabajo, 129Hidalgo. Mons. Alfredo, 119Holy See, see VaticanHuelga de Brazos Caidos, 117. 118mCA.77IMAS, 126IMF,I42Independence movement'contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua.

171in Costa Rica. 98in Nicaragua, 14

Indianscontrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua,

170in Costa Rica , 97, 98Miskitos, 21, 82. 89in Nicaragua. 13-14, 16

Instituto de Defensa del Cafe. 108lnstituto de Occidente , 16Instituto Nacional, 101IN DE. 33interna l political opposition (N icaragua).

66--7.68conservative clergy's identification with ,

70.73.77,88-91.92-3IRD.92ITAC. 155-7. 165ITCO, 126Jesuits. 16.45.46,51 .55. 100. 101, 171.

179JOC. 114-1-5, 120. 123, 129, 130. 152, 154Jocistas, see JOCJuventud Sandinista, 68

Kupia-Kumi pact. 27, 28. 29

Labour Code (Nicaragua). IIILabour Day demonstrations (Costa Rica).

130.151-2Lacayo Farfan. Enrique, 22La Nacion, 134, 139, 149. 150. 154

and Caritas, 162-3. 164La Prensa, 25. 30, 33, 34, 91La Republica, 134. ISO. 154

La Purlsima , 86-7La Tribuna. 113Lepiz, Oscar. 129Ley Fundamental. 99Lezcano y Ortega, Mons ., 19Liberal-Conservative rivalr y

contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua.171

in Nicaragua . 14-16. 18.20liberal ism

contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua,171

in Costa Rica, 100. 101. 113in Nicaragua. 15, 19-20

Liberal Reforms. 101-2. 103.110.165Liberals (Costa Rica). 99. 101. 103-4. 108.

172Liberals (Nicaragua). 14-15.27, 106, 172

and the Church. 15. 16-17. 18. 19-20liberation theology. see Theology of Lib­

erationLiga Espiritual Obrera (LEO) . 114-15 .

120.129Limogni Della Cioppa, Mons . Paolino.

151literacy campaign, 66, 75. 77

participation of Catholics in, 61. 7{}-1Llorente y Lafuente, Mons.. 99. 100, 104Lopez Perez, Rigoberto, 19Lopez Trujillo . Mons . Alfonso . 60Loria Garita, Father Guillermo. 130Las Doce, 33, 35, 37

Madrigal. Father, 55-6Malavassi, Guillermo. 139Marten, Albert, 130-1Marxism, 138

andCEPA.50Costa Rican bishops ' attitude on, 153-4and the FSLN. 81. 83. 88La Nacion on, 162-3and liberation theology, 2, 94Nicaraguan bishops' attitude on, 76

Maryknoll sisters, 45-7 , 71Mater et Magistra, IMayorga. Silvio. 79MCR. 47. 8{}-!MDN. 35. 66Medellin Conference, 2, 23

impact on Costa Rican Church. 121.128.137.148.153,156.164.178-9

impact on Nicaraguan Church. 24. 29,39-40.43.44.178-9

Mejia , Father Francisco. 25Mena, General Luis. 17

226 Index

~igueISJ,Pedro,45,46

military service law, 54,90misa obrera, 128, 151, 178models of the Church, 8-10

colonial Christendom, 9, 14, 170conservative Christendom, 3, 9, 23, 40,

119,125,134,171reformist Christendom, 3-1, 10, 119-20,

125,134, 172-3grassroots, 3, 5, 10,43,52-3,62,72

moderate opposition groups (Nicaragua),30-1 ,66,71

bishops' collaboration with, 31, 33-4,35,36-7,38,40-1

Molina, Father Uriel, 26,47-8.80Moncada, Jose Maria, 18, 20, 172Monestel , Mons., 107Monge, Luis Alberto (Monge govern-

ment), 141, 142Mora.Arnoldo, 153,155Mora, Juan Rafael, 100Mora, Manuel, III, 112-14, 115, 118Moravian Church, 21, 89Morazan, Francisco, 14Morera, Mons. Hector, 159~SC, 130-2, 144, 161-2Mufioz, Carlos, 152

National Council ofChurches, 92National Guard, 19,25,32,37,39,46,52,

81National Palace attack, 36national pastoral plan (Nicaragua), 43-1National Seminary (Nicaragua), 60Navarro, Father Orlando, 158,161,163-4neo-Christendom,IO

see also models of the Church, reformistChristendom

New Laws, 14,97,170Novedades, 29, 32, 36Nunez, Father Benjamin, 115-16, 118,

120,123,151

OAS,37,68Obando y Bravo , Mons. Miguel, 25, 32,

57,87,88,94appointment as Archbishop, 26-7on armed resistance, 34and the Carballo incident, 84andCEPA,51in defence of Molina, 48and the earthquake, 29and the Kupia-Kumi pact, 27in opposition to the Sandinista govern­

ment, 78, 79,91-2,93

and the Pefia incident , 85-6and removals of priests, 59and Somoza, 33, 36, 37

Odio Herrera, Mons. Ruben. 122, 123-4,125

Oduber, Daniel (Oduber government).133, 134, 135

OPEN 3,45-7,51Opus Dei, 150Orlich, Francisco, 125-6, 127Ortega, Daniel, 75, 81, 86, 87, 93Owczarek, Rita, 45-6

Pacem in Terris, IPacto de la Embajada de Mex ico, 119Parallel Magisterium , 53, 59Parrales, Edgar, 68, 70Partido Democrata, I 16-17Partido Nacional, 102Partido Reformista, 106-7, 108Partido Union Nacional, 117Pastora, Eden, 91Patronato Real, 13PDP, 154Pefia, Father Amado, 85Pereira, Mons. Simeon, 17Picado, Teodoro (Picado government),

114,116,117-18Plan de Ayuda, 60Plasmaferesis, 34PLI,22,24PLN (Costa Rica), 124, 132. 133, 135PLN (Nicaragua), 37political disengagement, 6-8, 31, 76, 88-9Pope John XXIII , IPope John Paul II, 70, 82, 87Pope Leo XIII, 102Pope Paul VI, 2.133Pope Pius XI, 178Popular Church, 58, 62, 72Populorum Progressio, 2. 23, 133Portico, 148, 152, 154priests in government conflict, 68-70, 76,

89Primer Encuentro Pastoral, 23-4, 43, 44,

178Primera Asemblea del Sector Privado, 30Primera ConferenciadelEpiscopado Centro-

americano, 20-IProafio, Mons. Leonidas, 153PRODEMCA,93pro-democracy movement, IIIPrograma Nacional de Distribucion de

Alimentos. 142Protestantism

Index 227

in Costa Rica. 99. 122-3. 144-5. 173in Nicaragua. II. 17.20.21.173

Provecto de Danca Privada, 148PSC (Nicaragua). 24. 35PSD (Costa Rica) . 116-17. 118Puebla Conference. 60. 136. 137Pueblo . 147. 154, 155PVP. 112-13, 114, 119

Quadragesimo Anno. 20,106,109,110,177

Radio Catolica, 21, 93Rascosqui, Dona Isabel, 51Reagan administration, 67-8. 88, 90, 91reformist project (Costa Rica), 124-5, 126,

133.134,140,142,143,166Registro Electoral, 117, 118religion and politics, 6-8

see also political disengagementreligious education

in Costa Rica, 98,100,101,110,126,165in Nicaragua, 13. 17, 18,30

removals of priestsin Costa Rica, 152in Nicaragua. 58-9

Rerum Novarum, 20, 102, 104, 109, 110.177

Respuesta.154Reyes y Valladares. Mons. Canuto, 18Robelo , Alfonso, 33, 35, 66. 77. 89Rodriguez, Jose Joaquin, 103Rodriguez Quiros, Mons. Carlos Hum-

berto, 125. 126. 136, 137and Church-State relations, 127on communism, 128contrasted with Mons. Arrieta, 132, 134and the Liga , 114. 115and the 1970elections, 150progressive sector's conflict with, 152.

154,155,167social pastoral under, 129-30, 131-2and workers, 128-9

Romero, Mons. Oscar,87Royo Linares, Father Fernando, 151

Sacred Congregation for Clergy, 61Sacred Congregation for Religious, 61Salazar, Father Jose Vicente, 115, 123Salazar Espinoza, Mons. Manuel, 33Sanabria Martinez, Mons. Victor, 119-20,

172, 178and accion catolica, 115, 178and the Civil War, 118-19and the communists, 112-14contrasted with Mons. Odio, 122, 123,

124.125and social reform, 109-10

Sanders, Thomas. 7Sandinistas, see FSLNSandino, Augusto C, 18,79Sanjines SJ, Jose Antonio. 81San Pablo Apostol parish. 44-5, 46.57Schmitz, Mons . Pablo. 75sede vacante, 26, 100. 102. 136. 137Seminario Central. 155-7, 165. 175SEPROLA. 162social assistance organisms

contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua.166, 175

see also Curitas de Costa Rica andCaritas de Nicaragua

social Christian philosophy, 107. 109. I!OSocial Reforms, 107, 108. 109. 113. 114.

116,124Catholic Church and. 110-11, 119-20communists and . 111-12

Social Security Law. 109. 110Solano Cerdas, Father Claudio. 130-1.

144,161 ,163-4Solentiname, 43, 52solidarismo, 130--2, 139, 161-2

see also MSCSolis, Javier, 148. 150. 152. 153. 154. 155.

179Somoza-Agiiero pact. see Kupia-Kumi

pactSomoza Debayle , Anastasio, 22. 24. 41.

95,173and the Church, 23, 28. 33. 35. 37. 38,

39,40,53,85and the earthquake, 29-30illness of, 33and the Kupia-Kumi pact, 27, 28, 29and negotiations with the opposition.

33-4,37and the private sector, 29-31re-election of, 31

Somoza Debayle, Luis, 22, 24Somoza family dictatorship, 25. 39, 44,

126,173and the Catholic hierarchy, 18-22,27-9.

31,36,40CEPA's opposition to, 50and the Labour Code, IIIand the private sector. 29-31see also Somoza Debayle, Anastasio and

Somoza Garcia, AnastasioSomoza Garcia, Anastasio. 18-20,22. 24,

111,117-18.172Standard Fruit Co ., 139-40, 158

228 Index

State of Emergency Law, 67, 68, 85Stork Werth, Mons. Juan , 104student movements (Nicaragua), 25-6, 39Synod

Fifth Archdiocesan, 161, 162

Theology of Liberat ion, 2-3, 94, 156, 157,163

Symposium on, 152-3Thiel, Mons. Bernardo, 101, 102-3. 104.

171Tinoco dictatorship, 106Tirado, Victor, 81Tortosa, Father Santiago, 159Trejos, Jose Gregorio, 103Trejos, Jose Joaquin, 127Trejos Picado, Mons . Ignacio, 140, 149,

lSI, 154,158Tribunal Electoral, 117. 118triumvirate pact, see Kupia-Kumi pactTruman administration, 117-18TSE ,149-50

UCA,25,47UDEL, 30,33, 35Ulate,Otilio, 117, 118, 124Ulloa y Larrios, Mons ., 16, 17Union Catolica del Clero, 102-4, 179United Fruit Co.• 130United States

aggressions against Nicaragua, 67-8 , 69,71,72-3,74.84-5,88

intervention in Nicaragua, 17-18, 79,104,106

UNO, 24USAID,91Vacarro, Father Antonio, 59

Valdivieso, Fray Antonio, 14, 170Vallier, Ivan , 6-7Vatican, 58

and accion catolica, 106, 114, 177and appointment of Mons. Ar rieta, 137and appointment of Mons. Obando, 26and counteroffensive against progressive

sector. 60-2relations with Costa Rica, 99-100relations with Nicaragua, 15, 18,93-4

Vatican II Council, I. 2, 10,23,39impact on Costa Rican Church, 121,

128,148,153,156,173,178impact on Nicaraguan Church, 24, 40,

44,56,79.173,178Vega, Mons. Pablo, 33, 37, 85, 94

in opposition to the Sandinista govern­ment , 91, 92-3

Vicaria de Pastoral Social, 161, 162, 163,164

Vicentian Fathers, 155, 156, 157, 165Vilchez, Mons. Pedro. 75Vivas Robelo, Mons. Bosco, 37, 78Volio, Jorge, 106-7, 108, 109

Walker, William , ISWorld Council ofChurches, 92

Yglesias, Rafael, 103, 104

Zamora, Mons. Antonio, 101Zaragoza. Beatrice, 45Zavala, Joaquin, 16Zelaya . Jose Santos, 16-17, 18, 171-2Zeledon , Benjamin, 17