INSTITUT PENDIDIKAN GURUKAMPUS TUANKU BAINUNBUKIT MERTAJAM PULAU PINANGPROGRAM IJAZAH SARJANA MUDA PERGURUAN(TESL) PRIMARY EDUCATION

ELT METHODOLOGY(TSL 3033)

NAME: FATHUL JANNAH BINTI ABD HAMIDINDEX NO: 2014302340037IC NUMBER: 930301-08-6022PROGRAMME: 6 PISMP (TESL/LGA/PSV)JUN INTAKE 2014TITLE OF PROJECT: FOLIOLECTURER: MADAM DAYANG

A. 1. Theories of language learning.

Behaviourism Behaviours can be measured, trained, and changed.

John B. Watson Behaviourism was established with the publication of Watson's classic paper "Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It" (1913)

Types of Behavioural LearningExperiments by the behaviourists identifyconditioningas a universal learning process. Conditionings

InstrumentalorOperant ConditioningClassical conditioning

1. Classical conditioning:This conditioning was first described by the Russian physiologistIvan Pavlov, in 1903 through his experiment on dogs. The general idea ofPavlovs experiment is this: Pavlov presented dogs with food to examine their salivary response. He rang a bell just before serving the food. At first the dogs did not salivate until the food is served. However, when the bell was rung at repeated feedings, the sound of bell alone caused the dogs to salivate.2. InstrumentalorOperant Conditioning:Expanding onWatsonsbasic stimulus-response model, Skinner developed a more comprehensive view of conditioning, known as operant conditioning.

Skinners model was based on the premise that effective language behaviour consists of producingresponses(behaviours) to the correctstimuli(situation).

When aresponseis followed by areinforce(reward) then it isconditionedto occur again.

Thus operant conditioning was used by Skinner to describe the effects of theconsequencesof a particular behaviour on the future occurrence of the behaviour.

Reinforcement and punishment are the core ideas of operant conditioning.

HumanismExperience is the primary phenomenon in the study of human learning and behaviour.

Abraham Maslow (Father of Humanistic Psychology) Maslow's theory is based on the notion that experience is the primary phenomenon in the study of human learning and behaviour.

He placed emphasis on choice, creativity, values, self-realization, all distinctively human qualities, and believed that meaningfulness and subjectivity were more important than objectivity. For Maslow, development of human potential, dignity and worth are ultimate concerns.

From Maslow's perspective, the drive to learn is intrinsic.

The purpose of learning is to bring about self-actualization. Learning contributes to psychological health.

Maslow proposed other goals of learning, including: discovery of one's vocation or destiny; knowledge of values; realization of life as precious, acquisition of peak experiences, sense of accomplishment, satisfaction of psychological needs, awareness of beauty and wonder in life, impulse control, developing choice, and grappling with the critical existential problems of life.

Cognitivism Cognitive psychologists share with behaviourists the belief that the study of learning should be objective and that learning theories should be developed from the results of empirical research.

However, cognitivists disagree with the behaviourists in one critical aspect.By observing the responses that individuals make to different stimulus conditions, cognitivists believe that they can draw inferences about the nature of the internal cognitive processes that produce those responses.

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

Piaget emphasises on two main functions; one isorganisation(or equilibrium). Organisation refers to the fact that all cognitive structures are interrelated and that any new knowledge must be fitted into the existing system. It is the need to integrate the new information, rather than adding them on, that force our cognitive structure to become more elaborate.

The second general function isadaptation. Adaptation refers to the tendency of the organism to fit with its environment in ways that promote survival. It is composed of two terms;assimilationandaccommodation.

Assimilation is the tendency to understand new experience in terms of existing knowledge. Whenever we come across something new, we try to make sense of it, built upon our existing cognitive structures.Accommodation occurs when the new information is too complex to be integrated into the existing structure. This means that, cognitive structures change in response to new experiences

Social constructivism Emphasis is on the collaborative nature of learning and the importance of cultural and social context. All cognitive functions are believed to originate in, and are explained as products of social interactions Learning is more than the assimilation of new knowledge by learners; it was the process by which learners were integrated into a knowledge community. Believed that constructivists such as Piaget had overlooked the essentially social nature of language and consequently failed to understand that learning is a collaborative process.There are eight characteristics that underline the constructivist learning environments and are applicable to both perspectives.

Jonassen (1994)

1. Constructivist learning environments provide multiple representations of reality.2. Multiple representations avoid oversimplification and represent the complexity of the real world.3. Constructivist learning environments emphasize knowledge construction inserted of knowledge reproduction.4. Constructivist learning environments emphasize authentic tasks in a meaningful context rather than abstract instruction out of context.5. Constructivist learning environments provide learning environments such as real-world settings or case-based learning instead of predetermined sequences of instruction.6. Constructivist learning environments encourage thoughtful reflection on experience.7. Constructivist learning environments "enable context- and content- dependent knowledge construction."8. Constructivist learning environments support "collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation, not competition among learners for recognition."

A. 2. Second language learning theories ( Krashens monitor model)

Acquisition- learning hypothesis Language acquisition (an unconscious process developed through using language meaningfully) is different from language learning (consciously learning or discovering rules about a language) and language acquisition is the only way competence in a second language can develop. aural comprehensionThis acquisition-focused approach sees communicative competence progressing through three stages:

early speech production

speech activities, all fostering "natural" language acquisition, much as a child would learn his/her native tongue

Monitor hypothesis Explain the relationship between acquisition and learning.While the learning system performs the role of the monitor or the editor.The acquisition is the utterance initiator

Natural order hypothesisNatural order is found in both language acquisition by children and adults alike. In case of L2, natural order exists regardless of the acquirers L1. Later findings show that this hypothesis is valid for other language acquisition as well.

Input hypothesis The Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not learning.Speaking is a result of acquisition & NOT its cause.

If input is understood, and there is enough of it, the necessary grammar is automatically provided.

Affective filter hypothesis Learners with a low affective filter: high motivation, self-confidence, a good image, and a low level of anxiety. Are better equipped for success in SLA Learners with a high affective filter: low self-esteem and a high level of anxiety Form a mental block When the filter is high, it blocks language acquisition. The low affective filter is desirable.Implications of the hypothesis for teaching Students activities should be based on meaningful communication rather than on form. Input should be interesting and student needs based. Input should contribute to a relaxed classroom atmosphere.

Universal grammarDescriptionIt is a theory that suggests that some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain, and manifest without being taught. Universal Grammar Arguments1. Poverty of the Stimulus. Children hear only a finite number of sentences. They are able to abstract the rules and principles of the language. They produce an infinite number of possible sentences without any formal training.Grammatical acceptable OutputUngrammatical Input

2. Constraints and principles cannot be learned. Children are very young when acquiring L1. They do not have the cognitive ability to understand the principles of grammar as a system. Because of innate capacity they are capable of producing correct grammar.

3. Patterns of development are universal Children learn the various aspects of a language in a very similar order.

Brown (1973). There is a very specific order of MORPHEME acquisition.1. Present Progressive -ing* Daddy jumping2. Plural s* Many books 3. Irregular past forms* I run I ran

All children learn in the same order, but some take longer than others.

The sequence is quite fixed in order, but not in rate.

UNIVERSALGRAMMAR

Set of common grammatical rules.

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE

B. Read up and write short notes/ graphic organisers on the following topics/ sub-topics:

3. Approaches, Methods, and Techniquesa. ELT Methods There are many methods of teaching languages. Some have had their heyday and have fallen into relative obscurity; others are widely used now. Many methods have been proposed but this presentation will cover only four major methods i.e:

Lexical Approach Description of the method"Lexis is the basis of language.Grammatical mastery is not a requirement for effective communication.Any meaning-centered syllabus should be organized around lexis rather than grammar. and that mastery of the grammatical system is a prerequisite for effective communication.."

---Michael Lewis (1993)

Background It is a language teaching method published by Michael Lewis in 1993 Giving importance the insight of the language lexicon Lexis is the basis of language The lexical approach concentrates on developing learners' proficiency with lexis, or words and word combinations. Lexis plays the central role Alternative approach to traditional grammatical approach Chunks, minimal pairs, collacations, lexical units are the specific characteristics of this approach

Principles The key principle of a lexical approach is that language consists of grammatical zed lexis, not lexicalized grammar.

In other words, lexis is central in creating meaning, grammar plays a secondary role in managing meaning.

When this principle is accepted, the logical implication for teachers is that we should spend more time helping learners develop their stock of phrases, and less time on grammatical structures.

Techniques The building blocks of language learning and communication are not grammar, functions or some of unit of planning but teaching lexis with the help of chunks and collocations.

What is chunk? 'Lexical chunk' is an umbrella term which includes all the other terms.

What are collocations? Collocation is a pair of lexical content words commonly found together

Lexical Chunks (that are not collocations)

by the way up to now upside down If I were you a long way off out of my mind

Lexical Chunks (that are collocations)

totally convinced strong accent terrible accident sense of humour sounds exciting brings good luck

LEXICAL UNITS Binomials ( e.g. Knife and fork) Trinomials ( e.g. Cool, calm and collected) Idioms ( e.g. To rain cats and dogs ) Similes ( e.g. As white as snow . ) Connectives ( e.g. Finally, to conclude ) Conversational gambits ( e.g. Guess what ) Krashens suggestion: emphasis on reading and listening Others suggestion: making classroom laboratory Bahns suggestion: no direct translational equivalence for teaching of lexical items in EFL

Strengths & Limitations Encountering new learning items Noticing lexical chunks or collocations Noticing similarities, differences, restrictions and examples Acquisition is based not on the application of formal rules No linear syllabus can adequately reflect the nonlinear nature of acquisition It lacks full characterization of an approach Lack of a detailed learning theory

Teachers Roles The talk of the teacher as a major source of learner input ( This is the same with the Natural Approach) To understand and implement the methodology which is based on stages composed of; -Task -Planning - Report To create an operative environment(where students operate effectively) To help the learners manage their own learning after operation abandon the idea of the teacher as a knower and concentrate instead of the idea of the learner as discoverer. (Willis 1990)

Students Roles The analyzer of real life language samples based on his or her own explanations To observe, classify and make generalizations Making use of computers

Implications for syllabus design To get students to become aware of, use and to eventually master these meaning-filled, multi-word chunks, collocations and fixed utterances. To help learners to notice for themselves how language is typically used Language is learnt by an increasing ability to break down wholes into parts. Grammar is acquired by a process of observation, hypothesis and experiment. We can use whole phrases without understanding their constituent parts. Acquisition is accelerated by contact with a sympathetic interlocutor with a higher level of competence in the target language

SYLLABUS

Teaching vocabulary and grammar

Structural syllabus is used.( Also called as lexical syllabus )

Eclectic ApproachDescription of the methodEclecticism involves the use of a variety of language learning activities, each of which may have very different characteristics and may be motivated by different underlying assumptions.

Larsen-Freeman (2000) and Mellow (2000)

Introduction The use eclecticism is due to the fact that there are strengths as well as weaknesses of single theory based methods. Reliance upon a single theory of teaching has been criticized because the use of a limited number of techniques can become mechanic.

The students, thus, cannot get benefits of learning. Relativism i.e. to emphasize the context of pedagogical situations is also criticized because it leads towards dissimilarities rather than similarities between teaching contexts.

The use of eclecticism does not mean to mix up different approaches randomly.

There must have some philosophical backgrounds and some systematic relation among different activities. Usually it is recommended to mix structural approaches with communicative use of language.

In the move away from teachers following one specific methodology, the eclectic approach is the label given to a teacher's use of techniques and activities from a range of language teaching approaches and methodologies. The teacher decides what methodology or approach to use depending on the aims of the lesson and the learners in the group. Almost all modern course books have a mixture of approaches and methodologies.

PrinciplesThe term principled eclecticism to describe a desirable, coherent, pluralistic approach to language teaching. an eclectic approach allows language teachers "to absorb the best techniques of all the well-known language-teaching methods into their classroom procedures, using them for the purposes for which they are most appropriate. to prioritize important principles, to discover additional principles, to use the principles to create a teacher's own personal theory of learning and teaching.

The use of methods and approaches were adjusted to the teaching-learning needs. Since it was combination, each theory will have its strengths and weaknesses.

Strengths & Limitations The main criticism of the eclecticism is that "it does not offer any guidance on what basis and by what principles aspects of different methods can be selected and combined."

StrengthsAdjust present technologies education to the environment so that learning will not become boring.Learning should be fun and innovative due to the unique nature and capabilities of each child.

WeaknessesMay lead to confusion because there are too many views expressed in an eclectic explanationBecause the different approaches are very different from each other it is difficult to combine them to make one new theory

Teachers Roles Teacher consider as a facilitator: who facilitates the learner. Teacher consider as a guide: who guides the students. Teacher consider as a slightly higher rank official: who uses his authority to conduct the class and make the process of teaching and learning systematic.Students Roles Learner is seen by us as the centre of teaching learning activities. Learners participation is very important. Teacher will always try to involve the learners. As well as the learner's role in class should be cooperative and they will be allowed to communicate, self-correct each other and ask questions about the substance provided for teaching learning activities.Role of teacherRole of learnersRoles of resources/materials

Teacher have an almost free choice in deciding how many communicative activities they engage students in doing.

Teacher are always thinking of the best way for their students

Teacher combine different strength from different philosophies most of the time, use their own unique theory, creative and vision

Teacher plays and communicates with child

Teacher need to be creative in using different approaches to capture the learning interest and curiosity of the learners. Learners should be given the opportunity to respond critically to their experience in a particular class.

Learners should learn from each other, not simply from the teacher.The eclectic approach is to use a variety of formats-classroom discussion, individual drill in workbooks, computer based instruction

The material consist of text-based learning strategy

Implications for syllabus design Syllabus has a broad range of functions. First, in language centred-approach, syllabus becomes the generator of the materials. Second, in skills centred-approach, syllabus provides opportunities for learners to employ and evaluate the skills and strategies necessary in target situation. Third, in learning centred-approach, syllabus is used in a more dynamic way in order to enable methodological considerations, such as interest, enjoyment, learners involvement, to influence the content of the entire course design.The use of eclectic approach in course design will affect the function and the choice of syllabus. This will lead to the types of syllabus used in the course.