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Running head: PERSONALITY AND PSYCHOPATHY AMONG FILIPINO MALE OFFENDERS Five-Factor Model of Personality as Predictors of Psychopathic Traits among Filipino Male Offenders: A Self-Report Approach JOHN HERMES C. UNTALAN, M.A. Graduate School, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, the Philippines JOHNNY B. DECATORIA, Ph.D., B.C.E.T.S. St. Joseph’s University, Macau, People’s Republic of China Note: Bold and italicize words are indicated. Send all correspondence to Mr. John Hermes C. Untalan UST Graduate School Psychotrauma Clinic Thomas Aquinas Research Complex University of Santo Tomas, Manila Mobile No.: +63927-495-8855 Email: [email protected] Manuscript submitted to ad Veritatem (2010)

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Page 1: Normal Personality Traits as Predictors of Psychopathy.doc (for Sad Veritatem 2010)

Running head: PERSONALITY AND PSYCHOPATHY AMONG FILIPINO MALE OFFENDERS

Five-Factor Model of Personality as Predictors of Psychopathic Traits

among Filipino Male Offenders: A Self-Report Approach

JOHN HERMES C. UNTALAN, M.A.

Graduate School, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, the Philippines

JOHNNY B. DECATORIA, Ph.D., B.C.E.T.S.

St. Joseph’s University, Macau, People’s Republic of China

Note: Bold and italicize words are indicated.

Send all correspondence to

Mr. John Hermes C. Untalan UST Graduate School Psychotrauma Clinic Thomas Aquinas Research Complex University of Santo Tomas, Manila Mobile No.: +63927-495-8855 Email: [email protected]

Manuscript submitted to ad Veritatem (2010)

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ABSTRACT

This study examined McCrae and Costa’s Five-Factor Model (FFM; McCrae & Costa, 2003)

of personality as predictors of self-report psychopathy. A sample of 397 male offenders

answered the Filipino versions of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R; Costa

& McCrae, 1994) and Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Revised (PPI-R; Lilienfeld, 2005).

Using multiple regression, analysis reveals unique and similar patterns of FFM traits

predicting psychopathy. At the domain level, psychopathy is associated with emotional

instability, extraversion, and antagonism (low agreeableness). Low conscientiousness did

not showed significant association with overall psychopathy as Lynam and Widiger (2007)

hypothesize but with several dimensions of psychopathic traits. Overall, the FFM traits

show cross-cultural replicability in describing psychopathy in a non-Western culture.

Implication of the findings is discussed in using the clinical construct of psychopathy whose

time has come.

Keywords: psychopathy, five-factor model, personality, male offenders, Filipinos

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FIVE-FACTOR MODEL OF PERSONALITY AS PREDICTORS OF PSYCHOPATHIC TRAITS

AMONG FILIPINO MALE OFFENDERS: A SELF-REPORT APPROACH

Since Hervey Cleckley’s seminal publication of the, now classic, The Mask of Sanity in

1941, an accumulating body of research regarding the etiology and implications of

psychopathic personality (or psychopathy) has been produced. Psychopathy is described

as a constellation of personality traits such as callousness, egocentrism, guiltlessness, lack

of empathy, inability to form social attachments, irresponsibility, impulsivity, shallow

affect, and superficial charm (c.f. Hare, 1970, 1998; Karpman, 1948; Lykken, 1995; McCord

& McCord, 1964). It is implicated as a serious, clinical psychological disorder synonymous,

but not interchangeable, to ICD-10’s dissocial personality disorder (World Health

Organization, 1990), DSM-IV’s antisocial personality disorder (American Psychiatric

Association, 2000), and sociopathic personality (or sociopathy; Lykken, 1995). In the

forensic area, psychopathy has recently shown valuable contributions in explaining crime,

predicting recidivism, as a dynamic risk/need, and further institutional misconducts (e.g.,

Andrews & Bonta, 2006; Blackburn, 1993; H. Miller, 2006; Skilling, Harris, Rice, & Quinsey,

2002; Woodworth & Porter, 2002). Testament to the viability of the psychopathy construct

as well lead to the publication of three recent edited readings that summarizes the trend of

psychopathy research (Herve & Yuille, 2007; Patrick, 2006; Salekin & Lynam, 2010) and

the founding of the Society for the Scientific Study of Psychopathy (SSSP), a global academic

organization formed specifically for cultivating psychopathic research, in 2006.

While theorizing of the psychopathy remains in its infancy stage despite it’s

emergence as a clinical construct in 1940s, one field in psychology that shows potential in

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deconstructing the psychopathy construct is the field of personality psychology (Brinkley,

Newman, Widiger, & Lynam, 2004). According to Harkness (2007), personality is a classic

example of a “best science” in psychology. He suggests that “presenting complaints” and

“targets of treatment plan” may often be manifestations or sequallae of personality traits.

For example, using the analogy made by Tellegen (as cited in Harkness, 2007), (1) extreme

levels of personality traits; (2) problematic configuration of personality traits; and (3)

extreme (i.e. socially and personality maladaptive) adaptations to personality traits or their

configural properties often manifest in the psychopathology continuum. Further,

Loevinger’s (1957) theory of constructive realism suggests that traits are real, separate

from constructs and measures, and exists in individuals that lead to population concepts.

Hence, it cannot be argued that using trait perspective would lead to the understanding of

people from the layman, theorist, and self perspective (Hampson, 1988).

The suitability of traits can also be explained within the current nomenclature of

trait models. Current trait models are structured in a hierarchical fashion that posits a

structure of traits whether it is used for categorical or dimensional approach in

understanding psychopathology (Costa & Widiger, 2002; Markon, Krueger, & Watson,

2005; Watson, Clark, & Harkness, 1994). McCrae and Costa (2003, 2008) suggests further

that there seems to be consensus that traits are enduring general disposition and issues of

consistency and stability has been proven to be general characteristics of traits (Feist,

2006; McCrae, 2009). From the biological perspective, traits are shown to possess genome

heritability from the genetic and phenotypic studies (Jang, 2006; Jang, Wolf, & Larstone,

2006; Zuckerman, 2005). More so, current studies suggest that shared family influence

have weakness in shaping personality traits suggesting that traits are internal, unique, and

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implicit to the individual. Hence, traits serve as basic tendencies for individuals in which

serves as the underlying disposition or source traits (McCrae & Costa, 2003; 2008). And

any concrete habits, attitudes, roles, and relationships that results from the interaction of

basic tendencies and the shaping forces of the social environment serve as character

adaptations. Hence, normal and psychopathic traits can serve as basic tendencies of the

psychopath individual.

In the context of psychopathy, one of the reasons is that a number of researchers

consider psychopathy as a personality construct, as an extreme variant of personality

traits, and is personality (Blackburn, 1998a, 2006; Lynam & Derefniko, 2006; Miller &

Lynam, 2003; Miller, Lynam, Widiger, & Leukfeld, 2001). Widiger & Lynam (1998) first

used the personality perspective in translating the core traits of psychopathy, as measured

by the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R; Hare, 2003), using the five-factor model as

assessed by the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R; Costa & McCrae, 1994).

Based on their translation, the major dimensions of antagonism (low agreeableness) and

low conscientiousness and its facets predicted many of the PCL-R psychopathy items (see

also Harpur, Hart, & Hare, 2002 and Lynam, 2002). In a recent article summing up all the

research conducted on personality and psychopathy using various methods/approaches,

Lynam and Derefniko (2006), concludes that “extremely high interpersonal antagonism,

pan-impulsivity, the absence of negative self-directed affect, the presence of angry hostility,

and interpersonal assertiveness” (p. 160), are the primary FFM traits that translates the

core elements of psychopathy.

Though personality and psychopathy research in the Western literature is

successful, little is generated regarding the cross-cultural generalizability and replicability

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of this hypothesis in non-Western, collectivistic cultures such as Asia in general and the

Philippines in particular. Only two studies (Untalan, 2009a; Untalan, Mordeno, &

Decatoria, 2008), aside from this current paper (see also Untalan, 2009b), has

demonstrated the construct of psychopathy among Filipinos. Moreover, the personality-

psychopathy using the FFM has only showed potential using a clinical diagnostic interview

measure of psychopathy, the PCL. Although few studies (e.g., Jacobwitz & Egan, 2006; Lee

& Kibeom, 2005; Paulhus & Williams, 2002) using brief assessments of psychopathy and

personality has demonstrated the replicability of Widiger and Lynam’s (1998) assertion

that low agreeableness and low conscientiousness will correlate with self-report

psychopathy, none has used to compare personality traits using a strong, valid and reliable

self-report measure of psychopathy such as the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI;

Lilienfeld, 1990). The revised form of the PPI—or the PPI-R (Lilienfeld & Widows, 2005)—

is “arguably the gold standard” (p. 1007; Witt, Donnellan, & Blonigen, 2009) in assessing

psychopathy via self-report.

In an exploratory study conducted by Untalan and his colleagues (2008) with a

sample of 201 Filipino college students, using the Big Five Inventory (BFI; John &

Srivastava, 1999) as a measure of Big Five personality and the Self-Report Psychopathy

scale (SRP; Paulhus, Hemphil, & Hare, in press), analysis reveals that self-report

psychopathy is negatively associated with agreeableness (r = -.283, p < .01) and

conscientiousness (r = -.188, p < .01). However, Lilienfeld and Fowler (2006) notes that the

SRP needs to clarify discriminant validity with antisocial behavior and little published

research on the differential correlates of the two SRP factors or the relation between SRP

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and laboratory measures that ostensibly tap the core deficits of psychopathy.1 Moreover,

the study conducted by Untalan and his colleagues focuses on the dark triad of personality

in general and not specifically psychopathy.

Hence, an investigation of a well-researched self-report psychopathy measure, such

as the PPI-R, with the FFM of personality warrants a legitimate research framework for this

study that focuses on male prisoners in a highly collectivistic culture. The present study

focuses on the utility of the domain and facet traits of the FFM NEO-PI-R as descriptors of

psychopathic personality. More specifically, we hypothesizes that the FFM domain traits of

agreeableness and conscientiousness and their facet traits will be able to translate the

global and core traits of the PPI-R psychopathy as hypothesized by Widiger & Lynam

(1998).

METHOD

Participants

A cross-sectional research design sampling 450 male prisoners located in a national

prison facility was conducted for this study. Incomplete responses and unqualified reading

level of the participants lead to the removal of 53 participants leaving 397 protocols

available for further analyses. Age of the male prisoners who participated in this study

ranges from 20 to 74 years old with a mean age of 37.92 (SD = 9.21). Majority of the

prisoners are married (n = 204; 51%), are practicing Roman Catholicism as religion (n =

312; 79%), and finished at least a high school level (n = 129; 33%). Table 1 shows the

complete demographic profile of the 397 respondents. Male prisoners have committed

1 We will not reiterate here the distinctions and implications of using a behavioral-based (clinical interview) type versus dispositional-based (self-report) type of assessing psychopathy. Readers are advised to consult Untalan (2009b) regarding the advantages and disadvantages brought by using the different methods or strategies of assessing psychopathy.

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various crimes and when categorized using the PCL-R Item 20 (Criminal Versatility)

criteria as contextualized in the Revised Penal Code of the Philippines, 21 general various

crimes are indexed. Crimes ranges from non-violent (e.g., drugs, theft), violent (e.g.,

robbery, murder, homicide), sexual (e.g., rape, incest), complex crimes (combination of two

different crimes, e.g., rape with homicide, robbery with murder), and with five crime cases

not being reported.

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INSERT TABLE 1 HERE

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Measures

Three measures were used to survey the participants. The first measure is a

researcher constructed socio-demographic and criminal history profile. This measure

surveys personal information pertinent among the respondents that will be used to

describe their demography, social information, and criminal history.

The last two measures used are two standardized psychological tests namely, the

Filipino version of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (F-NEO-PI-R; McCrae, Costa, del

Pilar, Rolland & Parker, 1998) and the PPI-R (Lilienfeld & Widows, 2005). We translated

the latter inventory in order to meet the language standard that can be comprehended by

the selected participants which is in Filipino-Tagalog. Translation of the PPI-R Tagalog

version underwent three stages of multiple forward-and-backward translations following

the suggestions by Geisinger (1994).

The NEO PI-R is a 240- item test which measures five broad domains of personality

namely neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and

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conscientiousness. Within each domain, six facet traits or subscales are subsumed (e.g., the

neuroticism trait is composed of anxiety, angry hostility, depression, self-consciousness,

impulsiveness, and vulnerability). The study used the Form S of the NEO PI-R which is a

self-report questionnaire addressed to the first person (e.g., I am usually hotheaded.). Each

item can be responded using a five-point Likert scale from strongly disagree (0) to strongly

agree (4). Costa and McCrae (1994) and McCrae et al. (1998) reported the replicability of

the five factors and internal consistency ranges from good to high reliability indexes. In this

study, internal consistency of the scales using the Cronbach’s alpha ranges from .02

(Impulsiveness) to .60 (Angry Hostility) for all the facet scales and .42 (Openness to

Experience) to .80 (Conscientiousness) for the domain scales. Internal consistencies of the

scales reported in this study are mostly low indicating that the items of the scales might not

be representative of the constructs, moreover, are poor representing that the NEO-PI-R in

general is not a well-reliable instrument in offender populations. However, previous

studies of NEO-PI-R in prisoner populations in Western literature show consistent

reliability indexes. Since this study is exploratory in nature particularly in Filipino male

prisoners, this study continued the process of analysis because the NEO PI-R is the only

personality instrument used in the study and it is the first to introduce the use of the test in

a prisoner population. With the limitation in mind, we are cautionary in interpreting the

results of this study as the scales’ poor internal reliability might cause variations and

alterations in the findings.

Developed by Lilienfeld, the PPI-R is used to measure the core elements of

psychopathic personality traits in this study. The PPI-R is a 154-item which measures eight

content scales namely Machiavellian egocentricity (ME), blame externalization (BE),

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carefree nonplanfulness (CN), rebellious non-conformity (RN), social influence (SOI),

fearlessness (F), stress immunity (STI), and coldheartedness (C). The PPI-R also has a global

index when the ten scales are summed together and three factor scales namely, self-

centered impulsivity (SCI; composed of ME, BE, CN, RN), fearless dominance (composed of

SOI, F, STI), and coldheartedness. For the preliminary validation of the PPI-R English and

Filipino versions in a sample of 150 college students, internal consistency of the scales (in

English and Filipino) are fair to moderate with the Coldheartedness scale obtaining a value

of lower than .60. For the male prisoner sample, internal consistencies of the PPI-R ranges

from .28 (SOI) to .67 (ME) for the content scales and .41 (C) to .83 (SCI) for the factor

scales. The Cronbach’s alpha for the total score is .77 indicating. The male prisoner sample

showed lower internal consistency indexes compared to the U.S. male prisoner sample

reported in Lilienfeld and Widows (2005) and with the preliminary version of the Filipino

PPI-R version among college students (data available to Mr. John Hermes C. Untalan).

Considering that the nature of the study is exploratory, the analyses of the PPI-R scales are

continued in order to execute the goal of this study. Caution however is observed by the

researchers in interpreting the results of the study.

Data Procedure

Analysis of data was subjected using the Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS)

version 14. Frequency and descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were used

to describe the percentage value of the variables. Internal consistencies of the scales used

in the study were subjected thru reliability analysis. Meanwhile, simultaneous multiple

regression (SMR) analysis was used to determine the significant personality trait

predictors, which identifies the important markers or descriptors, of psychopathy.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Five-Factor Model of Personality Profile of the Male Prisoners

Based on the analysis, the reliabilities of the NEO-PI-R suffered low reliability

coefficient values as shown in Table 2. We interpret this problem with three artifactual

explanations that is related to the NEO-PI-R’s issue on brevity, cross-cultural applicability,

and problems of using self-report inventories in prison populations. First, because of the

shortness of the facet scales with only 8-items, the shortness of the scale may have caused

the problem. This brevity feature has been faulted by several researchers as a

psychometric problem of the NEO-PI-R. But this explanation does not fit well with the

multitude of studies showing the consistency of the NEO-PI-R in many Western studies.

Because many of the reported studies on the NEO-PI-R are Western in nature using

American and European samples, culture might influence the result of the study, which

leads to our second interpretation.

Culture might impose various understanding of the items of the scales of the NEO-

PI-R resulting to misunderstanding with the items or the items do not necessarily reflect

Filipino experiences. This second explanation is partly supported by the study of Katigbak,

Church and Akamine (2002) wherein they have reported that in terms of the facet scales,

internal consistencies of the Philippine sample (usually college students) is lower than the

U.S. counterpart ranging from .26 (Tender-Mindedness) to .73 (self-Discipline) with a mean

α of .59. They conclude that “the low Philippine αs may reflect cultural differences, but also

the lower coherence of the items in these facets generally” (p. 88).

A third and last explanation why the facet scales of the NEO-PI-R reached negligible

αs is the prisoner’s constant self-abnegation or lack of insight to describe themselves

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properly (personal communication by Mr. J. H. Untalan with Dr. Resureccion Morales,

February 2007). Prisoners suffer from not being able to present themselves truthfully

because of the fact that they lack insight or guilt to their wrongdoings or mistakes, which

they (prisoners) probably consider not as mistakes. Many studies have showed that

prisoner’s suffers from constant misperception or cognitive distortion (similar to

Feningsten’s theory of cognitive dissonance; see Bem, 1967 and Bem & Allen, 1974) of their

personalities and is inevitable with any research that involves prisoners. Despite this

assumption, no strong empirical evidence has proven the self-enhancing, deceptive

mechanisms of prisoners in self-reporting impression management, social desirability, or

malingering has been reported. This problem is not only suffered by self-report personality

in particular but also with other self-report assessments in general. “As Hogan implies, the

purpose of self-reports is to gather data from which the researcher can make inferences, not

to rely on the reporter to provide an accurate assessment” (p. 51-52; cited by Wiebe (2004)

with one reference omitted by the Authors). The responses made by the reporter, despite

being false, is also considered as real data for it is what the reporter is projecting in his self-

report that matters than not having a response at all (Blackburn, 1998b).

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INSERT TABLE 2 HERE

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Table 2 shows the internal consistency, descriptive statistics, estimated T score

values, and verbal interpretation of the mean scores of the male prisoners’ responses on

the NEO-PI-R. Raw scores of the participants were converted into T scores in order to

determine the level of personality traits. Estimated T values are derived from the

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descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) of adults (N = 500 men) as reported in

McCrae and Costa (1994). Based on the analysis, majority or 24 out of the 35 of the scales

(both domain and facet) obtained a very high estimated T score value indicating that the

prisoners self-reported very high characteristics of them in these traits. Out of the

remaining 11 scales, 10 scales obtained an estimated T score value in the high range while

one scale (O6: Values) obtained an average T score value. At the descriptive level, male

prisoners reported that they are emotionally unstable (with very high scores on anxiety,

depression, self-consciousness, impulsiveness, and vulnerability; and high score on angry

hostility), extraverted (with very high warmth and gregariousness; and high assertiveness,

excitement-seeking, activity, and positive emotions), open-minded to many experiences

(with very high on aesthetics, feelings, and actions; high on fantasy and ideas; and average

on values), very agreeable (with very high on straightforwardness, altruism, compliance,

modesty, and tender-mindedness; and high on trust), and conscientious (with very high

competence, order, achievement striving and deliberation; and high on dutifulness and self-

discipline).

Although contrary to Western researches suggesting prisoners are more likely

characterized by high antagonism and lack of conscientiousness (Lynam & Widiger, 2005;

Miller & Lynam, 2001; Wiebe, 2004), the participants of this study viewed themselves the

other way around—that is, they were more highly agreeable and conscientious. On the

part of the prisoners, this is interpreted as their ability to present themselves in a socially

acceptable manner in order to conceal their true personalities that which they deem to be

invasive of their characteristics to the outsider (i.e., to any researchers). There is also the

presence of pressure among prisoners to present themselves in a light condition

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considering that rehabilitation or institutionalization inside prison suggests that they

behave in a socially acceptable manner that which dissociates with their true personalities.

Hence, it is in this light that the prisoners fail to present themselves accurately and respond

to the items in a socially acceptable manner.

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INSERT TABLE 3 HERE

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Psychopathic Personality Traits Profile of the Male Prisoners

Table 3, as shown above, tabulates the descriptive statistics (mean and SD), internal

consistency, range of scores, estimated T score values, and verbal interpretation of the

mean scores of the male prisoners’ responses on the PPI-R. Converted T score values are

derived from the descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) of male offenders (N

= 154) as reported in Lilienfeld and Widows (2005). All PPI-R scales obtained an estimated

T score value which is interpreted as not clinically significant. This indicates that the

psychopathic traits levels of the male prisoners are not considered clinically significant.

However, this does not necessarily imply that the male prisoners in this study do not suffer

from psychopathic manifestations. Lilienfeld (Lilienfeld & Widows, 2005) stressed that the

scales of the PPI-R were created to indicate severe, clinical manifestation of psychopathic

traits. Lower scores do not indicate absence or constitute low levels of the psychopathic

traits but shows that respondents are not active in this area.

Comparing the mean scores of the male prisoners with the American male offender

sample (n = 154) reported by Lilienfeld and Widows (2005), Filipino male prisoners scored

higher on ME, RN, BE, F, STI, and GPI. This indicates that compared to American offenders,

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Filipino male offenders in this study are higher in endorsing traits of manipulation,

nonconformity, blaming others, lack of fear, immune from stress, and has a higher

manifestation of overall psychopathic traits. However, the direct comparison made cannot

provide statistical significance whether such higher scores of Filipino male offenders are

results of score variance (see Untalan, 2009b).

Despite the non-clinical significance of the psychopathic traits, the T scores of the

participants would reveal that among the facet traits of the PPI-R, male offenders scored

higher in STI (T=84), RN (T=57), and ME (T=55) traits. These psychopathic traits suggest

that these offenders, at the mean level analysis, reveal that male offenders have “the

tendency to remain calm in the face of anxiety-provoking stimuli and a lack of tension

under pressure” (p. 22; Lilienfeld & Widows, 2005) due to high level of stress immunity.

On average, the male offenders as well manifest a “propensity toward unconventionality,

anti-authority attitudes, and reckless defiance of societal norms” (p. 21; Lilienfeld &

Widows, 2005) as presented by the Rebellious Nonconformity trait; and, “willingness to

manipulate others for selfish goals and a cynical and harshly instrumental view of human

nature” (p. 21; Lilienfeld & Widows, 2005) as supported by the presence of Machiavellian

Egocentricity trait.

While the global index of the PPI-R did not yield any clinical significance, a closer

look at the three factors of the PPI-R would reveal that the Fearless Dominance (FD) factor

scored marginally high (T=58). This suggests that on average, there is a predominant FD

activation of psychopathy among the prisoner participants. The FD factor suggests a

“tendency toward lack of anticipatory social and physical anxiety, low levels of tension and

worry, low harm avoidance, and high levels of interpersonal dominance” (p. 22; Lilienfeld

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& Widows, 2005). This characteristic is expected since the Stress Immunity facet, which

obtained a clinically significant status, is included in this factor together with Fearlessness

and Social Influence.

Hence, it suggests that the Filipino male offenders who responded in this study

present an emotionally stable nature than being highly anxious and depressed. This is true

to some extent because majority of the prisoners who participated in this study have been

institutionalized in the jail system prior to being sent at the prison level suggesting that

vulnerability is an expression of weakness and failure to conform to the machismo setting.

However, the remainder of the prisoners may possess vulnerability to situations and

become prone to anxiety and depression as supported by the high scores on the

Neuroticism domain of the NEO-PI-R including the Anxiety, Depression, and Vulnerability

facets. This notion is highly expressed particularly when prisoners have time to sit down

with me and talk with me their cases and conditions. In local jargon, this experience among

male prisoners is collectively termed as buryong (boredom; Saplala, 2004). A clinical

acumen would lead us to suspect that these prisoners present a cognitively distorted view

of themselves describing themselves as psychologically “healthy” within the survey but

displays incongruent affect and behaviors when interviewed.

Regression Analysis

Twenty-four simultaneous regression analyses was conducted entering the FFM

domain and facet traits of each domain independently as predictors to eleven PPI-R

criterions (eight content scales, three factor scales (the last factor is the only loading content

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scale), and the total psychopathy index. Table 4 shows a summary of the significant FFM

NEO-PI-R predictors of PPI-R psychopathy. 2

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INSERT TABLE 4 HERE

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Based on the analysis, various significant personality traits predicted psychopathy

and its particular facet traits. All five domain traits of the five-factor model significantly

contributed in the prediction of psychopathy. The Global Psychopathy Index (GPI) of the

PPI-R was predicted by three domain traits namely, neuroticism (N), extraversion (E), and

antagonism (-A), R=.334, adjR2=.250, p<.001. This prediction is even elucidated at the facet

level wherein PPI-R GPI is predicted by impulsiveness (N5), assertiveness (E3), and non-

straightforwardness (-A2), R=.464, adjR2=.151, p<.001. This finding suggest that the typical

psychopathic personality of the Filipino male offenders generally display a tendency to be

emotionally unstable with emphasis on high failing to resist impulses and be attracted to

temptations; and failure to keep their feelings under control. More so, they have the

tendency to become dominant, forceful, and assertive as indicated by the facet of

assertiveness. In addition, they are selfish, egotistical, cold and calculating which are

considered cardinal symptoms of interpersonal and affective deficits or Factor 2 of the PCL-

R psychopathy (Hare, 2003).

Among the three factors of the PPI-R, the Fearless Dominance (FD) factor was

predicted highly by the domain traits of N, E, -A, and conscientiousness (C), R=.556,

adjR2=.300 p<.001. It is further elucidated by the prediction of the following facet traits:

2 Data is available for the specific beta coefficients of the significant domain and facet trait predictors of psychopathy to Mr. J. H. Untalan.

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non-vulnerability (N6), warmth (E1), assertiveness (E3), excitement-seeking (E5), and

openness to ideas (O5), R=.604, adjR2=.313, p<.001. The Self-Centered Impulsivity (SCI)

factor was predicted by two domain traits namely, N and E, R=.395, adjR2=.145, p<.001. At

the facet level, SCI was predicted by angry hostility (N2), self-consciousness (N4),

impulsiveness (N5), and lack of tender-mindedness (-A6), R=.511, adjR2=.201, p<.001.

Lastly, Coldheartedness was predicted by emotional stability (-N), introversion (-E), and

antagonism (-A), R=.320, adjR2=.091, p<.001. At the facet level, coldheartedness was

specifically predicted by lack of depression (-N3), lack of warmth (-E1), and high

deliberation (C6), R=.467, adjR2=.154, p<.001.

The findings of the three PPI-R factors support the hypothesis proposed by

Lilienfeld and Widows (2005). For example, FD is exemplified by a characteristic of being a

thrill-seeker, openness to ideas, and non-vulnerability. On the other, SCI is demonstrated

by lack of being thoughtful to others or egocentric thinking and impulsivity. Surprisingly,

the PPI-R Coldheartedness factor showed an interesting association. Lilienfeld (in

Lilienfeld & Widows, 2005) define this facet/factor of the PPI-R as the “propensity toward

callousness, guiltlessness, and lack of sentimentality” (p. 21). Moreover, it “reflects an

absence of tender social emotions and a callous failure to sympathize with others’ feelings”

(p. 22). In the preliminary report of the PPI-R (Lilienfeld & Widows, 2005), the

Coldheartedness factor correlated significantly with the short version of the NEO-PI-R

domain traits of E, r=-.20, p<.05, and A, r=-.34, p<.01. This study supports the E domain

relationship and even the non-significant findings reported by Lilienfeld (in Lilienfeld &

Widows, 2005) in the PPI-R Professional Manual. Overall, the finding of this study

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regarding the validity of the Coldheartedness factor of the PPI-R is satisfactory with its

proposed hypothesis.

At the content level of the PPI-R, prediction patterns of the NEO-PI-R domain and

facet traits were similar with Western findings. For example, Carefree Nonplanfulness (CN)

was predicted negatively by the NEO-PI-R C trait, R=.250, adjR2=.050, p<.001, at the domain

level and lack of competence (-C1), R=.372, adjR2=.067, p<.001, at the facet level. Because

the PPI-R have no results regarding the facet traits of the NEO, this study showed new

results as well such as the prediction of Openness to Aesthetics (O2) at the facet level,

R=.414, adjR2=.104, β2=.021 p<.001, with Rebellious Nonconformity (RN). Interestingly,

the findings provide preliminary predictions between the PPI-R content scales with the

facet traits of the NEO-PI-R.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

The construct of psychopathic personality traits possesses a cross-cultural

replicability in a non-collectivistic culture such as in Asia in general and the Philippines in

particular. This suggests that the construct has applicability in both theory and applied

areas of psychological science. Additionally, the general dimensions of the Five-Factor

Model have the ability to translate and elaborate the core traits of psychopathy in a normal

personality functioning perspective. Overall psychopathy is described by the NEO-PI-R as

high Neuroticism and Extraversion, and low Agreeableness (or high Antagonism).

Specifically, the facet traits or subtraits provide a robust indicator of identifying specific

traits related to psychopathy. Moreover, the finding provides an account on how the

domain and facet factors can be of use in the translation of the core traits of psychopathy

among Filipinos, despite of low to modest correlations.

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On the overall index of psychopathy, it can be seen that a secondary type of

psychopathy is manifested among the male prisoners sampled in this data. According to

Karpman (1948), secondary or “idiopathic” psychopathy is described as “byproducts of

anxiety, guilt, and other premorbid psychological difficulties” (p. 1, Lilienfeld & Widows,

2005). In the study, this is presented by a high prediction of the neuroticism domain trait

across content, factor, and overall index of the PPI-R. Moreover, there were more

neuroticism facet traits that predicted the PPI-R suggesting that the domain and facets of

neuroticism explains well the psychopathic personality among the male offenders of this

study.

Aside from the neuroticism domain, the domain of the Agreeableness (A; or better

termed as Antagonism here because of the negative relationship found between the two)

predicted significantly as expected with the common trend of the psychopathy and the five-

factor model of personality (c.f. Lynam & Derefniko, 2006; Lynam & Widiger, 2007; Widiger

& Lynam, 1998). This finding extends a local finding from nonclinical-non-offender

population (Untalan et al., 2008) to offender populations suggestive that a common pattern

on the relationship between personality and psychopathy—that is, antagonism and

psychopathy—is cross-generalizable.

In terms of the hypothesis proposed by Lynam & Widiger (2007), it can be seen that

across the domain level of the NEO-PI-R, extreme highly antagonistic characteristic

predicted almost all scales of the PPI-R. Pan-impulsivity predicted the global index of

psychopathy, the SCI factor and its two content scales namely ME and BE. Negative self-

directed affect predicted the factor and content scale of Coldheartedness. Further, facet

traits of negative self-directed affected predicted the FD factor including its two content

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scales namely STI and SOI. Presence of angry hostility, a facet of the Neuroticism trait,

predicted only the factor scale of SCI and the content scale of CN. And lastly, interpersonal

assertiveness predicted the GPI, the SCI factor, and the CN content scale of the PPI-R.

The variation of these predictions relied as well on the strength of the prediction of

the normal personality traits. It should be reiterated here that in the case of antagonism

and negative self-directed affect, they are the domain traits of A and N respectively.

Meanwhile, pan-impulsivity, angry-hostility, and assertiveness, are simply facet traits of the

FFM NEO-PI-R. Hence, it is more likely that the domain traits of A and N significantly

predicted the PPI-R scales whether at the global, factor, or content level. This method

invariance presents a future investigation in order to help attenuate the

overrepresentation of the negative self-directed affect and antagonism in understanding

psychopathy. Exploration of facet trait relationships and psychopathy are examples of

future researches that should be conducted in order to illuminate the distinction played by

domain and facets traits of the FFM.

Limitations and Recommendations

There are two limitations that are found in this study. The first limitation is

methodological in nature. Assessment of psychopathy among male prisoners is usually

diagnostic using the structure interview PCL-R. However, because the participation of the

male prisoners in this study does not permit us to review their file histories, which is a

requirement of the PCL-R; and time does not permit us as well to conduct extensive

interviews with each prisoner, we relied on using a self-report inventory of assessing

psychopathy. Based on the study by Lilienfeld and Widows (2005), the PPI-R GPI is

correlated modestly with the PCL-R Total Score and its two factors. Also, the use of the

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PPI-R does not permit us to diagnose male prisoners who are psychopathic or labeled as

psychopath. Rather, the PPI-R permits me to assess the manifesting psychopathic trait

tendencies of the prisoners. Psychopathic trait tendencies are more likely the components

of what constitutes a psychopath, but nonetheless are not psychopathic by themselves.

Hence, future researches should be conducted in the area of diagnosing male offenders who

are psychopathic or psychopaths using the PCL-R.

Further, the instruments used in this study are mostly foreign in nature. Local

studies (Carlota & Lazo, 1980) have demonstrated that the use of foreign instruments in

the local setting do not warrant a generalized cultural implication of the Western

psychological constructs in the local context. But because the study is exploratory in

nature, foreign instruments were used since there are no local instruments that assess the

dimensions of the variables under study.3 It is recommended that the scales used should

be improved in using with Filipino prisoner populations by adapting the items that

represents above .30 item-total correlations to improve their reliabilities. By increasing

their reliability values, this will increase the total reliability value of the scales. By

following such method, it would also lead to shortening the scale which only showcases

items that reflect Filipino understanding.

The second limitation is the use of the sample population for this study. The study is

limited to the male prisoners located at the Reception and Diagnostic Center (RDC) of the

New Bilibid Prison (NBP). Prisoners in this Center are assessed and evaluated in terms of

their security level before they are placed to the three security levels (e.g., maximum,

3 It should be noted that the NEO-PI-R has been translated in the Filipino-Tagalog language (McCrae et al., 1998) and many efforts are conducted in using this instrument among Filipinos (Katigbak et al., 2002). In light of personality theorizing in cross-cultural studies, the FFM or the Big Five Theory has proven to be replicable and captured within the Filipino culture (Guanzon-Lapeña, 2008).

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medium, and minimum) and for transfer in various prison colonies. Although the sample

population represents heterogeneity of criminals in the country, nonetheless, they do not

represent homogeneity of criminal behaviors.

Implications

In the light of the study’s main findings, it is suggested that the construct of

psychopathy presents a genuine approach on understanding criminal personality among

Filipino offenders. It also coincides with the particular need and gaining interest of

studying the interface between clinical and forensic psychology in the Philippines. To some

extent, this study replicates previous findings from the Western literature and provides

new understanding of the psychopathy construct in a non-individualistic culture. This

presents a future endeavor in conducting researches with particular interest on the

interface between culture and personality (Church, 2000; Markus & Kitayama, 1998) and

personality and psychopathology (Kruger & Tackett, 2006). It will also provide a cultural

understanding of psychopathy which is still missing in the scientific literature.

The findings of this study preliminary demonstrate the viability of using the

psychopathy construct as assessed by a self-report approach. This may be contributive in

the prison assessment of Filipino male offenders particularly when clinical diagnostic

procedures of psychopathology are unavailable. In the future discourse of studying

criminal personality among Filipinos, the psychopathy construct ultimately has a place in

understanding the possibility of a Filipino criminal mind. To paraphrase Hare (1996), the

time has truly come for the clinical construct of psychopathy!

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AUTHORS’ NOTE

Oral paper presentation read at the Southeast Asia Psychology Conference, School of

Psychology and Social Work, University Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia, July 10

2009 and at the 46th Annual Convention of the Psychological Association of the Philippines,

Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental, August 18, 2009. This paper is an abridged and expanded

version of the author’s thesis submitted to the Graduate School, University of Santo Tomas,

Manila, defended last March 2009. The author is indebted to the valuable contribution of

Dr. Dolores De Leon (Graduate School, University of Santo Tomas), who served as co-

research supervisor during initial stages of the first author’s master thesis project.

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Table 1. Socio-demographic Data of the 397 Male Prisoners.

Note: Highest frequencies are in bold maxima.

Sociodemographic Factors f % Sociodemographic Factors F % Current Age (M = 37.92; SD = 9.21) Civil Status

20-30 years old 98 24.7 Single 145 36.5

31-41 years old 172 43.3 Married 204 51.4

42-52 years old 97 24.4 Separated 39 9.8

53-63 years old 27 6.8 Widower 9 2.3

64-74 years old 3 0.8

Religion Educational Attainment

Aglipay 3 0.8 Elementary Level 31 7.8

Born Again 28 7.1 Elementary Graduate 21 5.3

Iglesia Ni Cristo 22 5.5 High School Level 129 32.5

Islam 7 1.8 High School Graduate 82 20.7

Jehova's Witness 2 0.5 Vocational 28 7.1

Roman Catholic 312 78.6 College Level 74 18.6

7th Day Adventist 5 1.3 College Graduate 31 7.8

Not Indicated 3 0.8 Post Graduate 1 .3

Others 15 3.8

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Table 2. Internal Consistency, Descriptive Statistics (Mean and Standard Deviation), and T Score of the NEO-PI-R.

NEO-PI-R Scales α Mean SD Range SEM T Score

Neuroticism .73 132.88 13.73 88-165 0.69 79

N1: Anxiety .33 22.83 3.71 10-34 0.19 70

N2: Angry Hostility .60 19.21 4.16 8-34 0.21 65

N3: Depression .54 22.32 4.29 10-40 0.22 70

N4: Self-Consciousness .06 25.67 3.10 17-36 0.16 79

N5: Impulsiveness .02 22.64 3.08 13-33 0.15 68

N6: Vulnerability .46 20.22 3.93 8-32 0.20 79

Extraversion .62 150.26 11.75 114-201 0.59 72

E1: Warmth .48 29.09 3.64 16-37 0.18 67

E2: Gregariousness .46 26.75 3.81 14-40 0.19 72

E3: Assertiveness .29 21.88 3.65 13-33 0.18 62

E4: Activity .28 23.47 3.17 14-32 0.16 63

E5: Excitement-Seeking .33 22.87 3.77 12-35 0.19 62

E6: Positive Emotions .26 26.21 3.37 16-38 0.17 65

Openness to Experience .42 146.48 10.39 118-193 0.52 70

O1: Fantasy .22 21.98 3.56 13-33 0.18 61

O2: Aesthetics .31 26.83 3.47 17-38 0.17 69

O3: Feelings .17 25.68 3.16 16-39 0.16 67

O4: Actions .14 23.64 2.77 15-36 0.14 71

O5: Ideas .43 25.43 3.68 16-37 0.18 60

O6: Values .06 22.92 3.04 13-34 0.15 55

Agreeableness .64 165.23 13.40 110-203 0.67 78

A1: Trust .37 26.18 3.43 13-36 0.17 62

A2: Straightforwardness .39 27.29 3.89 12-37 0.20 66

A3: Altruism .40 29.39 3.74 14-39 0.19 67

A4: Compliance .42 29.07 3.91 18-39- 0.20 79

A5: Modesty .33 25.99 3.82 12-38 0.19 68

A6: Tender-Mindedness .34 27.30 3.58 12-39 0.18 69

Conscientiousness .80 170.43 16.10 120-219 0.81 77

C1: Competence .51 28.08 3.97 15-40 0.20 66

C2: Order .28 27.12 3.56 15-40 0.18 70

C3: Dutifulness .40 29.27 3.45 16-40 0.17 65

C4: Achievement Striving .29 28.36 3.26 13-36 0.16 71

C5: Self-Discipline .54 28.43 4.02 16-40 0.20 65

C6: Deliberation .44 29.17 4.52 12-68 0.23 78

Note: n=397. α = Cronbach’s α; SEM = Standard Error Mean. Domain traits are in bold maxima.

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Table 3. Internal Consistency, Descriptive Statistics (Mean and Standard Deviation), and T Score of the PPI-R.

PPI-R Scales α Mean SD Range SEM T Score

Content Scales

Machiavellian Egocentricity .67 43.17 8.41 23-71 0.42 55

Rebellious Nonconformity .65 32.18 7.16 16-51 0.36 57

Blame Externalization .54 34.18 6.87 17-53 0.34 50

Careless Nonplanfulness .64 31.57 6.90 19-84 0.35 48

Social Influence .55 42.74 8.27 22-69 0.41 43

Fearlessness .50 31.38 6.35 14-56 0.32 50

Stress Immunity .28 34.69 5.29 21-48 0.27 84

Coldheartedness .41 29.77 6.14 18-75 0.31 46

Total Score

Global Psychopathy Index .77 279.67 27.48 203-369 1.38 49

Factor Scales

Self-Centered Impulsivity .83 141.10 21.48 91-201 1.08 52

Fearless Dominance .59 108.80 13.57 71-173 0.68 58

Coldheartedness .41 29.77 6.14 18-75 0.31 46

Validity Scales

Virtuous Responding .32 35.37 5.32 20-48 0.27 55

Deviant Responding .52 16.98 4.15 9-35 0.21 63

Note: n=397. α = Cronbach’s α; SEM = Standard Error Mean.

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Table 4. Regression Summary of the Personality Domain and Facet Traits Predictors of Psychopathy.

PPI-R Scales First Simultaneous Multiple Regression

R Adj R2 β2 NEO-PI-R Domain Traits

Total Score

Global Psychopathy Index .334 .250 .118 N, E, Aa

Factor Scales

Self-Centered Impulsivity .395 .145 .179 N, E

Fearless Dominance .556 .300 .216 N, E, Aa, C

Coldheartedness .320 .091 .114 Na, Ea, Aa

Content Scales

Machiavellian Egocentricity .417 .164 .268 N, E, Oa, Aa

Rebellious Nonconformity .282 .068 .088 N, E

Blame Externalization .413 .160 .236 N, A

Careless Nonplanfulness .250 .050 .048 Ca

Social Influence .541 .284 .242 Aa

Fearlessness .346 .108 .083 Aa

Stress Immunity .468 .209 .179 Aa, C

Coldheartedness .320 .091 .114 Na, Ea, Aa

Second Simultaneous Multiple Regression

R Adj R2 β2 NEO-PI-R Facets Traits

Total Score

Global Psychopathy Index .464 .151 .051 N5, E3, A2a

Factor Scales

Self-Centered Impulsivity .511 .201 .074 N2, N4, N5, A6a

Fearless Dominance .604 .313 .115 N6a, E1, E3, E5, O5

Coldheartedness .467 .154 .118 N3a, E1a, C6

Content Scales

Machiavellian Egocentricity .533 .225 .108 N4, N5, E5, O1a, O6a, A2a

Rebellious Nonconformity .414 .104 .021 O2

Blame Externalization .504 .193 .107 N4, N5, O2, A1a, A6a

Careless Nonplanfulness .372 .067 .071 N2, C1a

Social Influence .608 .318 .145 N6a, E1, E3, O4, A5a

Fearlessness .483 .170 .104 N3, E5, A2a

Stress Immunity .542 .236 .066 N3a, O6, A2, C5

Coldheartedness .467 .154 .118 N3a, E1a, C6

Note: a = refers to significant trait predictors with negative relationship. All is significant at .001 level. PPI-R = Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Revised, NEO-PI-R = Revised NEO Personality Inventory; N = Neuroticism, E = Extraversion, O = Openness to Experience, A = Agreeableness, C = Conscientiousness, N2 = Angry Hostility, N3 = Depression, N4 = Self-Consciousness, N5 = Impulsiveness, N6 = Vulnerability, E1 = Warmth, E3 = Assertiveness, E5 = Excitement-Seeking, O1 = Fantasy, O2 = Aesthetics, O4 = Actions, O5 = Ideas, O6 = Values, A1 = Trust, A2 = Straightforwardness, A5 = Modesty, A6 = Tender-Mindedness, C1 = Competence, C5 = Self-Discipline; C6 = Deliberation. R = Multiple R, Adj.R2 = adjusted R square, β2 = total β2 of significant predictors.