Notes

Introduction1 This study uses ‘Estonian Veterans’ League’ as the most practical translation

of the Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Liit (‘Veterans’ League of the Estonian War of Independence’). The popular term for a Veterans’ League member wasvaps (plural: vapsid), or vabs, derived from vabadussõjalane (‘War ofIndependence veteran’). This often appears mistakenly capitalized as VAPS.A term for the Veterans frequently found in historical literature is ‘FreedomFighters’, the direct translation of the German Freiheitskämpfer. Anotherunsatisfactory translation which appears in older literature is ‘Liberators’. Itshould be noted that until 11 August 1933 the organization was formallycalled Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Keskliit (‘The Estonian War of IndependenceVeterans’ Central League’).

2 Ernst Nolte, The Three Faces of Fascism (London, 1965), p. 12.3 Eduard Laaman, Vabadussõjalased diktatuuri teel (Tallinn, 1933); Erakonnad

Eestis (Tartu, 1934), pp. 54–62; ‘Põhiseaduse kriisi arenemine 1928–1933’, inPõhiseadus ja Rahvuskogu (Tallinn, 1937), pp. 29–45; Konstantin Päts.Poliitika- ja riigimees (Stockholm, 1949).

4 Märt Raud, Kaks suurt: Jaan Tõnisson, Konstantin Päts ja nende ajastu(Toronto, 1953); Evald Uustalu, The History of Estonian People (London,1952); Artur Mägi, Das Staatsleben Estlands während seiner Selbständigkeit. I.Das Regierungssystem (Stockholm, 1967).

5 William Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu Eestis (New York, 1961).6 Georg von Rauch, The Baltic States: The Years of Independence 1917–1940

(London, 1974); V. Stanley Vardys, ‘The Rise of Authoritarianism in theBaltic States’, in V. Stanley Vardys and Romuald J. Misiunas, eds., The BalticStates in War and Peace (University Park, Pennsylvania, 1978), pp. 65–80;Toivo U. Raun, Estonia and the Estonians (Stanford, 1991); John Hiden andPatrick Salmon, The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia & Lithuania inthe Twentieth Century (London, 1991).

7 R. J. Crampton, Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (London and New York, 1994), p. 99; Joseph Rothschild, East Central Europe between the Two World Wars. A History of East Central Europe, vol. IX (Seattle, 1974),p. 373.

8 Tönu Parming, The Collapse of Liberal Democracy and the Rise ofAuthoritarianism in Estonia (London, 1975); Alvin Isberg, Med demokratensom insats. Politisk-konstitutionellt maktspel i 1930–talets Estland, StudiaBaltica Stockholmiensia 4 (Uppsala, 1988).

9 Olaf Kuuli, Vapsidest Isamaaliiduni. Fas ismi ja fasismivastase võitluse ajaloostkodanlikus Eestis (Tallinn, 1976); Olaf Kuuli, Six Years of Fascist Dictatorshipin Estonia (Tallinn, 1975); Eesti NSV ajalugu, vol. 3 (Tallinn, 1971); V. A.Maamägi and H. T. Arumäe, ‘Fasismi Baltiassa’, Historiallinen Arkisto, 72(1977), pp. 93–112.

160

10 Rein Marandi, Must-valge lipu all. Vabadussõjalaste liikumine Eestis1929–1937. I. Legaalne periood (1929–1934), Studia Baltica Stockholmiensia6 (Uppsala, 1991); II. Illegaalne vabadussõjalus (1934–1937), Studia BalticaStockholmiensia 18 (Uppsala, 1997).

11 Roger Griffin, The Nature of Fascism (London, 1991), p. 119; Roger Griffin,ed., Fascism (Oxford, 1995), p. 215; Stanley G. Payne, A History of Fascism,1914–1945 (Madison, 1995), p. 323.

1. The Emergence of Independent Estonia1 Hans Kruus, Eesti Aleksandrikool (Tartu, 1939), p. 209.2 Ea Jansen, ‘On the Economic and Social Determination of the Estonian

National Movement’, in Aleksander Loit, ed., National Movements in theBaltic Countries during the 19th Century, Studia Baltica Stockholmiensia 2(Stockholm, 1985), pp. 48–9; on the development of the Estonian intelli-gentsia see Toomas Karjahärm and Väino Sirk, Eesti haritlaskonna kujunemineja ideed 1850–1917 (Tallinn, 1997).

3 Toivo U. Raun, ‘The Estonians’, in Edward C. Thaden, ed., Russification inthe Baltic Provinces and Finland, 1855–1914 (Princeton, 1981), p. 298.

4 Carl Robert Jakobson, Kolm isamaa kõnet (Tallinn, 1991).5 Raun, ‘The Estonians’, pp. 307–8.6 Eesti NSV ajalugu, vol. 2 (Tallinn, 1963), p. 116.7 Toomas Karjahärm, ‘The Political Organization of Estonian Society and thePolitical Parties in Estonia in the Years 1900–1914’, in Aleksander Loit, ed., The Baltic Countries 1900–1914, Studia Baltica Stockholmiensia 5(Stockholm, 1990), pp. 133–4.

8 Toivo U. Raun, ‘Estonian Social and Political Thought, 1905–February1917’, in Andrew Ezergailis and Gert von Pistohlkors, eds., Die baltischenProvinzen Russlands zwischen den Revolutionen von 1905 und 1917, Quellenund Studien zur baltischen Geschichte 4 (Cologne, 1982), pp. 63–5.

9 Toomas Karjahärm, Ida ja lääne vahel. Eesti-Vene suhted 1850–1917 (Tallinn,1998), pp. 110–21.

10 Toivo U. Raun, ‘1905 as a Turning Point in Estonian History’, East EuropeanQuarterly, 14 (1980), p. 332.

11 Karl Aun, ‘The 1917 Revolutions and the Idea of the State in Estonia’, inEzergailis and von Pistohlkors, eds., Die baltischen Provinzen Russlands, p. 288.

12 Mati Graf, Eesti Rahvusriik. Ideed ja lahendused: ärkamisajast Eesti Vabariigisünnini (Tallinn, 1993), p. 132.

13 Representatives elected to the Maapäev: Rural Union 13, Labour 11, SocialDemocrats 9, Socialist Revolutionaries 8, Populists 7, Bolsheviks 5, RadicalDemocrats 4, non-party representatives 3, national minorities 2; total of 62seats, Artur Mägi, Kuidas valitseti Eestis (Stockholm, 1951), p. 6.

14 Olavi Arens, ‘Soviets in Estonia, 1917/1918’, in Ezergailis and vonPistohlkors, eds., Die baltischen Provinzen Russlands, p. 301.

15 Vabadussõja Ajaloo Komitee, Eesti Vabadussõda 1918–1920, vol. 1(Heidenheim, 1951), p. 59; August Rei, Mälestusi tormiselt teelt (Stockholm,1961), p. 153.

16 Percentage of votes in Estonia in the Russian Constituent Assembly elec-tions on 12–14 November 1917: Bolsheviks 40.2, Democratic Bloc 22.6,

Notes 161

Labour 21.5, Radical Democrats 5.8, Socialist Revolutionaries 5.8, SocialDemocrats 3.0, Russian Socialist Revolutionaries 1.1, Raun, Estonia and theEstonians, p. 103.

17 Olavi Arens, ‘The Estonian Maapäev during 1917’, in Vardys and Misiunas,eds., The Baltic States in Peace and War, 29.

18 Ibid., p. 24.19 Eduard Laaman, Eesti iseseisvuse sünd (Stockholm, 1964), p. 158.20 Ants Piip, Tormine aasta. Ülevaade Eesti välispoliitika esiajast 1917–1918.

aastal dokumentides ja mälestusis (Stockholm, 1966), p. 65; Gustav Suits, ‘Tagasivaade Eesti Vabariigi sünniaegadele’, Tulimuld, 1 (1973), pp. 34, 37.

21 Revolutsioon, kodusõda ja välisriikide interventsioon Eestis, 1917–1920, vol. 1(Tallinn, 1977), p. 44; Laaman, Eesti iseseisvuse sünd, pp. 203, 219, 224.

22 Tönu Parming, ‘Population and Ethnicity as Intervening Variables in the1905/1917 Revolutions in the Russian Baltic Provinces’, in Ezergailis andvon Pistohlkors, eds., Die baltischen Provinzen Russlands, p. 9.

23 Uncompleted Estonian Constituent Assembly election results, 21–22January 1918 (percentage of votes): Bolsheviks 37.1, Labour 29.8,Democratic Bloc 23.3, Left Socialist Revolutionaries 3.5, Social Democrats1.7, Right Socialist Revolutionaries 1.0, others 3.6, Revolutsioon, kodusõda javälisriikide interventsioon, vol. 1, p. 302.

24 Elmar Järvesoo, ‘Estonia’s Declaration of Independence in 1918: An Episodeof Collision Between National-Revolutionary and Bolshevist Ideologies’, inArvids Ziedonis Jr., William L. Winter, and Mardi Valgemäe, eds., BalticHistory (Columbus, 1974), pp. 170–2.

25 Piip, Tormine aasta, p. 106.26 Eesti Vabadussõda, vol. 1, p. 164.27 Laaman, Eesti iseseisvuse sünd, p. 630.28 Heinrich Laretei, Saatuse mängukanniks. Mällu jäänud märkmeid (Lund,

1970), p. 101.29 Revolutsioon, kodusõda ja välisriikide interventsioon Eestis, 1917–1920, vol. 2

(Tallinn, 1982), p. 204.30 Laaman, Eesti iseseisvuse sünd, p. 403.31 August Kasekamp, ‘Ülemjuhataja ja vastupealetung jaanuari esimesel

poolel 1919. a.’, in Johan Laidoner. Mälestusi kaasaeglasilt (Tallinn, 1934), pp. 134–40; Eesti Vabadussõda, vol. 1, p. 282; Seppo Zetterberg, Suomi ja Viro1917–1919. Poliittiset suhteet syksystä 1917 reunavaltiopolitiikan alkuun.Historiallisia Tutkimuksia 102 (Helsinki, 1977), ch. 5; Stanley W. Page, TheFormation of the Baltic States (New York, 1970), p. 128.

32 Artur Mägi, ‘Asutav Kogu maareformi otsustamas’, Tulimuld, 10 (1959), p. 305. The results of the Constituent Assembly elections were as follows:Social Democrats 41 seats, Labour 30, Populists 25, Agrarians 8, SocialistRevolutionaries 7, Christians 5, ethnic minorities 4; Mägi, Das StaatslebenEstlands während seiner Selbständigkeit, p. 321.

33 Evald Uustalu, Eesti Vabariik 1918–1940 (Lund, 1968) p. 43.34 Riigi Teataja 42 (1919), art. 89.35 John Hiden, The Baltic States and Weimar Ostpolitik (Cambridge, 1987),

p. 17; Bernhard Sauer, ‘Vom “Mythos eines ewigen Soldatentums”: Der

162 Notes

Feldzug deutscher Freikorps im Baltikum im Jahre 1919’, Zeitschrift fürGeschichtswissenschaft, 43 (1995), pp. 869–902.

36 Hannes Walter, Landeswehri sõjast, Riia operatsioonist, Võnnu lahingust(Tallinn, 1989).

37 Karsten Brüggemann, ‘Kooperation und Konfrontation: Estland im Kalkülder weißen Russen 1919’, Zeitschrift für Ostforschung, 43 (1994), pp. 541–2.

38 Ibid., pp. 545–7. 39 Page, Formation of the Baltic States, p. 180.40 Uustalu, Eesti Vabariik, p. 57.41 Putting a positive gloss on military failure, Lenin stated that the Tartu peace

treaty was of great historical significance since it broke the blockade ofSoviet Russia and heralded the beginning of the end for intervention; EdgarMattisen, Tartu rahu (Tallinn, 1989), pp. 24–5.

42 John M. Thompson, Russia, Bolshevism, and the Versailles Treaty (Princeton,1966), p. 307.

2. The Political Context1 Mägi, Das Staatsleben Estlands, pp. 149–50.2 Ibid., p. 180.3 Ibid., p. 202.4 Uustalu, Eesti Vabariik, p. 76. 5 Mägi, Das Staatsleben Estlands, p. 202.6 Matters of finance, war and peace, and treaties with foreign powers were

excluded from popular initiative, § 34 of the Estonian constitution.7 Pille Valk, Ühest heledast laigust Eesti kooli ajaloos. Usuõpetus Eesti koolides

aastatel 1918–1940 (Tallinn, 1997), pp. 28–33; see also the memoirs of thehead of the popular initiative campaign, Christian People’s Party leaderJaan Lattik, Teekond läbi öö, 1 (Toronto, 1950), pp. 233–8.

8 § 32 of the Estonian constitution; Mägi, Das Staatsleben Estlands, p. 247.9 Royal Institute of International Affairs (RIIA), The Baltic States. A Survey of

the Political and Economic Structure and the Foreign Relations of Estonia, Latvia,and Lithuania (Westport, 1970), p. 46; Mägi, Kuidas valitseti Eestis, p. 104.

10 Anu-Mai Köll, Peasants on the World Market. Agricultural Experience ofIndependent Estonia 1919–1939, Studia Baltica Stockholmiensia 14(Stockholm, 1994), pp. 40–57.

11 Tiit Rosenberg, ‘Agrarfrage und Agrarreform in Estland 1919: Ursachen,Voraussetzungen und Folgen’, Proceedings of the Estonian Academy of Sciences,43 (1994), p. 333.

12 Parming, The Collapse of Liberal Democracy, pp. 24–5.13 The Farmers’ Party was formed in 1920 as a successor to the Rural Union

(Maarahva Liit); Osvald Viirsoo, ed., Eesti Põllumeeste poliitika. Ülevaade Eestipõllumeeste liikumisest 1917–1955 (Lund, 1956), pp. 59–68.

14 Toivo U. Raun, ‘Agrarian Parties in Interwar Estonia’, paper presented at theAssociation for the Advancement of Baltic Studies conference at Toronto,10–13 June 1992, p. 2.

15 Hellmuth Weiss, ‘Bauernparteien in Estland’, in Heinz Gollwitzer, ed.,Europäische Bauernparteien im 20. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1977), p. 212.

Notes 163

16 Raun, ‘Agrarian Parties in Interwar Estonia’, p. 3.17 Toivo Jullinen, ‘Maaerakondade suhetest Eestis Jaan Tõnissoni valitsuse

päevil (1927–1928)’, in Jüri Ant, Eero Medijainen, and Ago Pajur, eds.,Tundmatu Eesti Vabariik (Tallinn, 1993), p. 61.

18 Eduard Laaman, Erakonnad Eestis (Tartu, 1934), pp. 79–80.19 Jullinen, ‘Maaerakondade suhetest’, pp. 66–8.20 Raun, ‘Agrarian Parties in Interwar Estonia’, pp. 7–8; Jullinen,

‘Maaerakondade suhetest’, p. 62.21 Laaman, Erakonnad Eestis, pp. 73, 79.22 Tönu Parming, ‘The Pattern of Participation of the Estonian Communist

Party in National Politics, 1918–1940’, Slavonic and East European Review, 59(1981), p. 403.

23 Ülevaade Eestimaa Kommunistliku Partei ajaloost, 2 (Tallinn, 1963), pp. 62–3;Tönu Parming, ‘The Electoral Achievements of the Communist Party inEstonia, 1920–1940’, Slavic Review, 42 (1983), p. 439.

24 On the 1924 uprising see J. Saar, Enamlaste riigipööre katse Tallinnas 1. det-sembril 1924 (Tallinn, 1925); A. Neuberg, Armed Insurrection (London,1970), pp. 61–80; A. Sunila, 1. detsember 1924. Arutlusi 50. aastapäevapuhul (Tallinn, 1974); Hain Rebas, ‘Probleme des kommunistischenPutschversuches in Tallinn am 1. Dezember 1924’, Annales societatis litter-arum Estonicae in Svecia IX. 1980–1985 (Stockholm, 1985), pp. 161–200;Jüri Ant, ed., Kas nad lahkusid Moskva rongiga? 1. detsember 1924 (Tallinn,1996).

25 Olaf Kuuli, ‘EKP arvuline koosseis ja kohalike parteiorgnaisatsioonide võrkaastail 1930–1940’, in Töid NLKP ajaloo alalt XIV (Tartu, 1977), pp. 57–64.

26 Laaman, Erakonnad Eestis, p. 24.27 Ibid., p. 36.28 Olaf Kuuli, ‘Sotsiaaldemokraadid ja Kommunistid Eesti Vabariigis’, Poliitika,

10 (1990), pp. 61–3.29 Rahva Sõna, 7 February 1934; Johannes Mihkelson, Vastu tuult (Stockholm,

1985), pp. 315–19.30 Mati Graf, Poliitilised parteid Eestis 1917–1920 (Tallinn, 1982), p. 98.31 Laaman, Erakonnad Eestis, pp. 25–7, 41–5.32 Ibid., pp. 46–8.33 Parming, The Collapse of Liberal Democracy, p. 22.34 Lattik, Teekond läbi öö, vol. 1, pp. 233–8.35 Vootele Hansen, ‘Eesti Vabariigi Kristlik Rahvaerakond 1919–1931’,

Looming, 12 (1989), p. 1696.36 Laaman, Erakonnad Eestis, p. 53.37 According to the 1922 and 1934 censuses respectively, the ethnic composi-

tion of the population of Estonia in percentages was the following:Estonians 87.7, 88.2; Russians 8.2, 8.2; Germans 1.7, 1.5; Swedes 0.7, 0.7;Jews 0.4, 0.4; others (mostly Latvians and Finns) 1.3, 1.0; H. Reiman,‘Rahvused Eestis’, Eesti statistika, 164–5 (1935), pp. 353–5.

38 Karjahärm, Ida ja lääne vahel, p. 21.39 Rein Ruutsoo, ‘Die Herausbildung einer russischen Minderheit in der

Republik Estland 1918–1940’, Nordost Archiv,. 4 (1995), pp. 551–75.40 Emanuel Nodel, ‘Life and Death of Estonian Jewry’, in Ziedonis, Winter,

and Valgemäe, eds., Baltic History, pp. 227–36; Kopl Jokton, Juutide ajaloost

164 Notes

Eestis (Tartu, 1992), Eiki Berg, ‘Juudi asustuse iseäranusi Eestis’, Akadeemia, 4(1994), pp. 816–29.

41 See Gert von Pistohlkors, ed., Deutsche Geschichte im Osten Europas:Baltischen Länder (Berlin, 1994); Boris Meissner, Dietrich A. Loeber andCornelius Hasselblatt, eds., Die Deutsche Volksgruppe in Estland während derZwischenkriegszeit und aktuelle Fragen des deutsch-estnischen Verhältnisses(Hamburg, 1996).

42 Vesa Vasara, ‘Die deutschbaltische Minderheit in Estland in derZwischenkriegszeit: Wirtschaft und Finanzen’, Zeitschrift für Ostmitteleuropa-Forschung, 44 (1995), pp. 578–89.

43 Michael Garleff, Deutschbaltische Politik zwischen den Weltkriegen. Die parla-mentarische Tätigkeit der deutschbaltischen Parteien in Lettland und Estland(Bonn-Bad Godesberg, 1976), pp. 107–9.

44 Von Rauch, The Baltic States, pp. 140–1.45 The German Cultural Council was established on 1 November 1925 and the

Jewish Cultural Council on 6 June 1926. The Russians and Swedes had noneed to establish their own cultural self-governments, since they resided incompact territorial areas where they already controlled the local administra-tions; Garleff, Deutschbaltische Politik, p. 113.

46 Karl Aun, ‘The Cultural Autonomy of National Minorities in Estonia’, in Yearbook of the Estonian Learned Society in America, 1 (New York, 1953),pp. 26–41.

47 Arend Lijphart, Democracies: Patterns of Majoritarian and ConsensusGovernment in Twenty-One Countries (New Haven, 1984), p. 184.

48 RIIA, The Baltic States, p. 37.49 The League of Nations rejected the Baltic German appeal for greater com-

pensation in 1926 because the agrarian reform ‘constituted a social, and nota minority, question’; RIIA, The Baltic States, p. 30; Vahur Made, Eesti jaRahvasteliit. Dissertationes Historiae Universitas Tartuensis 3 (Tartu, 1999),pp. 122–6.

50 Prior to 1929 most Swedes had supported the Christian People’s Party,apparently because many of the Swedish community’s political activistswere Lutheran pastors; Garleff, Deutschbaltische Politik, pp. 168–70.

51 Ibid., p. 170.52 The Russian National Union’s chief rival was the smaller left-wing League of

Cultural Educational Associations; Laaman, Erakonnad Eestis, p. 85.53 Anton Weiss-Wendt, ‘The Soviet Occupation of Estonia in 1940–41 and the

Jews’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 12 (1998), p. 309.54 Michael Garleff, ‘Ethnic Minorities in the Estonian and Latvian

Parliaments: The Politics of Coalition’, in Vardys and Misiunas, eds., TheBaltic States in Peace and War, pp. 89–90.

3. Origins of the Estonian Radical Right1 Walwe, September 1921.2 Ibid., 1 September, 20 October 1922.3 Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 12.4 National Liberal Party program in Eesti, 14 April 1923.5 Eesti Riigiarhiiv (ERA), f. 4231, n. 1, s. 2, lk. 1.

Notes 165

6 The rest of the leadership consisted of Deputy Chairman G. Hango,Secretary K. Pahk, and Treasurer L. Konnov. Another leading figurediscusses his involvement with the EDSL in August Nieländer, Taktikepi jarelvaga. Mälestusi (Stockholm, 1982), pp. 150–1.

7 Decrees granting privileges: Riigi Teataja 42 (1919), art. 89; 75/76 (1920). 8 Waba Eesti, 2 January 1922.9 ERA, f. 4231, n. 1, s. 1, lk. 4.

10 Sõdur, 46/47 (1926), p. 1015.11 Waba Eesti, 2 January 1922. 12 Ibid., 2 June 1922.13 Ibid., 2 January 1922.14 ERA, f. 4231, n. 1, s. 2, lk. 143.15 II. Riigikogu valimised (Tallinn, 1923).16 Laretei, Saatuse mängukanniks, p. 128.17 Waba Eesti, 14 June 1923.18 Ibid., 1 February 1924.19 Ibid., 17 March 1922; Laaman, Erakonnad Eestis, pp. 53–4. 20 Waba Eesti, 1 February 1924.21 Ibid., 5 April 1924.22 Ibid. 23 Ibid., 17 April 1924.24 Ibid.25 ERA, f. 3632, n. 1, s. 11, lk. 6.26 Eesti, 14 March 1924.27 Laaman, Erakonnad Eestis, p. 61; Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 13.28 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 124, lk. 1.29 Võitlus, 28 November 1931.30 Ibid.31 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 124, lk. 1p.32 ERA, f. 3632, n. 1, s. 9, lk. 14.33 Võitlus, 19 December 1933; Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 18.34 The other members of the executive were Helmut Veem, J. Sepp (a likely

error, probably Major Jaan Lepp), and Kont, ERA, f. 927, n. 2, s. 3, lk. 5.35 Biographical details below from Eesti Vabadusristi kavalerid (Stockholm,

1984); Fred Limberg, Isamaa eest. Eesti Vabariigi sõjajõudude organisatsioon jajuhtkond (Cardiff, 1980); Eesti Biograafiline Leksikoni Täiendusköide (Tartu,1940).

36 Võitlus, 1 May 1931 (the first issue). 37 Võitlus, 1 August 1931.38 Ibid., 16 November 1931.39 Ibid., 17 September 1932.40 Riigi Teataja (1933), art. 132.41 Võitlus, 28 November 1931.42 Ibid., 1 August 1931.43 Ibid., 11 April 1932.44 The second congress elected a new executive consisting of Larka (chairman),

Roska (deputy chairman), Pitka (2nd deputy chairman), V. Fiskar (secretary),Lepp (deputy secretary), Aleksander Seiman (treasurer), Sirk (deputy treasurer),pastor Friedrich Stockholm (administrator), ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 124, lk. 3.

166 Notes

45 Vabadussõjalaste sõna poliitilise momendi kohta, cited in Marandi, Must-valgelipu all, pp. 24–5.

46 Ibid., pp. 25–7.47 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 124, lk. 2p.48 Võitlus, 28 November 1931, 11 April 1932.49 Limberg, Isamaa eest, p. 32.50 Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 77.51 Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, pp. 24–5.52 The congress re-elected the same executive, minus those who had resigned

because they were on active military service and those who walked out ofthe congress and chose Kubbo, Hans Leesment, Karl Podrätsik, Paul Telg,and B. Martin as new members; ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 124, lk. 4.

53 Võitlus, 11 April 1932.54 ERA, f. 3632, n. 1, s. 9, lk. 40–1.55 Ibid., lk. 71–2.56 Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 91.57 ERA, f. 3632, n. 1, s. 9, lk. 42.58 Eduard Laaman, ‘Põhiseaduse kriisi arenemine 1928–1933’, in Põhiseadus ja

rahvuskogu (Tallinn, 1937), p. 38; Kuuli, Vapsidest Isamaaliiduni, p. 75.59 The executive elected at the fourth congress consisted of Larka (chairman),

Sirk (deputy chairman), Kubbo, Rõuk, Seiman, Telg, Podrätsik, Martin,Oskar Luiga, Andres Raudsepp, Aleksander Vaher, Rudolf Joonits, ArnoldJaks, and Edgar Neggo, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 124, lk. 5p.

60 Võitlus, 3 December 1932.61 The Tallinn Patriotic Association was banned on 1 December 1932, but was

immediately succeeded by the Estonian Patriotic Association, Postimees, 14January 1933.

62 Isamaa, 23 April 1932.63 Ibid., 28 May 1932.64 ERA, f. 416, n. 3, s. 3, lk. 15, 30; Võitlus, 26 November 1932, 25 February

1933.65 ERA, f. 2698, n. 1, s. 1, lk. 1. In 1933 an Association of Estonian Nationalist

Clubs was formed. 66 ERA, f. 2698, n. 1, s. 2, lk. 27–8.67 Ibid., lk. 34; Võitlus, 25 April 1933.68 Herold, 15 January 1933.69 J. Meig, Meie elu raskused, nende põhjused ja kõrvaldamise võimalused (Tartu,

1932); Põlevaist nähtusist meie elus: Meie olukorra paremale järjele tõstmiseküsimuste selgitamiseks (Tartu, 1933). The books were banned by the Tartu-Võru criminal court in November 1933 and January 1934, and Meibaum wasimprisoned in October 1934; ERA, f. 927, n. 2, s. 3, lk. 25.

4. The Constitutional Referenda1 RIIA, The Baltic States, pp. 143–4, 171–2.2 The chief Estonian exports were timber, butter, flax, paper-making materi-

als, and textiles, Eesti Pank, Eesti majandus 1935 a. Eesti Panga aastaraamat(Tallinn, 1936), p. 87.

3 Ibid., p. 82; RIIA, The Baltic States, p. 155.

Notes 167

4 The yearly average of registered unemployed grew from 5216 in 1930 to14,072 in 1933; the zenith was 24,077 registered unemployed in February1933; Eesti statistika, 145 (1933), p. 603; 157 (1934), p. 607.

5 RIIA, The Baltic States, pp. 145, 176–8.6 Rein Marandi, ‘Riigivõimu tasakaalu otsingul. Põhiseaduse paran-damisepüüdlused Eestis 1929–1933’, Mana, 56 (1987), p. 18.

7 Eugen Maddison, Parlamentarism ja Eesti põhiseadus (Tartu, 1933), p. 65.8 Laaman, Konstantin Päts, pp. 219–21.9 Kaja, 10 March 1929, quoted in Gustav Utuste, ‘Kindral Laidoner japõhiseadus’, in Johan Laidoner. Mälestusi kaasaeglasilt (Tallinn, 1934), p. 398.

10 Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 48.11 Laaman, Konstantin Päts, p. 222.12 Marandi, ‘Riigivõimu tasakaalu otsingul’, p. 25.13 Võitlus, 1 May 1931.14 Riigi Teataja, 50 (1931), art. 380; Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 49. 15 Võitlus, 1 August 1931.16 The Christian People’s Party, however, did not support the replacement of

the system of proportional election, evidently because they feared for thefuture prospects of their small party; Ibid.

17 Ibid.18 Jüri Uluots, 18 March 1932, Riigikogu IV koosseis. Täielikud protokollid,

pp. 3877–8.19 August Rei, 22 March 1932, Ibid., p. 3962.20 Võitlus, 21 December 1931.21 Vaba Maa, 22 December 1931; Võitlus, 11 January 1932.22 Võitlus, 11 January 1932.23 Ibid., 29 January 1932.24 Laaman’s diary, 17 August 1932, ERA, f. 827, n. 1, s. 1a. 25 Jüri Uluots, 18 March 1932, Riigikogu protokollid, p. 3890.26 August Rei, 22 March 1932, Ibid., p. 3961.27 Jüri Uluots, 18 March 1932, Ibid., pp. 3882–3.28 Võitlus, 11 April 1932.29 Ibid., 15 May 1932.30 Ibid., 31 May 1932.31 As a result of the mergers in January 1932 of the Farmers and Settlers into

the United Agrarians and of the Populists, Christians and Labour into theNational Centre Party, the Riigikogu was reduced to six parties. The compo-sition of the fifth Riigikogu was as follows: United Agrarians 42, Centre Party23, Socialists 22, Communists 5, Russians 5, German–Swedish Party 3;Mägi, Das Staatsleben Estlands, p. 321.

32 Vaba Maa, 21 July 1932.33 Võitlus, 23 July 1932.34 Päevaleht, 18, 19 July 1932; Võitlus, 23 July 1932; Maaleht, 21 July 1932.35 Mihkelson, Vastu tuult, p. 235.36 Rahva Sõna, 20 July 1932; Mihkelson, Vastu tuult, p. 235.37 Mihkelson, Vastu tuult, pp. 237–8.38 Rahva Sõna, 19 July 1932; Päevaleht, 20 July 1932.39 Võitlus, 6 August 1932.40 Vaba Maa, 16 August 1932; Võitlus, 20 August 1932.

168 Notes

41 Laaman’s diary, 14 October 1932, ERA, f. 827, n. 1, s. 1a.42 Text in Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, pp. 39–41.43 Almost all the leaders of the League were cavaliers of the Liberty Cross. The

first sentence of the preamble of the document is also a blatant attempt toenlist the support of the Veterans: ‘The constitution of the Republic ofEstonia was drafted in the Constituent Assembly elected during wartimeand in which the founders of our state – the vabadussõjalased [soldiers] –could not participate’.

44 Laaman’s diary, 17 August 1932, ERA, f. 827, n. 1, s. 1a.45 Ibid., 18 August 1932.46 Vaba Maa, 5 October 1932; Jaak Valge, ‘Okkaline devalveerimine: Eesti

krooni kursi ümberhindamine aastail 1931–1933’, Akadeemia, 8 (1997), p. 1628.

47 Eesti kroonika 1932 (Tartu, 1933), p. 29.48 Ibid., p. 32.49 Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, pp. 214–15.50 Vaba Maa, 18 August 1932.51 Võitlus, 12 November 1932.52 The ambivalently worded §53 was open to conflicting interpretations,

leading several commentators to allege that it gave the president anabsolute veto (for example, Mägi, Das Staatsleben Estlands, p. 271), butMarandi demonstrates that the League’s intention must be understood as asuspensive veto; Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 195.

53 § 36; Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, pp. 183, 190.54 Ibid., p. 184.55 Though uttered later, the best known characterization is Päts’ quip about

the League’s proposal being ‘written down on a knee’, Laaman, KonstantinPäts, p. 229.

56 Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, pp. 211–13.57 Ibid., p. 214.58 Postimees, 5 January 1933; Vaba Maa, 1 March 1933.59 Postimees, 16 February 1933.60 Jaan Soots, 24 January 1933, Riigikogu V koosseis. Täielikud protokollid,

p. 483.61 Karl Ast, Ibid., pp. 445–7, 474.62 Priidik Kroos, Ibid., p. 457.63 Ivan Gorshkov, Ibid., p. 459.64 Riigi Teataja, 71 (1933), art. 133.65 Postimees, 23 February 1933.66 Arvustavaid märkusi erakondade uue põhiseaduse kava kohta, missugune

riigikogu poolt 14.II.1933.a. vastu võeti ning rahvahääletusele otsustati panna,ERA, f. 3632, n. 1, s. 4, lk. 37–44.

67 Võitlus, 10 June 1933.68 Postimees, 27 April 1933.69 Laaman, Erakonnad Eestis, pp. 73, 79.70 Eesti kroonika 1933 (Tartu, 1934), p. 19; Postimees, 19 May 1933.71 Võitlus, 11 May 1933.72 Postimees, 3 June 1933; Arno Raag, Kõuepilvede saatel (Lund, 1971),

p. 162.

Notes 169

73 Postimees, 7 June 1933. The order was annulled on 6 October by theSupreme Court on the grounds that insufficient evidence existed to provethat the Tartu Veterans’ League as an organization had planned the publicdisorder; Vaba Maa, 7 October 1933.

74 Võitlus, 15 June 1933.75 Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 227.76 Valge, ‘Okkaline devalveerimine’, pp. 1633–4.77 Võitlus, 1 July 1933.78 Kaja, 1, 2, 6 July 1933.79 Ibid., 9, 13, 14, 15 July 1933; Võitlus, 11 June, 3, 5, 10 August 1933.80 Riigi Teataja, 69 (1933), art. 531. 81 In addition to the League, the Minister of the Justice and the Interior

ordered the closure of the Young Socialists’ League, the Socialist Party’sgymnastics groups, as well as rival veterans’ organizations set up byother parties: the Settlers’ Northern Riflemen’s Legion, the Farmers’National Veterans’ Association, and the Socialists’ Democratic FrontlineSoldiers’ Association, Sisekaitse ülema otsus nr. 1193, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 69, lk. 1.

82 Võitlus, 26 August 1933.83 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 78, lk. 1–5.84 Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 231.85 Riigi Teataja, 81 (1933), art. 593.86 Päevaleht, 5 October 1933.87 Võitlus, 12, 19 September 1933.88 Kaja, 13 October 1933.89 Päevaleht, 14 October 1933.90 Ibid.; Vaba Maa, 10 October 1933.91 Vaba Maa, 13 October 1933.92 Described in Kaja, 13 October 1933.93 Kaja, 24 September 1933.94 Ibid., 22 September 1933. Interestingly, the district which had the highest

vote in favour (95.6 per cent) in the October referendum was Päts’ birth-place of Tahkuranna; Anatol Tooms, ‘Rahvahääletused põhiseaduse muut-miseks’, Eesti statistika, 145 (1933), p. 606.

95 Kaja, 7 October 1933.96 Päevaleht, 14 October 1933.97 Mihkelson, Vastu tuult, pp. 292–3.98 Päevaleht, 18 October 1933.99 Tooms, ‘Rahvahääletused põhiseaduse muutmiseks’, p. 608.

100 Võitlus, 19 October 1933.101 Elmar Tambek, Tõus ja mõõn. Mälestusi kodumaalt, 1 (Toronto, 1964),

pp. 107–10.102 Johannes Klesment, ‘Sisepoliitiline kriis ja põhiseadus’, in Põhiseadus ja

Rahvuskogu, pp. 49–50. 103 Päevaleht, 20 October 1933.

5. ‘A Bloodless National Revolution’?1 Võitlus, 19 October 1933.

170 Notes

2 The coalition’s preferred candidate for Riigivanem was Peeter Kann, asupreme court judge and colonel in the War of Independence. Riigikoguchairman Einbund, however, offered the position to General Laidoner, buthe declined, Laaman, Konstantin Päts, p. 241.

3 Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, pp. 303–5. An alternative scheme suggested toSirk by Mäe was that they should reach an accord with the Farmers’ Party,who had been their allies in the referendum campaign, to participate in aPäts government. Sirk, however, rejected the idea of becoming a minister inPäts’ cabinet because he feared losing his freedom of action, Hjalmar Mäe,Kuidas kõik teostus. Minu mälestusi (Stockholm, 1993), p. 94.

4 Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, p. 73.5 Einbund, having given Päts the chance to form the government, changedparties himself by leaving the United Agrarians (Settlers) to rejoin Päts’Farmers’ Party. This paid off handsomely for Einbund, as Päts later madehim prime minister; Oskar Mänd, ‘Pingerikas ajajärk Eesti sisepoliitiliseselus’, in Blumfeldt, Evald et al., eds., Jaan Tõnisson (Stockholm, 1960), p. 231.

6 Võitlus, 24 October 1933.7 The new organization was registered as the Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Liit

(‘Estonian War of Independence Veterans’ League’) rather than as previ-ously the Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Keskliit (‘Estonian War of IndependenceVeterans’ Central League’).

8 ERA, f. 927, n. 2, s. 3, lk. 7–8.9 The fact that this ad hoc body had not been formally designated to make

these decisions was to be a point in the prosecution’s case against theleaders of the League at their trial in 1935, Ibid.

10 Võitlus, 21 November 1933.11 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 74, lk. 164.12 Võitlus, 21 November 1933.13 Sirk’s speech at the refounding of the Tallinn Veterans’ League, Ibid.14 Baltische Monatshefte, 12 (1933), p. 696.15 Kaja, Postimees, Päevaleht, Rahva Sõna, Vaba Maa, 29 November to 8

December 1933; Karl Ast, 5 December 1933, Riigikogu V koosseis. Täielikudprotokollid, pp. 1081–6.

16 Päevaleht, 7 December 1933; Kaja, 3 January 1934.17 Võitlus, 2, 5, 7, 8 December 1933.18 Rahva Sõna, 15 November 1933; Vaba Maa, 8 December 1933.19 ERA, f. 949, n. 1, s. 88a, lk. 64.20 The total bill for all costs and installation was 30,626 Reichsmarks; the press

itself cost 18,500 Reichsmarks; ERA, f. 3983, n. 1, s. 3, lk. 7; Võitlus, 21December 1933.

21 Karl Ast, 5 December 1933, Riigikogu protokollid, pp. 1084–6.22 Karl Selter, ibid., p. 1099.23 ERA, f. 3983, n. 1, s. 3, lk. 46–9.24 Ibid., lk. 32.25 The Anti-Marxism Bill was also meant as a propaganda tool in case the

League was once again banned which the League leadership had reason tofear in the aftermath of the von zur Mühlen affair, ERA, f. 949, n. 1, s. 88a,lk. 66–7.

26 Võitlus, 7 December 1933 (eritelegramm).

Notes 171

27 Ibid., 19 December 1933.28 Ibid., 21 December 1933.29 Additional resolutions demanded that education be conducted in a ‘patri-

otic spirit’, and recognized the Lutheran church as an ‘important factor’ innational life.

30 Sirk did not come under consideration because §58 of the amendedconstitution required candidates to be a least 40 years of age.

31 Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, p. 68.32 Dunkel’s interrogation transcript, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 155.33 Tambek, Tõus ja mõõn, p. 147.34 Ilmar Raamot, Mälestused, vol. 1 (Turku, 1975), p. 288.35 Ibid., pp. 289–310.36 Tomingas suggests that Päts played a pivotal role in convincing Veterans’

leaders that Laidoner’s personality was dangerously domineering,Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, p. 68.

37 Raamot, Mälestused, vol. 1, p. 302. The League had already decided on Larkaas its candidate at its extraordinary congress at Võru on 12 November 1933,ERA, f. 927, n. 2, s. 3, lk. 8.

38 ERA, f. 953, n. 1, s. 36, lk. 147.39 ERA, f. 949, n. 1, s. 96, lk. 9, 29.40 Percentually the results were as follows: the Settlers 28, the Farmers 26,

other non-socialist lists 22, the Veterans 11, Socialist lists 11, independents2; Olaf Kuuli, ‘Parlamendi- ja kohalike omavalitsuste valimised kodanlikusEestis 1930–ndatel aastatel ja Eestimaa Kommunistliku Partei taktika’, TöidNLKP ajaloo alalt XII (Tartu, 1975), pp. 110–11.

41 Ibid., pp. 112–16; pp. 119–21.42 See pp. 92–3.43 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 91, lk. 614.44 Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, pp. 372–3.45 Kindral A. Larka. Põhiseaduse lahingu juht (Tallinn, 1934).46 Kuuli, Vapsidest Isamaaliiduni, pp. 129–30.47 Rahva Sõna, 14 February 1934.48 Ibid., 7 February 1934; Kuuli, Vapsidest Isamaaliiduni, pp. 129–32;

Mihkelson, Vastu tuult, pp. 315–19.49 Rahva Sõna, 28 February 1934.50 Mihkelson, Vastu tuult, pp. 303–5.51 Kuuli, Vapsidest Isamaaliduni, p. 114.52 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 629–34. Mäe gave the following guideline: ‘the

weapon the parties use is slander; [but we shall] not answer with the samebut be correct and present facts which are verified.’

53 ERA, f. 949, n. 1, s. 100, lk. 29–34.54 Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, pp. 99–100.55 Võitlus, 10, 13 February 1934.56 Ibid., 22 February 1934.57 Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, p. 100.58 Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 380.59 Võitlus, 20 February 1934; Maaleht, 10 March 1934; Marandi, Must-valge lipu

all, pp. 383–4; Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, p. 90.60 Postimees, 7 March 1933; Vaba Maa, 3 March 1934.

172 Notes

61 The best known comment was made by Päts: ‘Debris flows along with thefloodwaters’, Laaman, Konstantin Päts, p. 246.

62 Kaja, 20 February 1933.63 Ibid., 6, 10 March 1934.64 Maaleht, 23 January, 27 February 1934.65 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 92, lk. 109.66 ERA. f. 1, n. 7, s. 75, lk. 147.67 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 74, lk. 49–52.68 Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, p. 92.69 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 72, lk. 73–6; Kaja, Vaba Maa, 6 March 1934. 70 Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, pp. 91–2.71 Võitlus, 30 January 1934.72 Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, pp. 98–9.73 Ibid.74 Postimees, 23 March 1934; Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 393.75 ERA, f. 957, n. 13, s. 769, lk. 88p.

6. Ideology1 For discussions on parallel manifestations of ‘veterans’ spirit’ or the ‘frontideology’ in other countries, see Antoine Prost, In the Wake of the War. ‘LesAnciens Combattants’ and French Society 1914–1939 (Providence, 1992), pp. 98–9; James M. Diehl, Paramilitary Politics in Weimar Germany(Bloomington, 1977), pp. 212–16.

2 Võitlus, 11 April 1932.3 Ibid.4 ERA, f. 3632, n. 1, s. 9, lk. 40–1.5 Võitlus, 16 November 1931.6 Ibid., 15 July 1933.7 ERA, f. 3632, n. 1, s. 9, lk. 14.8 Võitlus, 2 January 1934.9 Ibid., 15 July 1933.

10 Ibid.11 Ibid., 11 January 1932.12 Juan J. Linz, ‘Notes Toward a Comparative Study of Fascism in Sociological

Historical Perspective’, in Walter Laqueur, ed., Fascism: A Reader’s Guide(Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976), pp. 4–5.

13 Võitlus, 29 April 1933.14 Ibid., 29 October 1932, 21 October 1933.15 Ibid., 16 November 1931, 30 April 1932, 29 August, 21 October 1933.16 Ibid., 1 August 1931.17 Juan J. Linz, ‘Political Space and Fascism as a Late-Comer: Conditions

Conducive to the Success or Failure of Fascism as a Mass Movement inInter-War Europe’, in Stein Ugelvik Larsen, Bernt Hagtvet, and Jan PetterMyklebust, eds., Who were the Fascists? Social Roots of European Fascism(Bergen-Oslo-Tromsö, 1980), p. 160.

18 Kuuli, ‘EKP arvuline koosseis’, pp. 57–64.19 Võitlus, 9 May 1933.20 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 24.

Notes 173

21 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 72, lk. 72.22 See pp. 92–3.23 August Rei, 27 July 1932, Riigikogu V koosseis täielikud protokollid, pp. 57–62.

The Black Hundreds were a reactionary nationalist group in the last years ofTsarist Russia.

24 Rahva Sõna, 19 July 1932.25 Karl Ast, Landesvehri plaanid Eesti vallutamiseks. Kuidas Hitleri käsilased

tasandavad teed parunite piitsavalitsusele (Tallinn, 1933).26 Karl Ast, 5 December 1933, Riigikogu protokollid, pp. 1081–6.27 Karl Ast, ‘Demokraatliku Eesti loojakul’, Akadeemia, 3 (1989), p. 615.28 Võitlus, 13, 20 August, 1, 8, 15, 29 October 1932.29 Ibid., 4 March 1933.30 ERA, f. 957, n. 13, s. 747, lk. 254.31 Il Lavoro Fascista, 25 January 1934.32 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 33–5.33 For example, Laaman, Demokraatia ja diktatuur, pp. 90–7; Eesti kroonika

1934, pp. 20–3; Royal Institute of International Affairs, The Baltic States,p. 49; Uustalu, The History of Estonian People, p. 204; Isberg, Med demokratinsom insats, pp. 29–31; Kuuli, Vapsidest Isamaaliiduni, p. 84.

34 The Veterans were practically alone in viewing the ‘National Revolution’ inGermany in a positive light. The German ambassador found it necessary onseveral occasions to make démarches to the Estonian Foreign Minister andRiigivanem about the hostile reporting of the Estonian press on the situation inNational Socialist Germany, Reinebach (Reval), 24 March, 10 October 1933,Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amtes (AA), Pol. Abt. IV, Estland, Po. 2.

35 Võitlus, 11 February 1933.36 ‘The contact points between the Estonian Veterans’ movement and German

National Socialism are very considerable. The guiding idea of both move-ments is the principle: “the common good before self-interest.” Both move-ments are anti-parliamentary, anti-liberal and opponents of formaldemocracy. Both movements lay claim to totality. And also in purely exter-nal things, such as uniforms, organization etc., the Veterans have learnt alot from the Hitler movement. The next few months will determinewhether the Veterans have as much success as the National Socialists.Germany will greet the victory of this young movement all the more sincethe Veterans, in contrast to all other Estonian parties, constantly strive, notto agitate against Germany, but towards understanding and trust of thenew National Socialist German Reich’, Berliner Tageblatt, 2 August 1933.

37 Võitlus, 18 February 1933.38 Ibid., 4 March 1933.39 Ibid., 11, 18 March 1933.40 Ibid., 11 January 1932, 9 May, 8 June 1933.41 Ibid., 18 March 1933.42 Ibid., 8 February 1934.43 Ibid., 2 November 1931.44 Ibid., 31 October 1933.45 Ibid., 25 March 1933.46 Cited in Vaba Maa, 5 December 1933.47 Mikko Uola, Sinimusta veljeskunta. Isänmaallinen kansanliike 1932–1944

(Helsinki, 1982), pp. 246–8.

174 Notes

48 Rintamamies – käsikirja, Kansallisarkisto (KA), EK-Valpo II: IX. A. 2a, p. 9. 49 Mikko Uola, Rintamamiesten Liitto 1929–1944 (Tampere, 1988), pp. 45–53;

Martti Ahti, Kaappaus? Suojeluskuntaselkkaus 1921, Fascismin aave 1927,Mäntsälän kapina 1932 (Helsinki, 1990), p. 127.

50 Vapaussodan Rintamamiesten Liiton Vuosikertomus vuodelta 1932, 1933, KA,EK-Valpo II: IX. A. 2a1, pp. 23, 27; Võitlus, 1 August 1931, 31 May 1932, 23,25 May 1933.

51 Võitlus, 1 August 1931.52 Ibid., 19 October 1933.53 Ibid., 21 October 1933.54 Perkonkrusts, 22 October 1933.55 Izvestiya, 18 October 1933.56 Kaja, 26 October 1933.57 Võitlus, 11 January 1932; 7 September 1933.58 Ibid., 21 September 1933.59 Tönu Parming, ‘The Jewish Community and Inter-Ethnic Relations in

Estonia, 1918–1940’, Journal of Baltic Studies, 10 (1979), p. 256; Kopl Jokton,Juutide ajaloost Eestis, pp. 40–1.

60 See pp. 19–20.61 Võitlus, 6 April 1933.62 Ibid., 10 August 1933.63 See p. 11.64 Võitlus, 3 June 193365 Indrek Jürjo, ‘Der Verhältnis der Deutschbalten zum estländischen Staat

und dem estnischen Volk in der Zwischenkriegszeit’, in Meissner, Loeber,and Hasselblatt, eds., Die Deutsche Volksgruppe, pp. 195–212.

66 ERA, f. 76, n. 1, s. 733, lk. 8; f. 1, n. 7, s. 146.67 Niels von Redecker, ‘Viktor von zur Mühlen (1879–1950) und die national-

sozialistische Bewegung unter den Deutschen Estlands’, paper presented atthe Baltisches Historikertreffen, Göttingen, 6–7 June 1998.

68 Baltische Monatshefte, 9 (1933), p. 546.69 Jürgen von Hehn, ‘Zur Geschichte der deutschbaltischen nationalsozialistis-

chen Bewegung in Estland’, Zeitschrift für Ostforschung, 26 (1977), p. 603.70 Baltische Monatshefte, 12 (1933), p. 696.71 Kaja, Postimees, Päevaleht, Rahva Sõna, Vaba Maa, 29 November to 8 December

1933; Karl Ast, 5 December 1933, Riigikogu protokollid, pp. 1081–6.72 Võitlus, 7 December 1933.73 Ibid., 5 December 1933.74 Ibid., 7, 21 December 1933.75 Päevaleht, 7 December 1933; Kaja, 3 January 1934.76 ERA, f. 4433, n. 2, s. 5, lk. 6; f. 1, n. 7, s. 124, lk. 170.77 Võitlus, 23 January 1934.78 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 105, lk. 108.79 Ago Pajur, Eesti riigikaitsepoliitika aastail 1918–1934 (Tartu, 1999), pp. 145–6.80 Payne, A History of Fascism, p. 11.81 See p. 145.82 Võitlus, 11 March 1933.83 Kas ir? Ko grib? Ka darbojas? Perkonkrusts (Riga, 1933), p. 36.84 Võitlus, 20 June 1933.85 Konrad Veem, Eesti vaba rahvakirik (Stockholm, 1988), p. 258.

Notes 175

86 Valk, Ühest heledast laigust Eesti kooli ajaloos, pp. 28–33.87 Veem, Eesti vaba rahvakirik, pp. 300–1.88 Võitlus, 1 August 1933.89 Päevaleht, 21 October 1933.90 Pastor Boris Aareandi in Tallinn’s St. Charles’ church took Genesis 1: 3

‘And God said, Let there be light: and there was light’ as the text for hissermon, Võitlus, 21 October 1933.

91 Ibid., 9 November 1933.92 Ibid., 22 April 1933.93 Ibid., 25 February 1933.94 Ibid., 23, 26 September 1933.95 Vabadussõjalaste koduleht, no. 1, p. 15.96 ERA, f. 4433, n. 2, s. 5, lk. 3.97 Päevaleht, 14 October 1933.98 Võitlus, 26 September 1933.99 ERA, f. 4433, n. 2, s. 5, lk. 3.

100 Päevaleht, 14 October 1933.101 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 112.102 ERA, f. 4433, n. 2, s. 5, lk. 3.103 Võitlus, 11 January 1932.104 Ibid. 105 Juhan Vilms, Erakondadeta ühiskonna poole. Eesti kui korporatiivne riik

(Tallinn, 1933), pp. 37–8, 118–19.106 Võitlus, 1 August 1931, 17 June, 8 July 1933, 3 March 1934.107 Ibid., 16 November 1931, 29 January, 11 April 1932. The government did,

in fact, stop repayment of the war debt in 1932.108 Ibid.109 Ibid., 21 December 1931.110 Ibid., 3 September 1932.111 Ibid., 15 July 1933.112 Ibid.113 Ibid., 22 October 1932.

7. Organization1 Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Liidu põhikiri, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 71, lk. 9–19. The new

organization was registered as the Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Liit (‘EstonianWar of Independence Veterans’ League’) rather than as previously theEesti Vabadussõjalaste Keskliit (‘Estonian War of Independence Veterans’Central League’).

2 Parming, The Collapse of Liberal Democracy, p. 40.3 Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Liidu põhikiri, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 71, lk. 9–19.4 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 534.5 See their entries in Eesti Vabadusristi kavalerid.6 Paul Laamann (Võru), Leonhard Pallon (Valga), Osvald Mitt (Pärnu),

Andres Leppik (Paide), Andres Vaher (Tapa), Aleksander Raudsepp (Tartu),Hans Ainson (Tartu), Nikolai Kütt (Rakvere), Alfred Sampka (Narva) andthree members of the Tallinn chapter executive, Friedrich Kapsi, VillemDaniel, and Eduard Saulep, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 534.

176 Notes

7 Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Liidu põhikiri, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 71, lk. 9–19.8 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 124, lk. 17–17p.9 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 91, lk. 56.

10 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 45.11 Sirk told Segodnya, ‘We do not recognize the leadership principle’, cited in

Vaba Maa, 5 December 1933. 12 K.Ü. sisekord, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 641p.13 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 28. 14 See pp. 55–6.15 Bericht über die Lage in Estland, 7 November 1933, AA, Pol. Abt. IV, Estland,

Po. 5, Bd. 4.16 Süüdistusakt, ERA, f. 927, n. 2, s. 3, lk. 8p-9p.17 Ibid., lk. 10.18 Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Liidu kodukord, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 91, lk. 53–6.19 Peastaabi sise- ja töökord, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 73, lk. 59–63.20 Ibid.; ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 533; s. 91, lk. 780.21 The statutes of the Eesti Tööliste Liit and Eesti Põllumeeste Liit, ERA, f. 1, n. 7,

s. 90, lk. 147, 229.22 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 27.23 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 539.24 The statute of the women’s section, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 111.25 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 105, lk. 107.26 Võitlus, 13 February 1934.27 Helmi Mäelo, Eesti naine läbi aegade (Lund, 1957), pp. 216–17. 28 Sirje Kivimäe, ‘Frauen und Frauenbewegung in Estland von der

Jahrhundertwende bis zum Ausbruch des Zweiten Weltkrieges’, Archiv fürSozialgeschichte, 34 (1994), pp. 219–21.

29 Ibid. 30 ERA, f. 949, n. 1, s. 88a, lk. 64.31 On the purchase of the rotary press from Germany, see pp. 52–3. 32 Gert Helbemäe, ‘Ühest kohtumisest Artur Sirguga, Tulimuld, 1 (1977),

pp. 29–30.33 K.Ü. sisekord, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 640.34 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 91, lk. 189–94.35 K.Ü. sisekord, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 641p.36 Süüdistusakt, ERA, f. 927, n. 2, s. 3, lk. 14p.37 K.Ü. sisekord, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 640–1.38 Ibid., lk. 641p.39 Süüdistusakt, ERA, f. 927, n. 2, s. 3, lk. 14–16.40 Ibid., lk. 640p.41 Mihkelson, Vastu tuult, p. 165.42 Ibid.43 Rahva Sõna, 20 July 1932.44 Võitlus, 1 April 1933.45 Maaleht, 30 July 1932.46 Sisekaitse ülema otsus nr. 1193–p., ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 69, lk. 1.47 Võitlus, 1 April 1933.48 Vaba Maa, 30 December 1933.49 ERA, f. 953, n. 1, s. 17, lk. 2–3.

Notes 177

50 Ibid.; ERA, f. 949, n. 3, s. 48, lk. 11.51 Laidoner and Einbund, who later suppressed the Veterans’ League for its

alleged paramilitary nature, were impressed by a display of the NorthernRiflemen’s Legion, Ilmar Raamot, Mälestused, vol. 2 (Stockholm, 1991), p. 95. Sirk and Seiman while they were still members of the Settlers’ Partyorganized the Talurite Liit (Farmers’ League), a paramilitary youth groupaffiliated with the Settlers’ Party, Raamot, Mälestused, vol. 1, pp. 267–8.

52 Marandi, Must valge-lipu all, p. 492.53 Ibid., p. 124.54 The League disassociated itself from Parm’s actions, Võitlus, 29 January

1932.55 Marandi, Must valge-lipu all, pp. 28–9, 124. 56 Raamot, Mälestused, vol. 1, pp. 267–9; vol. 2, p. 17.57 Marandi, ‘Riigivõimude tasakaalu otsingul’, p. 25.58 Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, p. 84.59 Raamot, Mälestused, vol. 2, p. 38; Võitlus, 3 December 1932.60 ERA, f. 14, n. 2, s. 73, lk. 3; f. 1, n. 7, s. 74, lk. 172.61 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 91, lk. 647.62 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 129.63 When interrogated by the Political Police in March 1934 leading figures

gave conflicting membership figures for the Tallinn chapter: Seiman 7000,Sirk 6000 and 3000, Klasmann 6000, Rudolf Joonits (treasurer of the Tallinnchapter) 3000, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 28, 45, 630; s. 91, lk. 36.

64 Marandi, Must valge-lipu all, p. 321; Kuuli, Vapsidest Isamaaliiduni, p. 91. 65 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 91, lk. 154–5.66 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 76.67 Võitlus, 28 November 1931.68 ‘Vabadussõjalaste Rahvusliikumise’ kandidaatide nimekiri Tallinna linnavo-

likogu valimistel 14.-15. jaan. 1934.69 Võitlus, 11 January 1934.70 ERA, f. 953, n. 1, s. 36, lk. 83–9.71 ERA, f. 953, n. 1, s. 36, lk. 151–3.72 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 196.73 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 74, lk. 107–9.74 Sample of 175 League members in the Kavilda, Luunja, Tomma, Ulila, Mäksa,

and Meeksi chapters, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 74, lk. 82, 85, 89, 90, 133, 135.75 Seymour Lipset, Political Man: The Social Bases of Political Movements (New

York, 1960), p. 133.76 Parming, The Collapse of Liberal Democracy, pp. 51–6.77 Kuuli, ‘Parlamendi- ja kohalike omavalitsuste valimised’, pp. 112–16.78 Percentually the results were as follows: Settlers 27, Farmers 27, other non-

socialist lists 22, the Veterans 11, socialist lists 11, independents 2. Derivedfrom a table of results in Kuuli, ‘Parlamendi- ja kohalike omavalitsustevalimised’, pp. 110–11.

79 Maaleht, 23 January, 27 February 1934; Kaja, 6, 10 March 1934.80 Parallel to elections to the city and rural district councils, elections were

also held for the councils of smaller towns (alevid). In the towns the Leaguereceived 20% of the overall vote, but the electorate was only a fraction ofthe size of the city and rural electorate, Kuuli, ‘Parlamendi- ja kohalikeomavalitsuste valimised’, p. 115.

178 Notes

81 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 72, lk. 20.82 Parming, The Collapse of Liberal Democracy, p. 55.83 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 72, lk. 72.84 Mihkelson, Vastu tuult, p. 312.85 Vaba Maa, 12 January 1934.86 A typical example was a story in Kaja, 7 February 1934, ‘Former teachers’

union secretary swaps red shirt for black one.’ 87 Heinrich Frank, ‘Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Liit ja Eesti Tööliskond’, in

Hamilkar Mengel, ed., 50 aastat (USA, 1987), pp. 53–7.88 Võitlus, 15 July 1933.89 Ibid.90 Päevaleht, 29 September 1933.91 Rothschild, East Central Europe between the Two World Wars, p. 374. 92 Oskar Loorits, Eesti ajaloo põhiprobleemid (Stockholm, 1955), p. 165.93 On Sakala and the Veterans see ERA, f. 952, n. 1, s. 53; Lauri Lindström,

‘Korporatsioon “Sakala”’ in Helmut Piirimäe, ed., Spes Patriae: Üliõpilasselt-sid ja korporatsioonid Eestis (Tallinn, 1996), p. 123.

94 Süüdistusakt, ERA, f. 927, n. 2, s. 3, lk. 16–17.95 Ibid.96 Kaitseliidu põhikiri, ERA, f. 1, n. 6, s. 8, lk. 74.97 Kaitse Kodu! 11/12, 1933, p. 341. 98 Uustalu, Eesti Vabariik, pp. 231–2.99 Süüdistusakt, ERA, f. 927, n. 2, s. 3, lk. 17.

100 See p. 104.101 Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Liidu põhikiri, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 71, lk. 15.102 Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, p. 106–7.103 ERA, f. 3632, n. 1, s. 1, lk. 12.104 Võitlus, 19 December 1934.105 ERA, f. 949, n. 1, s. 88a, lk. 54–5.106 Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 481.107 After the success of the October 1933 referendum Gottfried Dunkel col-

lected 5000 kroons each from Baltic German industrialists Martin Luther(veneer and furniture manufacturer), Kristjan Rotermann (flour mills andbakeries), and Narva textile factory director Robert Peltzer; ERA, f. 949, n.3, s. 31, lk. 67. Some benefactors later paid dearly for their generosity:after Päts’ coup, seven businessmen who had supported the League –Heinrich Tofer, Karl Jänes, Karl Uudel, Artur Oksenberg, Karl Luberg, JaanUrla, and Vassili Voinov – were sent to internal exile on the island ofKihnu, Päevaleht, 28 March 1934.

108 Gesandtschaft an das AA, 15 March 1934, AA, Pol. Abt. IV, Estland, Po. 5,Bd. 5.

109 Võitlus, 21 October 1934.110 Ibid., 11 January 1934.

8. Coup d’État1 Kaja, 20 February 1934.2 Pajur, Eesti riigikaitsepoliitika, pp. 288–90. Such a measure had already

been recommended by a Riigikogu committee in December, Kaja, 16December 1933.

Notes 179

3 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 76, lk. 144–7, 151–2, 170–1. 4 Most notably, Army Chief of Staff General Juhan Tõrvand was replaced byGeneral Nikolai Reek, Pajur, Eesti riigikaitsepoliitika, pp. 290–2.

5 Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 410.6 Laaman, Konstantin Päts, p. 251.7 Võitlus, 1 February 1934.8 Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, p. 98.9 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 92, lk. 13–4.

10 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 92, lk. 20.11 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 96, lk. 143.12 August Maling, the Tallinn Veterans’ League’s salaried secretary, received

instructions from the central executive to destroy the League’s correspon-dence, especially that pertaining to the membership. Maling burned theLeague’s documents on the 9th or 10th of March; ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 91, lk.154–5. Other papers were taken by Seiman and Viidik to the latter’s homefor safekeeping. After they had all been arrested, Evald Lepisto burned thematerial on the insistence of Viidik’s wife; ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 91, lk. 179–80,184.

13 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 91, lk. 673.14 Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, pp. 79–81; Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 424.15 Riigivanema otsus nr. 173, Riigi Teataja, 22 (1934), art. 156.16 The members of the ‘transitional’ cabinet were not likely to disagree with

Päts on this issue as they were not representatives of the parties, but‘experts’ chosen by him personally.

17 Sisekaitse ülema otsus nr. 2526/519, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 69, lk. 134.18 Sisekaitse ülema sundmäärus nr. 14, Riigi Teataja, 22 (1934), art. 157. 19 League central executive member Paul Telg managed to flee to Finland.20 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 69, lk. 162.21 Raun, Estonia and the Estonians, p. 118; Uustalu, Eesti Vabariik, p. 138. 22 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 129.23 Raamot, Mälestused, vol. 2, p. 22.24 Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 414.25 Päts, 15 March 1934, Riigikogu protokollid, p. 1435.26 ERA, f. 31, n. 5, s. 497, lk. 128.27 Raamot, Mälestused, vol. 2, p. 31.28 Päts, 15 March 1934, Riigikogu protokollid, p. 1437.29 Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 463.30 Päts, 15 March 1934, Riigikogu protokollid, p. 1438,31 Laidoner also drew a parallel with the 1924 Communist putsch attempt,

Päevaleht, 16 March 1934.32 Päts, 15 March 1934, Riigikogu protokollid, p. 1438.33 Laidoner’s proclamation to the armed forces, 17 March 1934: ‘In the

atmosphere that had arisen, a delay would have imperiled our nationalsecurity, not just internally, but most dangerously – the threat wouldhave come from abroad’, Villem Saarsen, ed., Johan Laidoner (Stockholm,1953), p. 100.

34 Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, pp. 441–6.35 ERA, f. 949, n. 3, s. 48, lk. 1.36 Ast, ‘Demokraatliku Eesti loojakul’, p. 615.

180 Notes

37 August Rei, ‘Kindral J. Laidoner 75–aastane’, Teataja, 14 February 1959,cited in Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 461.

38 Rahva Sõna, 14 March 1934.39 Õie Elango, ‘Kultuurpoliitikast ja -orientatsioonist Eestis aastail 1934–1940’,

Looming, 1 (1974), p. 108. 40 Kuuli, Vapsidest Isamaaliiduni, p. 141.41 Kohtu- ja siseministri otsus nr. 2387, Riigi Teataja, 26 (1934), art. 201.42 Kohtu- ja siseministri otsus nr. 2388, Riigi Teataja, 26 (1934), art. 202.43 Kuuli, Vapsidest isamaaliiduni, p. 138.44 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 90, lk. 634–6. 45 ERA, f. 2154, n. 1, s. 14, lk. 16. 46 For example, Laaman, Konstantin Päts, pp. 254–5; The Baltic States: A Study

of their Origin and National Development; Their Seizure and Incorporation intothe U.S.S.R. Third Interim Report of the Select Committee on CommunistAggression (Buffalo, 1972), p. 99.

47 Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, pp. 112, 116–20; Marandi, Must-valge lipu all,pp. 431, 433–4.

48 Marandi, ‘Riigivõimude tasakaalu otsingul’, p. 26.49 Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, p. 102.50 Juhan Veelman ja Henno Rahamägi, eds., 12. märts. Aasta riiklikku ülesehi-

tustööd (Tallinn, 1935), p. 5.51 Marandi, ‘Riigivõimude tasakaalu otsingul’, p. 26.52 See p. 55.53 Päts, 15 March 1934, Riigikogu protokollid, p. 1435.54 Friido Toomus, Konstantin Päts ja riigireformi aastad (Tartu, 1938), p. 123.55 See pp. 62–3.56 Päts in Põhiseadus ja rahvuskogu, p. 9.57 Uus Eesti, 1 October 1936.58 Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, p. 102.59 Postimees, 13 January 1933; Pajur, Eesti riigikaitsepoliitika, pp. 283, 292–302.60 According to Joakim Puhk, Estonia’s best known industrialist, ‘Laidoner no

longer thought about the presidency because then he could not keep hispositions in businesses, the match trust, oil shale, Kreenholm, etc., whichprovide him with 4–5000 kroons per month’, 23 March 1935, Laaman’sdiary; ERA, f. 827, n. 1, s. 1a. Laidoner sat on the boards of Estonian OilShale, the Bank of Estonia, Scheel’s Bank, Ilmarine Inc., the Estonian MatchMonopoly Inc. and PK Estonia; Eesti Biograafiline Leksikon.

9. Underground1 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 123, lk. 298, 310–1, 325.2 Päevaleht, 7 May 1934; ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 123, lk. 290.3 Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, pp. 160–4.4 Süüdistusakt, ERA, f. 927, n. 2, s. 5, lk. 5–8.5 ERA, f. 949, n. 1, s. 102, lk. 116. 6 ERA, f. 927, n. 2, s. 5, lk. 284, 297, 421; Tomingas was arrested in Tallinn

over two months later, on 6 July, lk. 523.7 ERA, f. 927, n. 2, s. 5, lk. 160–4; Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, pp. 208–24. 8 ERA, f. 80, n. 5, s. 2223, lk. 1–8.

Notes 181

9 Marandi, Must-valge lipu all, p. 433.10 Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, pp. 130–3.11 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 123, lk. 348; f. 949, n. 1, s. 97, lk. 48.12 Raamot, Mälestused, vol. 2, pp. 39–40.13 ERA, f. 949, n. 3, s. 48, lk. 4.14 Raamot, Mälestused, vol. 2, p. 38.15 Ibid., pp. 76–7.16 Loorits, Eesti ajaloo põhiprobleemid, p. 165.17 Probably Kook, Laaman, Konstantin Päts, p. 254.18 Raamot, Mälestused, vol. 2, p. 83.19 Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, pp. 236–45; Raamot, Mälestused, vol. 2, pp. 42–6,

61–3; Uusi Suomi, 1 March 1935.20 ‘At present it is hard to find circles in Finland who do not feel apprehension

at what the future holds for Estonia. Nothing can be more warmly desiredhere than Estonia returning as quickly as possible to a democratic basis’,Helsingin Sanomat, 8 March 1935.

21 Ajan Suunta, 17 June 1935; Uusi Suomi, 17 June 1935; Helsingin Sanomat,18 June 1935; Suomen Sosialidemokraatti, 17 June 1935.

22 Vilho Helanen, Suomalaiset Viron vapaussodassa (Helsinki, 1921).23 Helsingin Sanomat, 8, 17, 20 June 1934.24 Sinimusta wrote regarding the Veterans: ‘Can we Blue-Blacks call you com-

rades? That would be a joy and honour for us. You are soldiers of liberty.We wish to be the same. You have now offered the greatest sacrifice forliberty. We wish to be your comrades even now and swear to be in everycircumstance’, Sinimusta, no. 25–6, 18 December 1935. The same was thecase for the successor of Sinimusta, Luo Lippujen! which exhorted its readers‘to live and fight like Artur Sirk’, Luo Lippujen!, 22 September 1937.

25 Sinimusta, nos. 14, 20, 21, 25; ERA, f. 957, n. 14, s. 163, lk. 69–70.26 ERA, f. 957, n. 14, s. 17, lk. 2–15.27 ERA, f. 957, n. 14, s. 163, lk. 79p-80.28 Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, pp. 332–5.29 Ajan Suunta, 11 January 1935. Photos in ERA, f. 949, n. 1, s. 101.30 Larka, Seiman, Klasmann, Jalakas, Rõuk, Mäe, Ainson, Kook, Kubbo, Luiga,

Podrätsik, Laast-Laas, Holland, Lembit Hellat, Voldemar Laurisson, AlfredSampka, Andreas Leppik, Karl Dobrus, Villem Reier, Paul Laamann,Leonhard Pallon, Osvald Mitt, Mihail Kalm, Leonhard Krull, Helmar Rästas,Edvin Kääramees, Johannes Sengbusch, Nikolai Põlendik, Armin Rägo,Eduard Rosenbach, Voldemar Laube, Harry Berg, Peeter Masul, AndresHirsch, Julius Keerberg, Alfred Sild, Jaan Mägi, Valter Viks, and Karl Kondas.

31 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 125, lk. 40.32 ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 124, lk. 34.33 Süüdistusakt, ERA, f. 927, n. 2, s. 3, lk. 27p.34 Ibid., lk. 10.35 Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, pp. 259, 275–7.36 ERA, f. 949, n. 1, s. 33, lk. 73.37 ERA, f. 927, n. 2, s. 11, lk. 6–11.38 See p. 31.39 The following sentences were handed down on 27 September 1935:

Meibaum, Reha, and Martin Sepp six years; Adam Kresling, Jaan Lukk, and

182 Notes

Arnold Pikkat five years; Leonhard Luts one year; August Pais, EndlaKresling, and Artur Braun one-year suspended sentence, ERA, f. 927, n. 2, s.11, lk. 236–8. Most were released early by Päts’ decree, but Julius Kiisholtswas convicted and sentenced to three years’ imprisonment in 1938 afterreturning from his refuge in Finland; ERA, f. 927, n. 2, s. 11, lk. 349–51,359, 381, 407, 422–3.

40 Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, p. 293–4.41 In April 1935 Prime Minister Einbund proposed to Settler’s Party chief

secretary Ilmar Raamot that he visit Sirk in Finland. However, nothing cameof this plan because Einbund would not accede to Raamot’s request forwritten confirmation of his mission; Raamot, Mälestused, vol. 2, pp. 79–82.

42 Henno Rahamägi and Juhan Veelman, eds., 12. märtsi radadel (Tallinn,1936), p. 74.

43 Rein Marandi, ‘Artur Sirk Soomes 1934–1935’, Eesti Teadusliku Seltsi Rootsisaastaraamat XI 1988–1990 (Stockholm, 1992), p. 141.

44 ERA, f. 80, n. 5, s. 2056, lk. 1–4.45 Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, p. 104.46 Ibid.47 Riigi Teataja 81 (1935), art. 691; Edgar Talvik, Legaalsuse põhimõte Eesti

Vabariigi põhiseaduse tekkimises, muutmistes ja muutmiskavades (Tartu, 1991),p. 52.

48 ERA, f. 80, n. 5, s. 2056, lk. 11.49 Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, p. 105.50 The description of the plot is taken from the indictment, ERA, f. 927, n. 2,

s. 9, lk. 7–44. 51 See the memoirs of Hans Meret, the only conspirator actually to have gone

ahead with his assignment (to note which ministers and senior officialswere absent from the Estonia concert hall) on 8 December because he wasunaware that the leadership had been arrested; Hans Meret, Teremi jutustus.‘Estonia mässust’, sõjast, Berliinist, KZ-laagrist ja muust (Toronto, 1984), pp. 30–7.

52 Interrogation of Voldemar Kivistik, KA, EK-Valpo II: IX. B. 30. The moneywas in Latvian lats and Mäe added 10,000 kroons; Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus,pp. 107–8.

53 ERA, f. 949, n. 2, s. 445, lk. 2.54 Larka, Sirk, Holland, Klasmann, Kubbo, Laamann, Luiga, Mitt, Pallon,

Podrätsik, Puskar, Seiman, and Hans Paris.55 ERA, f. 949, n. 2, s. 445, lk. 2.56 The participants in the meeting were: Holland, Larka, Seiman, Klasmann,

Laamann, Pallon, Podrätsik, Mäe, Kalm, Ants Pedak, Anton Allik andArnold Liivak. Kubbo, Puskar and Paris arrived later from Tartu.

57 Marandi, ‘Artur Sirk Soomes’, p. 143.58 ERA, f. 949, n. 1, s. 89, lk. 273p, 339, 343p, 382p.59 Laidoner had been in favour of on-the-spot court-martials (executions) to

be administered as after the 1924 Communist putsch attempt; Laaman’sdiary, 12 December 1935, ERA, f. 827, n. 1, s. 1a.

60 There are allegations that the entire plot was a provocation by the PoliticalPolice, Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, p. 313; Meret, Teremi jutustus, p. 75. Elmar

Notes 183

Tambek, head of the President’s office, reports that Päts himself doubtedthe genuineness of the conspiracy, Tambek, Tõus ja mõõn, 1, pp. 152–5. Seealso Tõrvand’s own hand written comments on the printed indictment,ERA, f. 1131, n. 1, s. 9, lk. 76.

61 Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, pp. 303–8.62 Reinebeck (Reval), 8 December 1935, an das AA; von Grundherr, 13

December 1935, AA, Pol. Abt. IV, Estland, Po. 5, Bd. 6.63 Preußische Geheime Staatspolizei, 15 April 1936, an das AA; the Hamburg

authorities suggested that the pistols might have come fromCzechoslovakia; hamburgisches Staatsamt, 17 March 1936, an das AA, AA,Pol. Abt. IV, Estland, Po. 5, Bd. 7.

64 Kaarel Robert Pusta, Kirjad kinnisest majast (Stockholm, 1966), p. 112;Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, pp. 406–7, 418–19.

65 ERA, f. 949, n. 3, s. 31, lk. 905; Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, p. 106.66 ERA, f. 957, n. 14, s. 186; The Times, 22 February 1936.67 Pusta, Kirjad kinnisest majast, pp. 130–1.68 Nine defendants received 20 years’ imprisonment, 20 received 15 years,

4 received 12 years, 29 received 10 years, 41 received 6 years, 14 received 4 years, 14 received 3 years, 12 received 2-year suspended sentences, 1 received a 6-month sentence, 4 received 6-month suspended sentences,and 7 were acquitted. The 9 who received the highest punishment wereHolland, Seiman, Laamann, Klasmann, Pedak, Pallon, Mäe, Kubbo and Väli;Larka was sentenced to 15 years, ERA, f. 1, n. 7, s. 140, lk. 169–71.

69 ERA, f. 949, n. 1, s. 34, lk. 62, 65, 71. 70 One discarded far-fetched scheme to send a ship of 200 Finnish civil guards

to support the putsch attempt in Tallinn was dreamt up by Finnish Blue-Blacks leader Elias Simojoki and Captain Anton Eonsuu, KA, Suomen1920–ja 40 luvun historian säätio (SuHS): 22 Haastattelut, Anton Eonsuu.

71 ERA, f. 949, n. 1, s. 106, lk. 1536p.72 Interrogation of Karl Karlsson, KA, EK-Valpo II: IX. B. 30.73 Bernhard Heimolainen provided the grenades and dynamite, Kustaa Laiho

organized the buying of pistols, Karl Karlsson was captain of the boat whichbrought the arms from Danzig, Jaako Virkkunen was the chief organizer,Vilho Helanen was the contact man, Erkki Ervamaa, Matti Kaminen, HeikkiSäilä, and Yrjö Nevalainen transported the weapons on land, JohannesTeder (an Estonian exile) organized the printing of the manifestos; KA, EK-Valpo II: IX. B. 30.

74 Uola, Sinimusta veljeskunta, p. 308.75 ERA, f. 957, n. 14, s. 160, lk. 2.76 Ibid., lk. 10–11, 15.77 Von Grundherr, 13 December 1935, AA, Pol. Abt. IV, Estland, Po. 5, Bd. 6;

ERA, f. 957, n. 14, s. 160, lk. 8; s. 163, lk. 7.78 The Luxembourg Gendarmerie report on Sirk’s death, ERA, f. 957, n. 14,

s. 488, lk. 12–13.79 Pusta, Kirjad kinnisest majast, pp. 187–8. 80 Oskar Rütli, Oskar Rütli mälestusi. Ühe eesti sugupõlve tööst ja võitlusest (New

York, 1964), pp. 360–2.81 ERA, f. 949, n. 1, s. 36, lk. 153.82 Ajan Suunta, 6 October 1937; Pusta, Kirjad kinnisest majast, p. 189.

184 Notes

83 ERA, f. 957, n. 14, s. 488, lk. 26.84 Personal investigations of the scene in Echternach were also made by Pusta

and later by the former head of military intelligence Villem Saarsen. Bothconcluded that Sirk’s death was the result of suicide. Pusta, Kirjad kinnisestmajast, pp. 176–91; Villem Saarsen, See mis ma nägin (Stockholm, 1978), pp. 420–3.

85 ERA, f. 957, n. 14, s. 488, lk. 9.86 Sirk was planning to publish his version of the events of the last few years

and had written to Artur Meckler, a Veteran living in New York, about thepossibility of publishing his manuscript in the USA, Heinold Okas,‘Vabadusristi kavaler Ltn. Artur Sirk’, in Mengel, ed., 50 aastat, p. 33.

87 Marandi, Must-valge lipu all. II. Illegaalne vabadussõjalus, pp. 190–1.88 KA, EK Valpo II, Henkilömapit 11198 – Sirk, Artur, 105b, 114a.89 ERA, f. 957, n. 14, s. 488, lk. 28.90 Ibid., lk. 46. An editorial in the government’s organ Uus Eesti on 12 October

1937 criticized the Finnish government’s laxity regarding the radical right.91 Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, p. 112.92 Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, pp. 452–5.93 Ibid., p. 459.94 Ibid., p. 455.95 Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, pp. 131–2.96 Ibid.

10. The Authoritarian Regime1 Examples include Austria under Dollfuss and Schuschnigg, Portugal underSalazar, Romania under King Carol’s dictatorship, Greece under Metaxas,and Poland under the Colonels. Roger Griffin defines this phenomenon as‘para-fascism’; Griffin, The Nature of Fascism, pp. 120–2.

2 Einbund, 28 September 1934, Riigikogu protokollid, pp. 1469–70.3 Speeches by Oskar Köster (Settlers), Theodor Tallmeister (Centre),Aleksander Jõeäär (Communists), Johannes Tamson (independent), JaanTeemant (Farmers, but not speaking in the name of his party), and MihkelJuhkum (independent), 2 October 1934, Ibid., pp. 1498–1500; 1507–22.

4 Kuuli, Vapsidest Isamaaliiduni, p. 149.5 Laaman, Konstantin Päts, pp. 192–3, 212–13, 290.6 Professional chambers were created for the following groups: engineers,doctors, pharmacists, houseowners, veterinarians, agronomists, housewives,co-operatives, dairies, fisheries, rural workers and small landowners,workers, teachers, artisans, employees of private enterprises. Chambers ofcommerce and industry and agriculture had been established already by1924 and 1931 respectively.

7 Eesti kroonika 1935 (Tartu, 1936), p. 30.8 Kaja, 17 January 1935; Johannes Klesment, ‘Sisepoliitiline kriis japõhiseadus’, in Põhiseadus ja Rahvuskogu (Tallinn, 1937), p. 68.

9 Toomus, Konstantin Päts ja riigireformi aastad, p. 199.10 ERA, f. 943, n. 1, s. 1, lk. 47.11 Political Police public opinion reports, ERA, f. 949, n. 1, s. 33, lk. 13, 33, 145.12 Tomingas, Vaikiv ajastu, pp. 252–3.

Notes 185

13 ERA, f. 1093, n. 1, s. 3, lk. 10.14 See the memoirs of two officials of the State Propaganda Office, Kaul Kadak,

Mitme taeva all (Stockholm, 1974); Andrus Roolaht, Nii see oli… Kroonikaühest unustuseliiva maetud ajastust (Tallinn, 1990).

15 Review of the State Propaganda Office’s activities, ERA, f. 1093, n. 1, s. 17,lk. 5–10; s. 14, lk. 9–15. Inda Rajasalu, ‘Riiklik Propaganda Talitus ja eestinimi’, in Ant, et al., eds., Tundmatu Eesti Vabariik, pp. 96–106.

16 Laaman records the following illuminating exchange on 5 May 1936 whenEenpalu tried to explain the need for the State Propaganda Office’s homebeautification campaign to newpaper editors, Eenpalu: ‘“the public musthave something to keep occupied with so that…” journalists in chorus: “itdoes not damn well start getting involved with politics!” General laughter’,ERA, f. 827, n. 1, s. 1a.

17 Anu-Mai Kõll and Jaak Valge, Economic Nationalism and Industrial Growth:State and Industry in Estonia 1934–1939, Studia Baltica Stockholmiensia 19(Stockholm, 1998), p. 85.

18 Ibid., pp. 193–5. 19 Ibid., pp. 60–2, 204–9.20 Uustalu, The History of Estonian People, p. 223.21 Märt Raud, Kaks suurt, p. 205. Estonia had one of the world’s highest ratios

of university education at that time (1 student per 220 citizens); Rothschild,East Central Europe, p. 374.

22 Laaman, Konstantin Päts, p. 284.23 Kivimäe, ‘Frauen und Frauenbewegung’, p. 219.24 Eesti kroonika 1938 (Tartu, 1939), p. 36.25 For the situation of women see Liivi Soova, ‘The Main Features of Estonian

Women’s Movement (1920–1940)’, Proceedings of the Estonian Academy ofSciences, 42 (1993), pp. 157–168; Mäelo, Eesti naine läbi aegade; Kivimäe,‘Frauen und Frauenbewegung’.

26 Ken Kalling, ‘Tõutervishoid ja sundsteriliseerimine Eestis’, Kleio, 4 (1997),pp. 27–31. As the records of the Ministry of Social Affairs have not survived,it is not known how many, if any, sterilizations were carried out.

27 Parming, The Collapse of Liberal Democracy, p. 57.28 Veem, Eesti Vaba Rahvakirik, pp. 305–6.29 Isberg, Med demokratin som insats, p. 162.30 Veem, Eesti Vaba Rahvakirik, pp. 321–2. 31 Mihkelson, Vastu tuult, pp. 376–8; Kadak, Mitme taeva all, pp. 94–5.32 Mikk Põlde, ‘Postimehe areng ja sekvestri alla võtmine’, in Blumfeldt

et al., eds., Jaan Tõnisson, pp. 282–4; Raag, Kõuepilvede saatel, pp. 182–4;Herbert Michelson, Eesti radadelt (Toronto, 1975), pp. 104–5.

33 Artur Grönberg, Eesti Üliõpilaste Seltsi ajalugu, vol. 2 (Montreal, 1985), pp. 365–408; August Ots, Mehed sündmuste kurvidel. Läbielamisi ja mälestusi(Stockholm, 1976), pp. 107–9; see ERA, f. 952, n. 1, s. 51 for protests againstthe university reforms.

34 Eesti kroonika 1935, p. 38.35 Uus Eesti, 20 January 1936. 36 The second chamber of the National Assembly consisted of the representa-

tives of the following institutions: the judiciary (2), local governments (7),professional corporations (13), universities (2), Kaitseliit (2), the heads of the

186 Notes

Lutheran and Orthodox churches (2), ethnic minorities (2), Liberty Crosscavaliers (1), and individuals appointed by Päts (10).

37 See pp. 38–9.38 Uus Eesti, 20 January 1936.39 ‘Personally, I don’t fear that the basis of the state’s organization will be

changed. Our state will remain on a democratic foundation’, Päts in Päevaleht,18 October 1933. The same sentiment was echoed by Einbund, Ibid.

40 Kaja, 17 January 1935.41 ERA, f. 943, n. 1, s. 53, lk. 34–5. The foreign power alluded to, but never

explicitly mentioned, was Nazi Germany.42 V. Jõgi, ‘Rahvahääletus rahvuskogu kokkukutsumiseks’, Eesti statistika

kuukiri, 176–7 (1936), pp. 404.43 ERA, f. 949, n. 1, s. 34, lk. 265.44 ERA, f. 989, n. 1, s 1798, lk. 233–4p.45 Päts’ only response was to criticize the authors of the memorandum for

washing Estonia’s dirty laundry in the foreign press, Uus Eesti, 9 November1936.

46 ERA, f. 949, n. 1, s. 34, lk. 247.47 The draft was composed by a committee appointed by Päts headed by

Ministry of Justice advisor Johannes Klesment and consisting mainly offormer centre-left political figures, Ants Ruusmann, Eesti Vabariik1920–1940: Sisepoliitiline areng (Tallinn, 1997), p. 131.

48 Artur Mägi, ‘Põhiseaduse koostamise käik Rahvuskogus’, in Põhiseadus jaRahvuskogu, pp. 196, 224.

49 Laaman’s diary, 14 October 1934, ERA, f. 827, n. 1, s. 1a. Svinhufvud alsotold Päts that ‘if you succeed in establishing it, then you will be ahead of us.The upper chamber should be the embodiment of state wisdom’, Ibid., 25 May 1937.

50 Laaman, Konstantin Päts, p. 270; Rein Marandi, ‘Poola 1935. aasta konstitut-sioon kui Eesti 1937. a põhiseaduse eeskuju’, Proceedings of the EstonianAcademy of Sciences, 41 (1992), pp. 192–7. For similarities see AntonyPolonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921–1939. The Crisis ofConstitutional Government (Oxford, 1972), pp. 387–9, 398.

51 Laaman, Konstantin Päts, p. 227.52 Rein Taagepera has applied the Shugart-Carey scale of presidental powers to

the Estonian case and found that the 1937 constitution contains consider-ably stronger presidential powers than the 1933 constitution, ReinTaagepera, Estonia: Return to Independence (Boulder, 1993), p. 56, n. 11.

53 Of the 14 institutional representatives, 6 were appointed ex officio: theCommander-in-Chief, the heads of the Lutheran and Orthodox churches, therectors of the 2 universities, and the head of the Bank of Estonia; local gov-ernments elected 4 representatives; the Kaitseliit, education and culture,health, and ethnic minorities each elected 1 representative. The 16 represen-tatives chosen by the occupational chambers were divided as follows:agriculture and fisheries 5, industry, artisans, commerce, shipping, and co-operatives 5, employees/workers 3, owners of city property 1, free professions1, home economics 1; Constitution of the Republic of Estonia, §84.

54 Ibid., §40.55 Ibid., §67.

Notes 187

56 Lee Kendall Metcalf, ‘The Evolution of Presidential Power in Estonia,1920–1992’, Journal of Baltic Studies, 29 (1998), p. 342.

57 Talvik, Legaalsuse põhimõte, p. 67; Isberg, Med demokratin som insats, p. 167.58 ERA, f. 80, n. 5, s. 282, lk. 271–2.59 Henn-Jüri Uibopuu, ‘The Constitutional Development of the Estonian

Republic’, Journal of Baltic Studies, 4 (1973), p. 21.60 Kuuli, Vapsidest Isamaaliiduni, p. 178.61 Parming, The Collapse of Liberal Democracy, p. 59.62 Ulmanis told Estonian ambassador Karl Menning on 10 January 1936 after

Päts announced his intention to convene a National Assembly, ‘We cer-tainly cannot go along your path, we will go step by step along the presentroad’, ERA, f. 957, n. 14, s. 163, lk. 46–7. Päts commented to Laaman thathe would keep the parties restrained ‘but I am not Ulmanis who would doso forever nor do I think that I will last forever’; Laaman’s diary, 19 October1936, ERA, f. 827, n. 1, s. 1a.

63 Eesti kroonika 1938, p. 36.64 Laaman, Konstantin Päts, p. 308.65 ERA, f. 949, n. 1, s. 38, lk. 65–8, 574–5.66 Ibid., lk. 5–6. 67 Ibid., lk. 1–4.68 Ibid., lk. 836.69 Ibid., lk. 639.70 Päevaleht, 28 February 1938. 71 Viljar Peep, ‘Poliitilised rühmitused VI. Riigikogus’, Kleio, 4 (1996),

pp. 34–6; Kuuli, ‘Parlamendi- ja kohalike omavalitsuste valimised’, p. 121.72 Mägi, Das Staatsleben Estlands, p. 307.73 Eesti Kroonika 1938, p. 38.74 Kuuli, Vapsidest Isamaaliiduni, p. 218.75 Ibid., pp. 219–20.76 Parming, The Collapse of Liberal Democracy, p. 63.77 Ast, ‘Demokraatliku Eesti loojakul’, p. 615.78 Imre Lipping, ‘The Emergence of Estonian Authoritarianism’, in Ziedonis,

Winter and Valgemäe, eds., Baltic History, pp. 213–14.79 As Commander-in-Chief, Laidoner was in charge not only of military

defense but of internal security as well which meant that he could alsoissue orders to individuals and institutions not directly under hiscommand. Furthermore, the army was represented in the cabinet by ageneral as Minister of Defense and by a senior officer as Minister ofEducation (1936–8) and as Minister of Transport (1933–7). Päts alsoappointed retired generals Jaan Soots and Aleksander Tõnisson as mayorsof Tallinn and Tartu respectively. See Pajur, Eesti riigikaitsepoliitika,p. 297.

80 Parming, The Collapse of Liberal Democracy, p. 62.

11. The Second World War1 On Estonia’s foreign relations in this critical period see David M. Crowe,

The Baltic States & the Great Powers. Foreign Relations, 1938–1940 (Boulder,1993); Seppo Myllyniemi, Die baltische Krise, 1938–1941 (Stuttgart, 1979);Magnus Ilmjärv, Nõukogude Liidu ja Saksamaa vahel. Balti riigid ja Soome

188 Notes

1934–1940 (Tallinn, 1993); John Hiden and Thomas Lane, eds., The Balticand the Outbreak of the Second World War (Cambridge, 1992).

2 Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, pp. 140–1.3 Ibid., p. 142.4 Ibid., pp. 145, 154.5 David Kirby, ‘Incorporation: The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact’, in GrahamSmith, ed., The Baltic States. The National Self-Determination of Estonia, Latviaand Lithuania (London, 1994), pp. 69–85; Jüri Ant, Eesti 1939–41: rahvast,valitsemisest, saatusest (Tallinn, 1999), pp. 97–116.

6 President’s decree on 20 June 1940, ERA, f. 927, n. 2, s. 5, lk. 228.7 Poliitilised arreteerimised Eestis 1940–1988. Political Arrests in Estonia

1940–1988 compiled and edited by Leo Õispuu (Tallinn, 1996–8).8 Karlis Kangeris, ‘Kollaboration vor der Kollaboration? Die baltischenEmigranten und ihre “Befreiungskomitees” in Deutschland 1940/1941’, inEuropa unterm Hakenkreuz. Okkupation und Kollaboration (1938–1945) (Berlin,1994), p. 170. Other leading Veterans who managed to resettle to Germanywere Paul Laamann and Viktor Puskar.

9 Mäe was well-acquainted with the German-speaking world as he hadobtained doctoral degrees in astrophysics from Innsbruck in 1927 and inpolitical science from Graz in 1930.

10 Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, pp. 136, 183.11 Ibid., p. 154.12 Alvin Isberg, Zu den Bedingungen des Befreiers. Kollaboration und

Freiheitsstreben in dem von Deutschland besetzten Estland 1941 bis 1944, StudiaBaltica Stockholmiensia 10 (Stockholm, 1992), p. 25.

13 Külli Niidassoo, ‘Hjalmar Mäe ja Eesti Vabastamise Komitee’, Akadeemia, 12(1998), pp. 2512–18; Kangeris, ‘Kollaboration vor der Kollaboration’, p. 182.

14 Seppo Myllyniemi, Die Neuordnung der baltischen Länder 1941–1944. Zumnationalsozialistischen Inhalt der deutschen Besatzungspolitik, HistoriallisiaTutkimuksia 90 (Helsinki, 1973), pp. 107–8.

15 Kangeris, ‘Kollaboration vor der Kollaboration’, p. 186.16 Report by Einsatzgruppe A commander SS-BrigadeführerWalther Stahlecker to

SD chief Reinhard Heydrich, 15 October 1941, Pruun katk. Dokumentidekogumik fas istide kuritegude kohta okupeeritud Eesti NSV territooriumil (Tallinn,1969), p. 67.

17 Eugenia Gurin-Loov, Suur häving. Eesti juutide katastroof 1941. Holocaust ofEstonian Jews 1941 (Tallinn, 1994), pp. 13–14. The Omakaitse was formedspontaneously on the basis of the ‘forest brethren’ who waged a guerilla waragainst the Soviets. Under the Germans it was engaged primarily in variousguard duties and capturing Soviet subversives, ERA, f. R-358, n. 1, s. 34, lk.1–2, 22.

18 Starting from 1942 the Germans shipped foreign jews to a concentrationcamp at Klooga, where roughly 2000 perished, Gurin-Loov, Suurhäving, p. 21.

19 Ibid., p. 20.20 The Mäe administration had already been set up on 15 September by the

order of the commander of the rear area of the German Army Group North,General Franz von Roques, Myllyniemi, Die Neuordnung der baltischenLänder, pp. 80, 109.

21 ERA, f. R-81, n. 1, s. 46, lk. 1.

Notes 189

22 The Directorate was later reorganized as Mäe (education and culture),Wendt (economic affairs), Angelus (internal affairs), Oskar Öpik (justice),and Arnold Raadik (technical matters); ERA, f. R-81, n. 1, s. 46, lk. 3; OskarAngelus, ‘Tsiviilvalitsuse organisatsioon’, in Eesti riik ja rahvas Teisesmaailmasõjas, vol. 6 (Stockholm, 1958), pp. 80–1; Oskar Mamers, Hädavõidetuile (Stockholm, 1958), p. 248.

23 ERA, f. R-65, n. 1, s. 1, lk. 81–2.24 Rosenberg had orginally also wanted General Juhan Tõrvand, the former

army chief of staff who was imprisoned in 1936 for his role in the Veterans’conspiracy, as a director, but Tõrvand was deported by the Soviets in 1941,Oskar Angelus, Tuhande valitseja maa. Mälestusi saksa okupatsiooni ajast1941–1944 (Stockholm, 1956), p. 38.

25 Isberg, Zu den Bedingungen des Befreiers, p. 45.26 Ibid.27 Myllyniemi, Die Neuordnung der baltischen Länder, pp. 110, 140.28 Generalkommissar Litzmann also tried unsuccessfully to win Uluots’ cooper-

ation, Isberg, Zu den Bedingungen des Befreiers, p. 111.29 Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, pp. 132–3.30 Ibid.31 Linna Teataja, 28 October 1941.32 Angelus, Tuhande valitseja maa, p. 76.33 Mäe, Kuidas kõik teostus, pp. 132–3.34 Some of the other noteworthy Veterans in the Propaganda Authority were

Juhan Libe, the former editor of Võitlus, who oversaw the publishingdepartment, and Klasmann, the former Veterans’ central executive member,who ran the ‘2nd department’ which checked the backgrounds of the per-sonnel of the civil administration, Meret, Teremi jutustus, p. 175.

35 Eesti Sõna, 2 August 1942.36 Linna Teataja, 21 October 1941.37 A. Lossmann, Rahutus maailmas: sõdades, revolutsioonides ja vaba Eesti õnnis-

tuses (Stockholm, 1961), p. 235; Angelus, Tuhande valitseja maa, pp. 102–3;Tambek, Tõus ja mõõn, vol. 2, p. 305; Kadak, Mitme taeva all, pp. 141–2.

38 Mäe’s speech on Estonian independence day, Eesti Sõna, 26 February 1942.39 Isberg, Zu den Bedingungen des Befreiers, pp. 45, 126.40 Myllyniemi, Die Neuordnung der baltischen Länder, p. 61.41 Ibid., p. 229.42 Ibid., p. 213.43 Isberg, Zu den Bedingungen des Befreiers, p. 96.44 Ibid., p. 127.45 Myllyniemi, Die Neuordnung der baltischen Länder, p. 276. On Estonians

serving under German military command see August Jurs, ed., EestiVabadusvõitlejad Teises Maailmasõjas (Toronto, 1987).

46 Isberg, Zu den Bedingungen des Befreiers, p. 118.47 Ibid., p. 119.

12. A Regional Perspective1 Vardys, ‘The Rise of Authoritarianism in the Baltic States’, p. 68. 2 Romuald J. Misiunas, ‘Fascist Tendencies in Lithuania’, Slavonic and East

European Review, 48 (1970), pp. 99–103; Leonas Sabaliunas, Lithuania

190 Notes

in Crisis. Nationalism to Communism, 1939–1940 (Bloomington, 1972);Alfonsas Eidintas and Vytautas Zalys, Lithuania in European Politics: TheYears of the First Republic, 1918–1940 (New York, 1998), p. 115.

3 C. Leonard Lundin, ‘Finland’, in Thaden, ed., Russification in the BalticProvinces and Finland, p. 361.

4 Risto Alapuro, State and Revolution in Finland (Berkeley and Los Angeles,1988), p. 223; Edward C. Thaden, ‘Finland and the Baltic Provinces: EliteRoles and Social and Economic Conditions and Structures’, Journal of BalticStudies, 15 (1984), pp. 216–27.

5 Toivo U. Raun, ‘The Revolution of 1905 in the Baltic Provinces andFinland’, Slavic Review, 43 (1984), p. 461.

6 Zetterberg, Suomi ja Viro 1917–1919, ch. 5.7 Juhani Mylly and R. Michael Berry, Political Parties in Finland. Essays in

History and Politics (Turku, 1987); Jürgen von Hehn, ‘Lettland zwischenDemokratie und Diktatur’, Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, Beiheft 3(München, 1957); Laaman, Erakonnad Eestis; Vincent E. McHale, ‘The PartySystems of the Baltic States: A Comparative European Perspective’, Journal ofBaltic Studies, 17 (1986), pp. 295–312.

8 Mägi, Das Staatsleben Estlands, p. 202; Uustalu, Eesti Vabariik, p. 76.9 The most extensive analysis of the Lapua movement is Juha Siltala, Lapuan

liike ja kyyditykset 1930 (Helsinki, 1985); the only detailed account inEnglish remains Marvin Rintala, Three Generations: The Extreme Right Wingin Finnish Politics (Bloomington, 1962).

10 The best account of the Mäntsälä revolt is Martti Ahti, Kaappaus?Suojeluskuntaselkkaus 1921, Fascismin aave 1927, Mäntsälän kapina 1932(Helsinki, 1990).

11 Latvijas Valsts Vestures Arhivs (LVVA) [The Latvian State History Archive],2906, 1, 8; 3235,1/22, 701, p. 120; 708, p. 1; 921, p. 20.

12 David Kirby, ‘Yrjö Ruutu and Finnish National Socialism’, TurunHistoriallinen Arkisto, 34 (1980), pp. 141–58.

13 KA, EK-Valpo II: IX. D. 5.14 LVVA, 3235, 2, 5604, pp. 41–4.15 Ugunskrusts, 28 July 1932.16 The takeover of government ministries by men dressed in Aizsargi (civil

guard) uniforms was planned in April 1934 by Ozols from the Estonianborder town of Valga. Ozols, however, was lured back to Latvia by the polit-ical police and arrested ten days prior to Ulmanis’ coup by which time the Legion could not be considered a serious threat, LVVA, 3235, 1/22, 701,pp. 1–2; 3235, 1/22, 921, pp. 8–9.

17 See pp. 30–1.18 Celminsˆthought that the Perkonkrusts could capture 12 to 15 seats in the

Autumn 1934 parliamentary election, von Hehn, Lettland zwischenDemokratie und Diktatur, p. 33, n. 120.

19 LVVA, 3235, 1/22, 921, p. 6.20 Rintala, Three Generations, p. 129. 21 LVVA, 3235, 1/22, 921, p. 5; Ugunskrusts, 16 October 1932; Perkonkrusts,

24 September 1933.22 Interrogation transcript of Aarne Runolinna, KA, Valpo II: IX. B. 20, p. 219.23 Valtiollisen ohjelman suuntaviivoja, KA, Suomen 1920–ja 1940–luvun historian

säätio (SuHS) 12; Kas ir?…Perkonkrusts, pp. 35–6.

Notes 191

24 Kas ir?…Perkonkrusts, pp. 35–6.25 The Eduskunta (parliament) was to have consisted of representatives of agri-

culture (60%), industrial workers (20%), and professionals, officials and arti-sans (20%), and in addition a number of experts appointed by the directlyelected president, KA, Valpo II: IX. B. 12a, p. 19.

26 Perkonkrusts, 24 September 1933.27 Ajan Sana, 22 February 1932.28 Rintala, Three Generations, p. 99.29 Kas ir?…Perkonkrusts, p. 27; Ugunskrusts, 9 October 1932.30 The economic programs of the IKL and the Perkonkrusts are to be found

respectively in Isänmaallisen kansanliikkeen taloudellinen ohjelma, KA, ValpoII: IX B 8b, p. 42 and Kas ir?…Perkonkrusts, pp. 34–6.

31 Ugunskrusts, 28 August, 18 December 1932.32 Heikki Ylikangas, ‘Ostrobothnia in Finnish History’, in Max Engman and

David Kirby, eds., Finland: People, Nation, State (London, 1989), pp. 73–84.33 Reijo E. Heinonen, ‘From People’s Movement to Minor Party: The People’s

Patriotic Movement (IKL) in Finland 1932–1944’, in Larsen et al., eds., Whowere the Fascists, p. 695.

34 Ernests Brastins , the ideologue of the Dievturiba, the ‘Latvian national reli-gion’, was the one who suggested the perkonkrusts (thunder cross) as theorganization’s symbol, Armands Paeglis, ‘Perkonkrusts’ par Latviju 1932–1944(Riga, 1994), pp. 8–9.

35 Gustavs Celmins, Perkonkrusts, 24 September 1933.36 Ugunskrusts, 21 August 1932; Aivars Stranga, Ebreji un diktaturas Baltija

(1926–1940. gads) (Riga, 1997), pp. 47–51.37 Võitlus, 11 March 1933; Sinimusta, 8 February 1935.38 Ajan Suunta, 15 August 1933. The most direct contact with Italian Fascism

was the visit to Finland in 1935 of Mussolini’s special emissary, Ezio MariaGray, who presented the IKL with a bronze bust of Mussolini, Uola,Sinimusta veljeskunta, pp. 253–4.

39 National Socialism and the Hitler Youth featured prominently in the Blue-Blacks’ study program, KA, EK-Valpo II: IX. B. 6.

40 LVVA, 3235, 1/22, 922, p. 283.41 Falk Lange, ‘Lettland in den Konzeptionen nationalsozialistischer

Außenpolitik’, Zeitschrift für Ostmitteleuropa-Forschung, 46 (1997), p. 512;Hans-Erich Volkmann, ‘Die Außenbeziehungen zwischen dem “DrittenReich” und den baltischen Staaten 1933 bis 1939’, Zeitschrift fürGeschichtswissenschaft, 46 (1998), pp. 580–602; Kangeris, ‘Kollaboration vorder Kollaboration?’ p. 168; Uola, Sinimusta veljeskunta, p. 137. Individualsassociated with Baltic radical right-wing movements neverthelessapproached the Nazis to solicit support, see for example; Hans-GüntherSeraphim, ed., Das politische Tagebuch Alfred Rosenbergs aus den Jahren1934/35 und 1939/40 (Göttingen, 1956), pp. 67–8.

42 Rintala, Three Generations, p. 198.43 Uola, Sinimusta veljeskunta, p. 237. Lt.-Col. Aarne Somersalo promoted the

idea that the leadership of the IKL be in the hands of only one individual,but was defeated in 1938, KA, EK-Valpo II: IX. B. 18.

44 The Lapuans and the Veterans also wore similar armbands: blue-black forthe Finns and white-black the Estonians.

192 Notes

45 Kas ir?…Perkonkrusts, p. 18. 46 LVVA, 3235, 1/22, 921, pp. 6–7. 47 Siltala, Lapuan liike ja kyyditykset, p. 363.48 Ilgvars Butulis, ‘Die Schutzkorpsorganisation in Lettland (1919–1940)’,

paper presented at the conference Autoritäre Regime in Ostmitteleuropa1919–1944, Lambrecht in der Pfalz, 21–23 September 1993.

49 Risto Alapuro, ‘Mass Support for Fascism in Finland’, in Larsen et al., eds.,Who were the Fascists, p. 679.

50 The other large groups were farmers (21%) and workers (17%), IKL:n johdonkokousten pöytäkirjoja 1935, KA, SuHS 10, p. 4.

51 Von Hehn estimates a membership of 6000; von Hehn, Lettland zwischenDemokratie und Diktatur, p. 25.

52 LVVA, 3235, 2, 5210, p. 7.53 Ibid.54 See Risto Alapuro, ‘Students and National Politics: The Case of the Finnish

Student Movement in the Interwar Period’, Scandinavian Political Studies, 8(1973); Marvin Rintala, ‘Finnish Students in Politics: The Academic KareliaSociety’, East European Quarterly, 6 (1972), pp. 192–205.

55 LVVA, 3235, 1/22, 922, p. 326.56 Adolfs Silde, Latvijas vesture 1914–1940 (Stockholm, 1976), p. 563.57 Sociologist Lauri Karvonen concludes that in the Finnish case the strongest

correlation with support for fascism is previous political conservatism.Communities where ‘White’ culture was dominant were the most fertileareas for fascism; Lauri Karvonen, From White to Blue and Black: FinnishFascism in the Interwar Period, Commentationes Scientarum Socialium 36(Helsinki, 1988), pp. 122–3.

58 Anthony F. Upton, ‘Finland’, in Stuart J. Woolf, ed., European Fascism(London, 1968), p. 211.

59 See Chapter 6.60 See Chapter 9.61 Perkonkrusts, 22 October 1933.62 LVVA, 3235, 1/22, 921, p. 143; see also Paeglis, ‘Perkonkrusts’ par Latviju, pp.

138–40.63 Myllyniemi, Die baltische Krise 1938–1941, p. 96; Marandi, Must-valge lipu

all, p. 488.64 Alapuro, State and Revolution in Finland, p. 258.65 David Kirby, The Baltic World 1772–1993. Europe’s Northern Periphery in an

Age of Change (London, 1995), p. 323.66 Risto Alapuro and Erik Allardt, ‘The Lapua Movement: The Threat of

Rightist Takeover in Finland, 1930–32’, in Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stephan,eds., The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes (Baltimore, 1978), p. 133.

67 Ulmanis told Päts that he had followed his example, Laaman’s diary 13 June 1935, ERA, f. 827, n. 1, s. 1a. The Latvian Ambassador to Britainexplained the situation in Latvia to Sir John Simon, the Secretary of Statefor Foreign Affairs, as being very similar to that in Estonia, Simon to Torr(Riga), 23 May 1934, Public Record Office, FO 371/18239, N 2980/1375/59.

68 Specifically Ulmanis cited three factors: (1) the danger from ‘irresponsiblearmed groups’; (2) the inability of the parliament and the political parties tosolve Latvia’s problems; (3) the rejection of his constitutional reform

Notes 193

project by the parliament, Rigasche Rundschau, 16 May 1934. The motive ofpersonal ambition is advanced in Janis Rogainis, ‘The Emergence of anAuthoritarian Regime in Latvia, 1932–1934’, Lituanus, 17 (1971), pp. 221–37.

69 Von Hehn, Lettland zwischen Demokratie und Diktatur, p. 49.70 LVVA, 3235, 1/22, 708, p. 124.71 Latvian President Kviesis complained to Päts that Latvia was ‘the only state

in Europe that lives on empty hallelujas without any constitution’,Laaman’s diary, 13 June 1935, ERA, f. 827, n. 1, s. 1a.

72 As a German embassy report comments, ‘the observer cannot fail to note acertain humorous aspect, again and again, especially on festive occasions,how ardently they try to imitate the German example without grasping thedecisive idea – the creation of a movement encompassing the entire Volk onan ideological basis.’ The report concludes that the regime was not upheldby the people, a movement or a party, but simply by the army and civilguard, Gesandtschaft (Riga) an das AA, 24 April 1936, AA, Pol. Abt. IV,Lettland, Po. 11, Nr. 1.

73 Aivars Stranga, ‘Das Regime von Karlis Ulmanis in Lettland 1934–1940:Genesis, Entwicklung und Inhalt’, paper presented at the conferenceAutoritäre Regime in Ostmitteleuropa 1919–1944, Lambrecht in der Pfalz,21–23 September 1993.

74 Lauri Hyvämäki, ‘Fasistiset ilmiöt Baltian maissa ja Suomessa 1920–luvunlopussa ja 1930–luvulla’, Historiallinen Arkisto, 72 (1977), p. 135; ReinTaagepera, ‘Civic Culture and Authoritarianism in the Baltic States,1930–1940’, East European Quarterly, 7 (1973), p. 408.

75 Alapuro, State and Revolution in Finland, pp. 217–18, 259.76 On 18 November 1935 the Perkonkrusts planted a bomb near where Ulmanis

was to give a speech, but it went off late. Less serious acts of hooliganismincluded releasing a pig with a portrait of Ulmanis at a parade in 1935;LVVA, 3235, 1/22, 708, pp. 236, 260; 3235, 1/22, 920, p. 278.

77 LVVA, 3235, 1/22, 708, p. 116; 3235, 1/22, 920, p. 213.78 The IKL was banned in 1938, but the ruling was overturned by a Helsinki

court, Heinonen, ‘From People’s Movement to Minor Party’, p. 697.79 Vilho Annala was Minister of Transport and Public Works during 1941–3.80 H. Biezais, ‘Gustava Celmina Perkonkrusts dokumentu gaisma’, Latvijas

Zinatnu Akademijas Vestis 1 (1992), p. 41.81 Ibid., p. 42.82 Robert G. Waite, ‘Kollaboration und deutsche Besatzungspolitik in Lettland

1941 bis 1945’, in Europa unterm Hakenkreuz, pp. 221–2; Andrew Ezergailis,The Holocaust in Latvia 1941–1944: The Missing Center (Riga, 1996), pp. 173–95.

83 Paeglis, ‘Perkonkrusts’ par Latviju, p. 184.84 A pathetic epilogue to the Veterans’ League was a miscarried attempt in

March 1945 to form a political party called the Eesti Vabaduse Liit (EstonianFreedom League), very similar in name to the Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Liit(Estonian War of Independence Veterans’ League), by some pro-NaziEstonians who had retreated to Germany, Harri Rent, Ma jäin ellu: mäles-tuskilde sõjast ja vangilaagrist (Tallinn, 1997), p. 169.

194 Notes

Conclusion1 Laaman, Demokraatia ja diktatuur, p. 101.2 Laaman, Erakonnad Eestis, pp. 90–6.3 Anton Hansen Tammsaare, ‘Kultuurist ja demokraatiast’, Vaba Maa, 17

November 1933.4 Linz, ‘Political Space and Fascism as a Late-Comer’, p. 160.5 Ibid., pp. 154–5.6 The best guide for navigating the debate on fascism is Roger Griffin, ed.,

International Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus (London,1998).

7 Payne, A History of Fascism, p. 7.8 Geoff Eley, ‘Conservatives and Radical Nationalists in Germany: TheProduction of Fascist Potentials, 1912–1928’, in Martin Blinkhorn, ed.,Fascists and Conservatives. The Radical Right and the Establishment inTwentieth-Century Europe (London, 1990), p. 50.

Notes 195

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210 Bibliography

Academic Karelia Society (AKS), 118,149, 153

Agrarians, United, 14, 16, 37, 39,42–3

agriculture, 4, 53–4, 123, 145–6Ainson, Hans, 57, 103Aizsargi, 149Aja-Kaljo, Reino, 93Ajan Suunta, 110Akel, Friedrich, 23Alapuro, Risto, 152Andresen, Nigol, 17–18, 58Angelus, Oskar, 135–6, 137, 138anti-Semitism, 73–4, 147, 153Anvelt, Jaan, 10, 16Arajs, Viktors, 153armisticeFirst World War, 10Soviet Union-Finland, 72

army, Estonian, 7, 9, 11, 23, 59–60,95, 98, 104, 110–11, 120–1, 131,149, 151

Ast, Karl, 36, 41, 52, 68, 102–3authoritarianism, 1, 2, 31, 32, 66,

120–31, 140, 151, 152, 155, 158,159

Balodis, Janis, 151Baltic Germans, 4–7, 8, 11, 14–15,

19–20, 46, 52, 54, 68, 74–6, 78,80, 84, 136, 137, 140–1, 146–7,153, 156

Baltic German Party, 20, 51, 75–6Baltic provinces, 4–6, 141Baltic states, 67, 132–3, 135, 140, 145Bank of Estonia, 32, 59Battle Comrades’ Club

(Lahinguvendade klubi), 29, 87Bauer, Otto, 20Berlin, 134Best, Werner, 134Blue-Blacks, 109, 116, 118, 147, 150see also radical right, Finnish

Bolsheviks, 7–9, 10, 11, 14, 16, 17,67

see also Communism, CommunistParty

Britain, 9, 10, 11, 32, 45, 70, 89, 103,117, 133, 137

see also EnglandBuldas, Aleksander, 114Buxhoeveden, Arthur von, 74

Canada, 21, 28Celmins, Gustavs, 142, 144, 146–8,

150, 151–2, 153Cesis, battle of, 11, 25, 74Chamber of Agriculture, 80Chamber of Commerce and Industry,

80, 121Chamber of Representatives, 127,

130Christian People’s Party, 14, 18, 34civil warFinnish, 141, 144Russian, 7, 19, 76, 133

class, relations, 8, 18, 30, 36, 65–7,79, 121–2, 141, 158–9

Codreanu, Corneliu Zelea, 147Comitati d’Azione per Universilità di

Roma, 69committees of the unemployed, 60,

68, 93Communism, Communist Party, 2–3,

14, 16–17, 35, 41, 53, 55, 58–9,60, 65, 67–8, 77, 80, 92–4, 99,102, 103, 119, 124, 130, 137, 142,147, 148, 155–6, 158

see also BolsheviksCommunist International, 16Communist putsch (1924), see coup

d’étatConstituent AssemblyEstonian, 7–9, 10, 13–18, 77, 86,

87, 104Russian, 6

211

Index

constitution, 13, 19, 33–6, 46, 49, 50,51, 57, 66, 69, 104–5, 107, 109,112–13, 114–16, 119, 121,124–30, 158

Constitutional Democrats, 6constitutional reform, 16, 28, 30,

32–43, 45–7, 49, 66, 74, 76, 89,92, 104–5, 112–13, 115, 125–6,128, 144, 150–1, 152, 154–5, 157

corporatism, 31, 54, 67, 80, 85, 105,120–1, 123, 127, 144, 146, 152,158

coup d’étatCommunist, 16, 17, 67, 95, 104,

115, 116, 156Latvia, 11, 143, 149, 151Päts, 1, 2, 57, 86, 96, 98–106, 107,

108, 111, 120, 131, 151, 156Veterans’, alleged (1934), 2, 99,

101, 103, 106, 110Veterans’, aborted (1935), 2,

113–16, 125, 129, 137, 150,152, 157

Croix de Feu, 70cultural autonomy, 19–20, 52, 73, 75

Danzig, 116De Vries, Axel, 84depression, economic, 2, 17, 32, 39,

154Deutsche Klub, 75Duma, Russian, 6Dunkel, Balduin-Heinrich, 86, 110Dunkel, Gottfried, 55

Echternach, 117economic policy, 54, 67, 79–80, 121,

122–3, 133, 145–6, 155education, 19, 66, 123

see also students, youthEenpalu, Kaarel, see Einbund, KarlEenpalu, Linda, 123Ehrnrooth, Ernst, 117Einbund, Karl, 37, 39, 42, 46, 50, 105,

113, 118–19, 120–2, 130, 132Einsatzgruppen, 135electionsEstonian Constituent Assembly,

7–8, 10, 14, 16–17, 87

local, 56, 65, 68, 90, 92, 103, 143Maapäev, 7National Assembly, 126postponed (1934), 50, 57, 99,

101–2, 104, 107–8, 121, 128presidential, 130Riigikogu (1920), 14, 17; (1923), 14,

16, 21, 22, 28; (1926), 14, 21;(1929), 14, 89; (1932), 14, 16,37, 89, 92–3; (1938), 119, 123,129–31

Russian Constituent Assembly, 7Soviet-staged, 133

Eley, Geoff, 158England, 75, 117

see also BritainEntente powers, 10–11Estland, 4, 6–7, 141Estonia concert hall, 53, 113–14Estonian Demobilized Soldiers’

League (EDSL), 22–4, 26, 28, 36Estonian Learned Society, 4Estonian Liberation Committee, 134Estonian Nationalist Fascists’

Assembly, 31, 112Estonian Nationalists’ Club, 30–1, 57Estonian Oil Shale, 106Estonian Progressive People’s Party, 6,

18Estonian Revolutionary Committee, 10Estonian Self-Administration, 2,

135–7, 153Estonian SS-Legion, 138–9Estonian Working People’s

Commune, 10, 16Estonian Working People’s United

Front, 16

Falk, Nikolai, 109, 114Farmers’ Party, 14, 15–16, 33–6, 40,

41, 42–3, 44–6, 50, 56, 57, 60, 87,93, 98, 102, 104–5, 121, 130,141–2, 151, 155

Fascism, 1–3, 20, 31, 46, 58, 67,68–71, 73, 76–7, 79–81, 83–4,92–4, 102, 103, 120, 130, 136,140, 145, 147–8, 156, 158–9

Fatherland League, 113, 122, 125–6,129, 152

212 Index

Finland, 1–2, 10, 13, 33, 38, 67, 71–2,77, 86, 88, 93, 109–10, 112, 114,116–19, 126, 132, 140, 141–53

Finland, Greater, 77, 145, 152Finnish National Socialist League, 143Finnish People’s Organization, 143Finnish War of Independence

Frontline Soldiers’ League (VRL),72, 88, 150

Firk, Gotfried, 135First World War, 6–7, 25, 64, 141France, 9, 13, 75, 133Frank, Heinrich, 94fraternities, 55, 94–5, 124

see also studentsFreikorps, 10, 74, 137, 147Führer, 82–4, 148

see also leadership principleFund for Economic Recovery, 123

German-Swedish Party, 14, 35Germany, Germans, 2–3, 4–5, 6–7, 8,

10–12, 13, 14, 25, 30, 32, 33, 52,60, 65, 68, 69–70, 71, 73–5, 77,78, 80, 84, 96, 103, 115, 117, 128,133, 141, 143, 145, 147–8, 149,155–6, 159

occupation of Estonia: (1918), 9;(1941–4), 134–9, 152–3

see also Baltic Germans; NazismGestapo, 115, 137Goltz, Rüdiger von der, 11, 74, 147Gorshkov, Ivan, 42

Hamburg, 52–3, 116Hasselblatt, Werner, 20Heimolainen, Bernhard, 116Helanen, Vilho, 93, 109Helle, Emil, 72Helsingin Sanomat, 110, 126Helsinki, 52, 109, 118, 134, 147, 151Helsinki University, 149Helsinki University Finnish Academic

Society, 72Himmler, Heinrich, 134, 138–9Hitler, Adolf, 41, 62, 68, 69–70, 71,

73–5, 77, 82, 99, 132, 136, 137–8,147, 156

Hitler Youth, 147

Holland, Johannes, 24, 83, 112–15Horst Wessel Lied, 147houseowners, 14, 19, 34Hünerson, Jaan, 60Hurt, Jakob, 5

ideology, 60, 64–81, 88, 137, 147,155–6, 158

Independent Socialist Workers’ Party,14, 17

Institut de Droit International, 116irrendentism, 77, 145Iron Division, 11Iron Guards, 147Iron Wolf, 140Isänmaalinen kansanliike (IKL), 109,

117–18, 140, 142–50, 152–3see also radical right, Finnish

Isberg, Alvin, 2, 138Italy, 68–70, 71, 84, 147–8, 156Izvestiya, 72–3

Jääger, August, 118Jaakson, Aleksander, 100–1Jakobson, Carl Robert, 5Jalakas, Karl-Arnold, 83, 86, 129–30Jannsen, Johann Voldemar, 5Jews, 19–20, 73–4, 135, 137, 146, 147,

149, 153see also anti-Semitism

Johani, Helene, 85Jonson, Gustav, 101Joonas, Erich, 38

Kaitseliit, 86, 90, 95–6, 102, 104, 135,148, 149–50

Kaja, 44, 45, 46Kalbus, Tõnis, 39Kalsta, Arri, 143Karelia, 145, 149Keila, 46Kirs, Ernst, 61Kivimäe, Sirje, 86Klaar, Jaan, 24Klasmann, August, 83, 85, 112Kleist, Peter, 134Kodutütred, 95Kohila, 46Kokoomus, 150

Index 213

Kondas, Karl, 118Konik, Konstantin, 39Kook, August, 83, 85, 108, 112Kosola, Vihtori, 72, 144–5, 148, 150kroon, devaluation of, 16, 19, 32, 37,

39, 43–4, 48, 80, 122–3Kubbo, Eduard, 25, 82–3Kukk, Juhan, 41, 126Kultaranta, 112Kuressaare, 74Kurland (Courland), 4, 10, 141Kuuli, Olaf, 90Kuusalu, 61–2

La Rocque, François de, 70Laaman, Eduard, 2, 109, 154Laamann, Paul, 113–14, 116Laast-Laas, Leonhard, 83Labour Party, 10, 14, 15, 18, 35, 62Labour Unions’ Central Association,

46, 58, 124Laidoner, Johan, 10, 26, 33, 39, 46,

55–6, 57–9, 61, 62, 63, 84,98–104, 106, 108, 111, 113, 131,151, 156–7

Laiho, Kuusta, 116land reform, 4, 6, 9, 10, 14–16, 17, 18,

19–20, 22–3, 26–8, 29–30, 74, 77,80–1, 142

Landeswehr, 11, 30, 65, 74, 80, 137,147

Lapua movement, 67, 71–2, 88,142–52

see also radical right, FinnishLaretei, Heinrich, 22Larka, Andres, 10, 24–6, 34, 37, 55–6,

57–63, 65, 68, 76, 82–4, 86, 89,96, 99–100, 103, 108, 111,113–14, 119, 133, 148, 156, 159

Latvia, 6–7, 10–11, 13, 38, 72, 74,109, 128, 140–53

Latvian Farmers Union, 149Latvian National Socialist Party, 143leadership principle (Führerprinzip),

75, 82–4, 111, 125, 137League of Nations, 20, 145Lebensraum, 147Leesment, Hans, 89Leesment, Otto, 135–6

Legion of Lacplesis Order Cavaliersand Freedom Fighters, 143

Leithammel, Ernst, 136Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, 9Libe, Juhan, 86Liberty Cross, 27, 39, 88, 154Lill, Paul, 101Linz, Juan, 67Lipset, Seymour, 92Lithuania, 140, 146Litzmann, Karl, 135Livland (Livonia), 4, 6–7, 141Lohja, 109, 112–13Lohse, Hinrich, 135Loorits, Oskar, 109Lotta Svärd, 86Lõvi, Oskar, 130Luiga, Oskar, 82–3, 118Lutheran church, 5, 18, 77–8, 124,

146see also religion

Luxembourg, 117–18

Maaleht, 61Maapäev, 7–9, 17MacDonald, Ramsay, 70Mäe, Hjalmar, 2, 59, 62, 84, 101,

112–16, 119, 132–3, 134–9, 153Mäher, Rudolf, 129Mannerheim, Carl Gustav, 150, 151Mäntsälä revolt, 71–2, 142, 144, 148,

151Marandi, Rein, 3, 40, 90, 118Marxism, 2–3, 17, 18, 30, 53, 66–71,

76, 78, 81, 103, 142–4, 146–7,150, 152, 159

Mehemeel (Veterans’ anthem), 62,88–9, 93

Meibaum, Joosep, 31, 111Meret, Hans (Boris), 137minorities, ethnic, 14, 19–20, 45, 76,

102, 142, 143, 146, 147, 149Möllerson, Rudolf, 117Moscow, 10Mühlen, Viktor von zur, 51–3, 68,

75–6Müller, Johan, 98, 100–1, 103, 137Mussolini, Benito, 69, 71, 82, 147,

148

214 Index

Mutual Assistance Treaty, SovietUnion and Estonia, 132–3

Naantali, 112Narva, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 19, 56, 82, 92,

96, 139National Assembly (Rahvuskogu),

38–9, 104, 121, 125–8National Centre Party, 18–19, 29, 31,

36–7, 39, 42–3, 44, 45, 46, 50, 56,57, 60, 62, 86, 87, 89–90, 92, 102,112, 130, 132, 155

National Liberal Party, 21, 23–4, 28national movement, 4–6National Union, Latvian, 142nationalism, nationalists, 8, 18, 62,

66, 69, 73–6, 94, 102, 120, 122,123, 131, 142, 143, 145, 147, 149,152, 155, 157, 158–9

Nazism (National Socialism), Nazis, 2,3, 51–2, 53, 54, 60, 69–70, 73–6,77, 78, 84, 132, 134–5, 137, 143,147, 153, 155–6

Netherlands, 46, 117New York, 90Nolte, Ernst, 1Nõmme, 91Non-Aggression Pact, Soviet Union

and Germany, 132, 152Noorkotkad, 95North-Western Army, White Russian,

11, 30, 74

Old Believers, 19, 76optandid, 76Orasmaa, Johannes, see Roska,

JohannesOrthodox church, 20, 77see also religion

Ostland, 134Ostrobothnia, 146Ozols, Voldemars, 143

Paasikivi, Juho, 150Päevaleht, 45–6, 48, 94, 107Palm, Julius, 85paramilitaries, 44, 82–3, 86–8, 111,

140, 143, 148, 159parliament, Estonian, see Riigikogu

Paris, 70, 117, 151Parm, Boris, 88Parming, Tönu, 2, 82, 92–3, 124Pärnu, 5, 38, 57, 93Parts, Karl, 24Patriotic Association, 30, 143Päts, Konstantin, 2, 6, 9, 20, 28, 33–5,

38–9, 42–3, 44, 46, 50, 55, 58–9,61, 62, 63, 71, 88–9, 109, 111–15,118, 133, 134, 136, 137, 150–1,152, 155–7

authoritarian regime of, 1, 2, 31,120–31, 132 151, 152, 158

coup d’état by, 1, 2, 57, 86, 96,98–106, 107, 108, 111, 120,131, 151, 156

Payne, Stanley, 158–9Peedosk, Eduard, 130Peipus, Lake, 19Penno, Rudolf, 120, 128Perkonkrusts, 72, 78, 140, 142–50,

152–3see also radical right, Latvian

Perno Postimees, 5Peru, 44Petrograd (Leningrad, St. Petersburg),

5, 7, 9, 11Petseri (Pechory), 19Piip, Ants, 45, 126, 132Pil⁄sudski, Józef, 59, 140Pitka, Johan, 10, 21–4, 26, 28–9, 64,

83, 87Põdder, Ernst, 10, 11, 24–6, 28–9, 34,

64–5, 83, 96Podrätsik, Karl, 82Põhja Küttide Leegion, 87–8Poland, 127, 140, 147Political Police, 1, 90, 99, 110–12,

115–16, 117, 133, 157Popular Front for the Implementation

of the Constitution, 129–30Populist Party, 14, 18, 20, 33–6, 40, 86Porvoo, 116Postimees, 6, 124Propaganda Authority, 137Provisional GovernmentEstonian, 9–10, 26, 60, 95Latvian, 11Russian, 7

Index 215

Puskar, Viktor, 114Pusta, Kaarel Robert, 114–16

Raamot, Ilmar, 55–6, 108–9racism, 73–4, 159radical right, 85, 93, 140–53, 155–6,

158Estonian, 1, 21–31, 140–53, 154–5Finnish, 1–2, 72, 77, 93, 109–10,

116, 118, 140–53Latvian, 72, 77, 140–53

Rahamägi, Hugo Bernhard, 124Rahva Sõna, 38, 68, 103rahvuslik tervik (integral nation), 65–6,

79, 85, 145, 159Rakvere, 82, 98, 135Rammo, Alfons, 61Rapla, 46Rebane, Hans, 110Red Army, 10, 30, 67, 138–9Reek, Nikolai, 101referendum, 13–14, 33–4, 42, 112–14,

127–8, 155(1923), 14, 18, 77(1932), 32–8, 47, 104(June 1933), 32, 41–3, 47, 104(October 1933), 32, 45–8, 49–50,

52, 54, 56, 61, 72, 77, 82, 92,104–5, 150, 151

(1936), 116, 125–6, 128Reha, Rudolf, 111Rei, August, 17, 36, 58, 62, 63, 68, 87,

101, 103religion, 10, 14, 18, 77–8, 146see also Lutheran church; Orthodox

churchRenner, Karl, 20Revolution, Russian

of 1905, 6–7, 141, 150of February 1917, 7of October 1917, 7, 151

Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 134Riga, 8, 11, 71, 109, 114, 135, 149Riigihoidja, 128Riigikogu, 13–15, 16, 17, 19–20, 21,

22, 27, 28, 30, 33–45, 48, 50, 52,53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 65, 68, 75, 77,86, 89, 92–3, 98, 101–2, 104–6,108, 113, 114, 119, 120–1, 123,

127, 128, 129–30, 133, 155, 157,158

Riigivanem, 13, 17, 23, 27, 28, 34, 40,43, 45, 50, 53, 57, 61, 75, 88, 105,107, 113, 114, 126, 128

Ritterschaften, 4Romania, 147Rooberg, Vladimir, 48Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 70Rosenberg, Alfred, 135Roska, Johannes, 22–5, 28, 34, 96Rotterdam, 117Rõuk, Theodor, 26, 28, 34, 39, 55, 82,

89, 107Royal Institute of International

Affairs, 20Rural Women’s Central League, 86Russia, 4–5, 6–10, 11–12, 16, 18, 19,

21, 26, 76–7, 141, 145, 152see also Soviet Union

Russians, 7, 9, 11, 19, 76, 147Russian minority party (Russian

National Union), 14, 20, 35, 37,41–2, 50, 121

Russification, 5Russo-Japanese War, 25Rütli, Oskar, 126Rütman, Harry, 108Ruutu, Yrjö, 143

Saar, Hans, 114, 135–6Sakala (newspaper), 5Sakala (fraternity), 95Salvation Committee, 9Scandinavia, 17, 46, 141, 152Scheel’s Bank, 19, 106Schutzbund, 87Schutzstaffel (SS), 134, 138–9, 153Second International, 17Second World War, 132–90, 152security units, Veterans’, 83, 86–7,

110Segodnya (Riga), 71Seiman, Aleksander, 83, 108, 112,

114Self-Defense Force, 135Seljamaa, Julius, 73Selter, Karl, 52Semper, Johannes, 103

216 Index

Settlers’ Party, 14, 15–16, 22–3, 26,43, 44, 46, 50, 55–7, 61, 87–8, 89,93, 102, 108, 120, 130, 142

Silde, Adolfs, 149Simojoki, Elias, 118, 146Sinimusta, 109–110Sirk, Artur, 2, 10, 24–6, 27–8, 34, 37–8,

40, 45, 51, 55–6, 67, 69, 71, 82–4,86, 89, 90, 94–5, 100–1, 103,108–10, 112–14, 116, 117–19, 132,134, 137, 148, 150, 156–7, 159

Slovakia, 138Smetona, Antanas, 140Social Democratic Workers’ PartyRussian, 6, 17Estonian, 8, 10, 17

Socialism, Socialist Party (EstonianSocialist Workers’ Party), 6, 7, 8,10, 14, 15, 17–18, 20, 34, 38, 39,41, 44–6, 50, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57,58–9, 61–2, 66, 68, 70, 71, 77, 78,79, 85–7, 89, 92–4, 98, 102–3,121, 130, 142, 151, 155–6, 157,158

see also Independent SocialistWorkers’ Party; SocialDemocratic Workers’ Party;Socialist Revolutionaries;Young Socialists

Socialist Revolutionaries, 7, 8, 17Somersalo, Aarne, 147Soots, Jaan, 21, 41, 120Soviet Union (USSR), 1–3, 16–17, 67,

71, 72–3, 77, 102, 103, 115, 132,137–9, 145, 147, 148, 156

occupation of Estonia: (1940–1),133–5, 138, 152; (1944–91),139, 153

see also RussiaSoviets, Estonian, 7–9Ståhlberg, Kaarlo Juho, 148Stalin, Josef, 16, 137State Council, 127, 130State Economic Council, 121State Propaganda Office, 122Stelmachers, Janis, 143sterilization, involuntary, 123Stockholm, 114Stockholm, Friedrich, 78

Strandmann, Otto, 27students, 10, 94, 123–4, 149, 150

see also fraternities; TartuUniversity; youth

Suojeluskunta (Finnish civil guard), 96,148, 153

Suomen Sosialidemokraatti, 110Supreme Court, 108Svinhuvfud, Pehr Evind, 38, 71, 112,

126, 148, 150–1Sweden, 4, 117, 141Swedes, 14, 19, 20, 143, 147Swedish National League, 20Switzerland, 117, 147

Tallinn, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 16, 19, 20, 21,25, 26, 27, 38, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51,53, 56–7, 61–2, 68, 78, 83–4, 85,87, 88, 89, 90–1, 92–3, 96, 99,101, 107, 108, 110, 112, 113, 114,118, 119, 120, 139, 150

Tallinna Teataja, 8Tallmeister, Theodor, 24Tambek, Elmar, 55Tammsaare, Anton Hansen, 154Tapa, 33–8, 68, 86–7Tartu, 6, 7, 18, 19, 22, 30, 43, 56–7,

62, 82, 90, 92, 93, 96, 98, 103,109, 124, 130

Tartu, Treaty ofEstonia and Soviet Russia, 11, 16,

19, 21, 76–7Finland and Soviet Russia, 145

Tartu University, 6, 18, 26, 35, 75,109, 114, 124

Teataja, 6Teemant, Jaan, 37, 39, 114, 126Telg, Paul, 37, 83, 85, 99Thunder Cross, see PerkonkrustsTimes, The, 116Tomberg, Richard, 101Tomingas, William, 2, 106, 107,

118–19Tõnishof, August, 24Tõnisson, Ilmar, 112Tõnisson, Jaan, 6, 18, 20, 33–4, 43–5,

47–8, 50, 56, 57, 87, 92, 100, 102,105, 112, 114, 122, 124, 126, 130,157

Index 217

Toompea palace, 39, 100Tõrvand, Juhan, 115trade unions, 46, 58, 67, 124Trakmann, Konstantin, 110Trudoviki, 18Tsarist regime, 4, 6–7, 14, 141, 148,

149see also Russia

Ugunskrusts, 142, 146see also radical right, Latvian

Uhke, Reinhold, 78Üleriiklik Vabadussõjalaste Ühendus,

87Ulmanis, Karlis, 11, 128, 143, 149,

150–2Uluots, Jüri, 35–6, 39, 55, 107, 109,

114, 132, 136, 138United States of America (USA), 45,

70, 80, 128, 132Uusi Suomi, 110

Vaabel, Juhan, 114Vaba Maa, 52, 62, 93, 107Vabadussõja Rindemeeste Ühing, 88Vabadussõjalaste koduleht, 86Valga, 38, 92, 98Väli, Bernhard, 113Vares, Johannes, 103Veem, Konrad, 77Ventspils, 109Vientirauha, 142Viiding, Aleksander, 108Viipuri (Vyborg), 72Viljandi, 4, 25, 57, 83, 104Vilms, Juhan, 80Võitlus, 3, 27, 29, 35, 36–7, 42, 43,

44, 45, 47, 49, 52–3, 59, 65, 66, 69, 70, 73–4, 77, 78, 80–1,83, 85, 86, 94, 98–9, 106, 108,130

Voldemaras, Augustinas, 140Võru, 50, 61, 84, 91, 111

Waba Eesti, 23Wallenius, Kurt, 72Walwe Liit, Eesti, 21, 24, 28War of IndependenceEstonian, 8–12, 14, 21–2, 23, 25–7,

37, 44, 56, 57, 59, 64–5, 67, 68,72, 73, 74–5, 83, 87, 88, 91, 94,95–6, 108, 109, 133, 135, 137,138, 140, 141, 143, 144, 150,151, 154

Finnish, 72, 141, 143–4, 151; seealso civil war, Finnish

Latvian, 141, 143–4, 149, 151Warsaw University, 26Weiler, Aleksander, 52, 62Wendt, Alfred, 135–6WhitesFinnish, 144, 147, 150Russian, 11, 30, 74, 76

Winter War, 150, 152women, 79, 85–6, 95, 123, 159Women’s Home Guard, 85–6, 95Women’s League, 86workers, 16, 22, 41, 54, 67–8, 80, 85,

93–4, 130, 146, 153, 156see also class, relations

World War I, see First World WarWorld War II, see Second World War

Young Socialists, 58, 87youth, 30, 66, 80–1, 85, 94, 95, 109,

123, 137, 149–50, 158see also students

Yudenich, Nikolai, 11, 74

Zhdanov, Andrei, 133Zimmermann, Johannes, 55–6Zinoviev, Grigorii, 16

218 Index