VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI

UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL

STUDIES

FACULTY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION

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PHẠM THỊ HỒNG NHUNG

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION IN SADNESS

EXPRESSION IN VIETNAM AND ENGLISH -

SPEAKING COUNTRIES

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS (TEFL)

Hanoi, May 2010

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI

UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL

STUDIES

FACULTY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION

---� � ---

PHẠM THỊ HỒNG NHUNG

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION IN SADNESS

EXPRESSION IN VIETNAM AND ENGLISH -

SPEAKING COUNTRIES

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS (TEFL)

SUPERVISOR: ĐẶNG NGỌC SINH, MA

Hanoi, May 2010

ACCEPTANCE PAGE

I hereby state that I: PHẠM THỊ HỒNG NHUNG, 061E5, being a

candidate for the degree of Bachelor of Arts (TEFL) accept the

requirements of the college relating to the retention and use of bachelor’s

graduation paper deposited in the library.

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the origin of my paper deposited

in the library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research,

in accordance with the normal conditions established y the librarian for

the care, loan or reproduction of the paper.

Signature

Pham Thi Hong Nhung

Hanoi, May 4th

, 2010

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to many people who

have assisted me in the completion of my research.

First and foremost, I am deeply indebted to my supervisor, Mr.

Dang Ngoc Sinh for his patient guidance, critical feedback,

encouragement, and constructive supervision throughout my research. I

would also like to express my sincere thanks to Mrs. Nguyen Thi Thanh

Huong, who supported me a lot and gave me valuable advice in the

process of doing research.

I would like to thank Mrs. Dao Thu Trang for her interesting

lectures on cross-cultural communication subject, which provides me

general background knowledge for the research and other teachers in

English Department for their great assistance.

I would like to extend my thanks to all of my friends who have

always encouraged, assisted and give me a large number of useful advices

during my research.

My gratitude goes to all survey respondents in Hanoi who

contributed to the data of this research.

The support extended to me by members of my family has been

immeasurable. I would like to express my sincere thanks to my father, my

mother, and my brother for their support and encouragement throughout

my study.

ABSTRACT

A large number of studies relating to nonverbal communication and

emotional expression have been carried out over the past years. From the

previous studies that nonverbal cues plays an important role in emotional

expression has been well-acknowledged. Little investigation, however,

has been conducted to focus on nonverbal communication in sadness

expresssion. In order to fill the gap, the researcher is allowed to undertake

the present study. To be more specific, the objective of the study is to find

the similarities and differences in nonverbal sadness expression and to

address factors influencing sadness expression in Vietnamese and

English-speaking countries. In order to fulfill its objectives,

questionnaires were delivered to 50 Vietnamese and 50 Anglicist

including American, British, Australian and Canadian. Results indicated

that despite bearing some similarities in sadness expression via facial

expression, eye, hand gesture, posture, and proxemics between

Vietnamese and Anglophone culture, the differences are noticeable. Such

factors as age, gender, personality, relationship, and social setting exert a

profound effect on nonverbal communication in sadness expression.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

Acknowledgements i

Abstract ii

List of figures, tables, and abbreviations iii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

I. Statement of the problem and the rationale for the

study

1

II. Aims and objectives of the study 2

III. Significance of the study 2

IV. Scope of the study 3

V. Organisation 3

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

I. Communication

I.1. Definition of communication

I.2. Types of communication

I.2.1. Nonverbal communication

5

5

5

7

II. Cultural influences on communication 16

III. Cultural influences on nonverbal communication when

expressing emotion.

17

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

I. Selection of subjects 25

II. Data collection instrument 25

III. Procedures of data collection 27

IV. Procedures of data analysis 28

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

I. Similarities and differences in sadness expression via

nonverbal cues in Vietnam and English - speaking

countries

30

II. Factors influencing the frequency of sadness

expression via nonverbal cues in Vietnam and English

- speaking countries

47

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION

I. Summary of findings 52

II. Limitations 54

III. Suggestions for further research 54

IV. Contribution of the research 55

REFERENCES 56

APPENDICES

LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, AND ABBREVIATIONS

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Comparison between verbal and nonverbal communication

Table 2: Classification of nonverbal communication

Table 3: Frequency of using nonverbal communication

Table 4: Eye expression in percentage

Table 5: Level of sadness (eye)

Table 6: Level of sadness (eyebrow)

Table 7: Level of sadness (hand gesture)

Table 8: Level of sadness (posture)

Table 9: Proxemics expression in number

Table 10: Proxemics expression in percentage

Table 11: The influence of age (in percentage)

Table 12: The influence of gender (in percentage)

Table 13: The influence of personality (in percentage)

Table 14: The influence of relationship (in percentage)

Table 15: The influence of social setting (in percentage)

LIST OF CHARTS

Chart 1: Three elements of communication

Chart 2: Proxemics (Conversational distance)

Chart 3: Eye expression in number

Chart 4: Eyebrow expression in number

Chart 5: Eyebrow expression in percentage

Chart 6: Lip expression in number

Chart 7: Lip expression in percentage

Chart 8: Hand gesture expression in number

Chart 9: Hand gesture expression in percentage

Chart 10: Posture expression in number

Chart 11: Posture expression in percentage

Chart 12: The influence of personality (in percentage)

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

I. Statement of the problem and the rationale for the study

ommunication among people plays an integral part

of everyday life. The Oxford Advanced Learner’s

Dictionary (7th

ed.) defines communication as the

activity or process of expressing ideas and feelings

or of giving people information. It has been stated that most of us

spend about 75 % of our waking hours communicating our

knowledge, thoughts, and ideas to others (quoted in Do & Dao, 2006,

p. 70). Nguyen (2001) divides the process of communication into two:

verbal and nonverbal communication. Formerly, verbal and written

language received more attention than non-verbal cues. What is sent

by communication other than words has been thoroughly studied since

the 1960s. That is nonverbal communication, or body language

including the full range of gestures, facial expressions, eye contact,

and conversational distance (Levine and Adelman, 1993). Although

we do not always realize that we are sending and receiving messages

nonverbally, the influence of nonverbal communication is always

present in face-to-face communication. It is also estimated that

nonverbal behaviors account for 65% to 93% of the total meaning of

communication (Birdwhistell, 1970; Hickson & Stacks, 1985;

Mehrabian, 1981). Compared to verbal behaviors, nonverbal

communication is considered to be a less conscious process. As a

result, Martin & Nagayama (2004) propose that nonverbal behaviors

convey ‘real’ messages.

These days, cooperation among countries has offered more

opportunities for cross-cultural communication. The differences in

nonverbal cues, however, may exist between cultures are highly

C

likely to cause miscommunication or even culture shock for

interlocutors. Individual differences in the expression of emotion are

also important components for nonverbal communication.

All the things concerned above have offered the researcher an

opportunity to conduct a study on ‘NONVERBAL

COMMUNICATION IN SADNESS EXPRESSION IN VIETNAM

AND ENGLISH - SPEAKING COUNTRIES.’

II. Aims and objectives of the study

Regarding the aforementioned research gaps, the present

study is undertaken as an attempt to find out the similarities and

differences in expressing sadness through nonverbal cues in

Vietnamese and Anglophone cultures. Next, the researcher would

like to discover factors affecting nonverbal communication in

sadness expression in two cultures.

In short, the principal aims of the study could be summarized

into two research questions as follows:

1. What are similarities and differences in sadness

expression via nonverbal cues in Vietnam and English - speaking

countries?

2. What are related factors influencing sadness

expression via nonverbal cues in Vietnam and English-speaking

countries?

III. Significance of the study

Once having been completed, the study would serve as one of

the cross-cultural studies on nonverbal communication in general.

This paper might be a useful source for teachers & students who are

interested in the topic.

In addition to academic significance, the findings from the

research would probably contribute to the effectiveness of nonverbal

communication in the real life, especially in cross-cultural

environment.

IV. Scope of the study

Nonverbal communication in sadness expression in these two

different cultures takes a lot of time and effort to do research; as a

result, it is hard for the researcher to cover all aspects of these issues.

Due to time constraint, resources, the researcher’s knowledge and

experience, the primary focus will inevitably be on facial expression,

eyes, hand gestures, postures, and proxemics. The researcher could not

also deliver the questionnaire for people from all English – speaking

countries, therefore, all the participants come from the UK, the US,

Australia and Canada. Additionally, there is a great wealth of factors

which could affect ways of sad expression in these two cultures;

accordingly, the researcher will just cover five following related

factors: age, gender, personality, relationship, and social settings.

V. Organisation

The rest of the paper is organized as follows:

CHAPTER 2 (LITERATURE REVIEW) provides the

readers with theoretical background related to communication in

general, nonverbal communication and sadness expression with a view

to understanding the present research. It also highlights the main

issues and controversies around the problem. An overview of related

studies could also be found in this chapter.

CHAPTER 3 (METHODOLOGY) outlines the research

methods used and demonstrate that recognized procedures have been

followed in the study. In particular, this chapter describes and justifies

the procedures employed to select the participants and instruments for

the research as well as specific steps taken to collect data. The

explanation of how the data will be analyzed to address the research

questions would be included.

CHAPTER 4 (RESULTS AND DISCUSSION) states the

results collected from the instruments, and then the interpretation

would be presented. Throughout the chapter, tables, charts and other

suitable graphic materials would be added to illustrate.

CHAPTER 5 (CONCLUSION) contains the summary of the

main findings of the study, the brief limitations of the research and

some suggestions for further studies.

In addition, appendices including survey questionnaires for

English and Vietnamese participants should be attached at the end of

the study.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

I. Communication

1. Definition of communication

Perhaps, communication might well be considered to be one of

people’s most basic activities in daily life. We ourselves probably rarely

stopped to think what “communication” is really about or what we should

mean by “communication.”

Until now, there have been quite a few scholars who have proposed

their own definition of communication. Among them, Milton defined

“communication” in his book “Human behavior in organizations: three

levels of behavior” (1981) as basically “the process of transmitting

information between two or more persons.” Berko, Rosenfeld & Samovar

(1997, p.6), however, note that “communication is more than just sending

and receiving messages.” It is added that the process of communication

needs “a channel” including “six elements: senders, receivers, messages,

a context, a purpose, and feedback”. Additionally, Brooks & Heath, co-

authors of the book “Speech communication (6th ed.)” released in 1989

claim that communication also means the transmission of meanings and

feelings through the exchange of verbal and nonverbal messages. Levine

& Adelman (1993) appear to show their agreement with the two above-

mentioned definitions but they used brief words to define it. Their

concept of communication is “the process of sharing meaning through

verbal and nonverbal behavior” should be generally accepted throughout

the research.

2. Types of communication

To take a closer look at the web of expressions that people commit

every day, it should be noted that the existent types of communication in

the world these days should be understood. 1The reason for this is that the

awareness of the types of communication could open the person’s mind

in comprehending the things happening in daily life. If a person knows

only verbal communication but nonverbal communication, then he could

be “an alien” in the realm of “emotional communication,” for example.

Knowing the types of communication, therefore, is of vital importance in

daily communication.

2There is a consensus between Uttara Manohar (2008) and an

online expert team of writers in terms of types of communication. There

are two main types of communication in their point of view. Based on

style and purpose of communication, there can be two broad categories of

communication, which are formal communication and informal

communication. Both of them have their own set of characteristic

features.

Formal communication occurs in a set formal format such as at

work, at meetings or all sorts of business communication. The style of

communication in this form is very formal and official as its name; as a

result, formal communication should be “straightforward, official, and

always precise.”

On the other hand, informal communication is just only the way we

talk to each other daily. Informal means “relaxed” and “casual” so that

this form of communication often takes place between friends and family

members. That is the reason why unlike formal form, this one “does not

have any rigid rules and guidelines” (Manohar, 2008).

1 http://typesof-communication.com/ 2 http://www.buzzle.com/articles/types-of-communication.html http://www.communication-type.com/

As regards to the base of communication channels, communication

is divided into two other subcategories: verbal and nonverbal

communication. As stated in two online articles: “Types of

communication” by Manohar and “Communication” which are

mentioned above, verbal communication consists of “written and oral

communication.” Written communication could use snail mail or email as

two means of communication. An effective writing depends on its style,

the use of language, grammar, clarity, and precision of language. The

other type, oral communication refers to the “spoken words in the

communication process.” Meanwhile, Manohar (2008) defines nonverbal

communication as the overall body language of the person who is

speaking, which will include the body posture, the hand gestures, and

overall body movements.

The focus of the research is only nonverbal communication, thus,

this type of communication will be discussed in detail in the following

separate part.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Definition of nonverbal communication

There are scores of definitions that researchers and scholars

use to define non-verbal communication.

In the broadest sense, according to Knapp and Hall (2006, p.

23), the term ‘nonverbal communication’ is commonly used to

describe “all human communication events that transcend spoken

interpreted words.” Specifically, nonverbal communication

behaviors are those bodily actions and vocal qualities that typically

accompany a verbal message. Levine and Adelman (1993) also

define nonverbal communication as “the ‘silent’ language,

including the use of gestures, facial expressions, eye-contact, and

conversational distance.” This definition probably focuses on

kinesics – we often call it body language and just mention a small

part of environmental language.

To put it in a simple way, nonverbal communication is

everything that is communicated beyond what is expressed in

words.

Differences between verbal and nonverbal communication

Verbal and nonverbal communication is said to be two

communication systems which constitute different languages and

operate according to different laws. When we communicate person

in person, we send not only “discrete, digital, verbal symbols” but

also “continuous, analogical, nonverbal cues” at the same time

(Brooks & Heath, 1989). However, defining the difference between

verbal and nonverbal communication remains an area of

disagreement among experts. Regardless of this ongoing issue,

still, there are some unique characteristics to distinguish two kinds

of communication.

In terms of neurology, neurologists points out that the human

nervous neural handles these two kinds of cues differently. In

particular, they travel over different neural pathways in the brain.

Nonverbal cues moves in he older parts of the brain that develop in

the early years before digital information like words and numbers

are learned. Meanwhile, the pathways of the other lie in the portion

which develops late in the child.

The speed of reception of nonverbal cues is also different

from that of verbal ones. Analogical messages are received rapidly

while digital messages reach us more slowly. Hence nonverbal

messages are likely to be perceived and reacted to before the

perception of verbal ones.

There are other differences between verbal and nonverbal

behaviours than those of perception. Brooks and Heath (1989)

suggest that “words can and do represent abstractions such as love

and hate”; however, “nonverbal messages observed in one’s

behaviour are more likely to be directly related to the feeling of the

moment.” Moreover, as they propose, most verbal messages are

produced “intentionally” because of one’s will whereas nonverbal

cues are not easily controlled.

The table below by the William Alanson White Psychiatric

Foundation, Inc. quoted by Brooks & Heath (1989, p. 94) could

possibly make the comparison between verbal and nonverbal

communication clearer and easier to understand to readers.

Table 1:

Comparison between verbal and nonverbal communication

Nonverbal communication Verbal communication

1 Nonverbal communication is

based on continuous

functions; the hand is

continuously involved in

movement.

Verbal communication is

based on discontinuous

functions; sounds or letters

have a discrete beginning

and ending.

2 Nonverbal communication is

regulated primarily by

principles governed

biological necessity.

Verbal communication is

governed primarily by

arbitrary, manmade

principles.

3 Nonverbal communication

influences perception,

coordination, and

integration, and leads to the

Verbal communication

influences thinking and leads

to the acquisition of

information.

acquisition of skills.

4 Understanding of nonverbal

denotation is based upon the

participants’ emphatic

assessment of biological

similarity; no explanation is

needed for understanding

what pain is.

Understanding of verbal

denotation is based on prior

verbal agreement.

5 Nonverbal communication

uses the old structures of the

central and autonomic

nervous systems.

Verbal communication uses

younger brain structures,

particularly the cortex.

6 Nonverbal communication is

learned early in life.

Verbal communication is

learned later in life.

7 Action and objects exist in

their own right.

Words do not exist in their

own right. They are arbitrary

symbols representing

abstractions or events.

8 Nonverbal communication is

emotional to a great extent.

Verbal communication is

intellectual to a greater

extent.

9 Nonverbal communication

represents an intimate

language.

Verbal communication

represents a distant

language.

Principles of nonverbal communication

From those differences between verbal and nonverbal

communication above, three axioms or principles of nonverbal

communication could be suggested by Brooks & Heath in their

book “Speech communication” published in 1989.

In their opinion, the fist principle is “one cannot not

communicate.” All behaviours which can be observed or visible

can bring “message value.” Brooks & Heath propose that if we do

not want to communicate, we can refuse to speak. That means

verbal communication can be avoided; we, however, cannot avoid

communicating nonverbally. Inactivity or silence itself, for

example, has its own meaning.

Secondly, feelings and emotions, attitudes and relationships

are effectively communicated through nonverbal behaviors. People

usually use verbal communication – words to share cognitive

information and to transmit knowledge, meanwhile nonverbal cues

are best for conveying feelings, emotions and attitudes – non-

cognitive information. Watzlawick, Beavin, Jackson (1967, p.63)

add that when relationship is the central concern of communication

(superior-subordinate, leader-follower, helper-helped...), verbal

language is almost meaningless. Brooks & Heath (1989) explain

more as follows:

In courtship, love, or combat, nonverbal communication is

the effective mode. One can, of course, verbally profess love

or trust, but these are most meaningfully communicated

through the nonverbal codes. The verbal channel has a high

potential for carrying semantic information, while the

nonverbal channel has high potential for carrying affective

information. The emotional side of the message is very often

expressed by the nonverbal elements. When we express a

liking or disliking for a person, we often express it, not only

through what we way, but through how we say it. (p. 95-96)

Berko, Rosenfeld & Samovar (1997) also show their

agreement with Brooks & Heath when claiming that emotions and

feelings are more accurately and easily communicated through

nonverbal cues. The possible reason may stem from the fact that

most nonverbal ones are innate and unconscious.

Last but not least, “involuntary nonverbal messages are often

of high validity” (Brooks & Heath, 1989). It implies that when

verbal and nonverbal communication conflict, the nonverbal

messages are characteristically the more accurate reflection of

feelings and tend to be more believed. As mentioned above, verbal

communication can be manipulated; someone is intent on choosing

words with care. Meanwhile, as Berko, Rosenfeld, & Samovar

(1997) said, “nonverbal behaviors are often below the level of

awareness and are not easily controlled” consciously; as a result, it

could be hard to distort or deceive nonverbal messages. That is the

reason why nonverbal messages are often regarded as the more

accurate indicator of feelings and emotions.

Importance of nonverbal communication

Nonverbal communication plays an important role in our

communication and relationships with others. Those identifiable

characteristics highlight its usefulness. In communicating, we tend

to emphasize the spoken word or verbal communication, yet much

of the meaning of a message – 65% or more – is actually conveyed

by our nonverbal behaviors (Birdwhistell, 1970). To a great extent,

communication researcher Mehrabian (1981) shows his agreement

with Birdwhistell when he comes to a conclusion from his findings

that three elements of any face-to-face communication account

differently for the total meaning of the message: nonverbal

behavior account for 55 %, tone of voice 38 % and words just 7 %.

These percents are shown in the chart below:

Consequently, nonverbal behavior is an important part of

helping because of the large amount of information it

communicates.

Classification of nonverbal communication

Some forms of non-verbal signals are the same and universal

and they have the same meaning or interpretation. The other forms,

nonetheless, are different and have different meaning too or no

meaning in the other culture. Craig Storti in “Figuring Out” as

quoted by Wienchecki (1999) mentions three main categories of

non-verbal communication in the cross-cultural context. These are:

a. Non-verbal behaviours which exist in your own culture

and in the target culture which have the same meaning in both

cultures.

b. Non-verbal behaviours which exist in both cultures, but

which are assigned different meanings in the two cultures.

Chart 1:

Three elements of communication

c. Non-verbal behaviours which have meaning in one culture

but no meaning at all in the target language.

In my view, this classification might be too general. Nguyen

(2006) provides a detailed chart quoted by Do & Dao (2006, p.9) to

put nonverbal communication into two following broad categories:

Table 2:

Classification of nonverbal communication

Paralanguage

Extralanguage

Body

language

(Kinesics)

Object

language

(Artifacts)

Environmental

language

+ Vocal

characteristics

* pitch

* volume

* rate

* vocal quality

* types of vocal

flow

+ Vocal

interferences

+ Silence

+ ...

+ Eye contact

+ Facial

expressions

+ Gestures

+ Postures

+ Touch /

Haptics /

Tactile

+ ...

+ Clothing

+ Jewellery

+ Make-up

+ Artificial

scents

+ Flowers

+ Gifts

+ ...

+ Setting

+

Conversational

distance /

Proxemics

+ Time /

Chronemics

+ Lighting

system

+ Colour

+ Heat

+ ...

3. Levels of communication

Communication could be categorized in many ways. The

researcher will provide one way which is proposed in the book “Speech

communication” by Brooks & Heath (1989). Those terms are

intrapersonal, interpersonal, public, organizational, and cultural.

+ Intrapersonal communication: Intrapersonal communication is

the communication that takes place within an individual. It is mostly

“neurophysiological activity.” In this level, an individual talks to himself

and handles events, ideas, and experiences.

+ Interpersonal communication: Interpersonal communication

“refers to persons engaged directly in overt and covert transmission and

reception of messages.” Interpersonal communication consists of dyadic

communication and small group communication. In dyadic

communication, two people communicate directly with each other. The

small group may have three people or more participating in the process of

communication. The number of participants is the only difference

between dyadic and small group communication. These two kinds need

an essential element of direct, person-to-person interaction.

+ Public communication: Public communication is the process of

sending a message to a public. In public communication, the speaker does

most, not all of the speaking and the public has the role of receivers and

responders. Public communication has two kinds: speaker – audience

communication and mass communication through mass media such as

television, radio, motion pictures, newspapers, magazines, books, and

billboards.

+ Organizational communication: “Organizational communication

includes all three levels previously identified – intrapersonal,

interpersonal, and public, but the distinguishing characteristic is that he

communication is from an organization.”

+ Cultural communication: Cultural communication includes

organization in a particular culture as well as its individual

communicators. Each culture has its own identifiable communication

system. When people interact with others from different cultures,

intercultural or cross-cultural communication takes place. Intercultural

communication is a communication between people who live in the same

country but come from different cultural backgrounds. Different from

intercultural communication, cross-cultural communication is between

people who live in different countries and come from different cultural

backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural communication does study not

only “cultural differences” but also the “similarities” and “their

influences on the people’s behaviours” (Do & Dao, 2006, p. 8).

II. Cultural influences on communication

Culture is not something we can reach out and touch, nor see or

hear: it is something we must infer from the behaviour of others (Rohner,

1984). Some forty years ago, Kroeber & Kluckhorn (1952) assembled

more than 156 definitions of culture, and a wide number of definitions

persist, much to the frustration of some, who have concluded that to

search for an adequate definition of culture is fruitless (Segall, 1984).

Looking across the definitions, it is clear that at least one part of culture is

the learned meanings that are shared by a group (Rohner, 1984). In my

work I define culture simply as a shared system of socially transmitted

behaviour that describes, defines, and guides people’s ways of life.

Culture influences all aspects of our lives including people’s

communication. It involves subjective – attitudes, values, beliefs,

opinions, behaviours – and objective – clothes, food, utensils, architecture

– elements (Triandis, 1972). As Nguyen (1998) said, although everyone

has a unique style of communication, cultures determine a general style

for their members. We are not, however, aware of the “subtle influences

of our culture’. We may also not perceive that others are also influenced

by their cultures. The culture can have a profound effect on how to

communicate with each other, how to interpret physical surroundings,

and how to form social relationships. Berko, Rosenfeld & Samovar

(1997) also appreciated the impact of culture in their book:

Culture mandates who talks to whom about what and for how long.

You were not born knowing a language, how to select “in”

clothing, how to spend your time, or the most appropriate ways to

show respect. Your culture presented you with a blueprint for how

you should live your life and how you should communicate about

it. (p. 11)

Culture is communicated across generations. And, culture both

enables behaviour, allowing it to be created or invented and it constrains

and restricts it (Adamopoulous & Lonner, 2001). Thus, understanding our

culture and the diversity of cultures with which we come into contact

provides a basis for deriving meaning from our communication

interactions.

III. Cultural influences on nonverbal communication when

expressing emotion.

As with verbal language, culture influences nonverbal behaviours

in a profound way.

Vietnamese and Anglicist cultures are two target cultures in this

paper. Actually, two cultures have an impact on people’s way of

communicating nonverbally. In the words of Hofstede (1980),

Vietnamese culture can be described as high power distance, high

collectivism, moderate uncertainty avoidance, and high context.

Anthropologist Edward T. Hall (1976) also classifies Vietnamese culture

as high-context culture. Vietnamese people are also highly attuned to

non-verbal communications and derive meaning from the speaker's facial

expressions and body language. Furthermore, Gudykusnt (2003)

identifies high-context communication to be indirect, ambiguous,

maintaining of harmony, reserved and understated. In contrast, Anglicist

culture is considered a low-context culture. The person from the low-

context culture places a much higher value on the words spoken than on

the non-verbal aspect of communications. In low-context cultures,

information and meanings are explicitly stated in the message or

communication (Hall, 1976). Low-context cultures tend to be more

heterogeneous and individualist and accordingly have evolved a more

direct communication style. Therefore, those differences between two

cultures do determine differences in nonverbal communication.

There is a variety of sources or channels for the nonverbal cues in

emotional expression that we can interpret from others and display

ourselves. This present study only includes five basic channels: facial

expression, eye contact, hand gesture, posture and proxemics.

Facial expression is the most important source of nonverbal

communication in all cultures. Gamble & Gamble (2001) stress the

importance of the face in their book “Communication works” that the

face is the “single most important broadcaster of emotions and the most

powerful of our non-verbal communication instruments.” To strengthen

the argument, Berko, Rosenfeld & Samovar (1997) present the reason

why the face is so important. From their point of view, the face is our

main channel for communicating our own emotions and for analyzing

those of others. Actually, the face is considered a major source of

expression when communicating with others.

By far the largest research literature on this topic is related to facial

expressions of emotion. Over a century ago, debate raged concerning

whether facial expressions of emotion were universal to all peoples from

all cultures or culture specific. The question finds the roots in the work of

Darwin. Darwin’s thesis, summarized in The Expression of Emotion in

Man and Animals (Darwin, 1872), suggested that emotions and their

expressions had evolved across species, were evolutionarily adaptive,

biologically innate, and universal across all human. According to Darwin,

all humans, regardless of race or culture, possessed the ability to express

emotions in exactly the same ways, primarily through their faces.

Matsumoto (2006) found that it was not until the mid 1960s when the

psychologist Sylvan Tomkins, a pioneer in modern studies of human

emotion, joined forces independently with Paul Ekman and Carroll Izard

to conduct the first of what has become known today as the universality

studies. Their findings demonstrated the existence of six universal

expressions – anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise – as

judges all around the world agreed on what emotions was portrayed in the

faces. Here are illustrations of faces:

(http://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/user/ytw/www/facial.html)

The manifestation of sadness is narrowing eyes with the eyebrows

brought together, mouth turned down at the corners with the chin pulled

up. Nevertheless, from Friesen’s study (1972), despite the existence of

universal facial expressions of emotion, people around the world do

express emotions differently, especially negative emotions such as

sadness. For instance, in some Eastern cultures, people have been

socialized to conceal their negative emotion to maintain social harmony,

whereas members of high-context cultures are freer to show their

emotion. As a result, sometimes it can be hard to interpret the meaning

through facial cues and to distinguish which expression the person is

trying to convey.

The second nonverbal cue is eye contact which is how and how

much we look at others when we are communicating. The eyes are often

the first piece of body language others see or notice. Thus, beside facial

expression, eye contact is also another essential source for emotional

display or interpretation. Facial cues can communicate the emotion you

are experiencing, but eyes can indicate its intensity. For example, your

face may communicate sadness, but the intensity of that expression

comes from your eyes. In relationships, eye contact is also served to show

intimacy, attention, and influence. The eyes have much to tell us;

nevertheless, Brooks & Heath (1989) emphasizes that the relationship

between culture and eye contact is unavoidable. A majority of people in

the United States and other Anglicist cultures expect those with whom

they are communicating to “look them in the eye.” Direct eye contact,

however, is not a custom throughout the world. In a high-context culture

like Vietnamese culture, prolonged eye contact is considered rude,

disrespectful, and threatening.

http://zindy-zone.dk/html/drawings/coal/sad.htm

Another cue which should be discussed is gesture. Gestures are

movements made by a specific part of our body, namely hands, arms, and

fingers. Of all parts of the human body, Axtell (1997) claims that the

hands may be mostly used to send nonverbal signals. That is the reason

why the hands are regarded as a ‘powerful communicator”. In his

opinion, gesture and body language communicate as effectively as words,

even more effectively. As stated by Gamble & Gamble (2001), gestures

are emotion of your limbs or body that you use to express or accentuate

your moods and ideas, and that they are culturally related. For instance,

we drum our fingers to indicate impatience or sadness, or hit a table to

emphasize that we really are angry. Whereas one gesture may be common

in a particular culture and have a clear interpretation, it may be

meaningless in another culture or even have a completely opposite

meaning. It should also be noted that such countries like Vietnam use few

gestures than some countries like the US (Axtell, 1997).

http://todaysseniorsnetwork.com/Depression_Leads_to_Artery_Thickeni

ng.htm

Concerning postures, they are specific positioning that the body

takes during a timeframe. Postures are commonly acknowledged to be a

means to express feelings and emotions. Baguley (1994) shows his

agreement by saying “Posture is movements that involve the whole body,

that people adopt revealing their attitudes, thoughts and feelings” (cited in

Beck, 2007). The emotions and the body position are closely related to

each other. The way we carry ourselves can affect the way we feel and

the way others perceive us just as much as the way we feel can affect the

way we carry ourselves (Brook & Heath, p. 144). In other words, through

the way we sit or stand, to a large extent, people can assess our thoughts

and feelings at that time.

http://www.dreamstime.com/stock-images-sad-women-image10503734

In terms of proxemics, in his research “Realistic simulation of

emotion by animated characters,” Beck (2007) simply defines proxemics

as the distance between persons during a social interaction. It might be

called conversational distance. Hall (1976), the author of “The Silent

Language” and “Beyond Culture” specified four different levels of

conversational distance depending on social relationship type: intimate,

personal, social, and public. For example, people often feel more

comfortable standing closer and expressing emotions to family members

than to strangers. In the case of proxemics, one’s use of space is closely

associated with culture (Samovar, Porter, & McDaniel, 2007). Cultures

that stress individualism generally demand more space than do

collectivist cultures and will defend space more closely.

Chart 2: Proxemics (Conversational distance)

(http://www.tumblr.com/tagged/proxemics)

It can be seen that though a large number of studies relating to

nonverbal communication has been conducted so far, there have still been

a gap to fill in. Almost all studies investigated emotion expression in

general with a little comparison between two specific cultures. Some

researches on anger or happiness expression have also been done by

students at English Department, ULIS, VNU; the study of sadness

expression, however, has not. Such limitations offer the researcher a

chance to conduct the present study regarding nonverbal communication

in sadness expression in two different cultures: Vietnamese and Anglicist.

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

I. Selection of subjects

The researcher uses probability sampling to select the sample

for the study because probability samples allow the researcher to

make inferences about the whole population. 100 participants are

divided into two groups: 50 Vietnamese and 50 foreigners who are

British, American, Australian, and Canadian. Each group has an

equal number of males and females. In order to ensure the study’s

reliability and validity, except the variable above, all the participants

will be randomly chosen at different ages. Because the

questionnaires will be delivered mostly in Hanoi, the researcher will

come to English centers to collect data from Vietnamese informants.

Most of the Vietnamese here are enthusiastic and supportive enough

to fulfill the questionnaire.

II. Research instrument

Survey questionnaire will be employed to address the research

questions. With its unprecedented efficiency in terms of researcher

time, effort, and financial resources, a survey questionnaire seems to

be one of the most attractive means of collecting data (Nguyen,

Pham & Luong, 2008, p. 17). A survey which takes the participants

only a few minutes to check off, select or answer short questions can

provide needed, in-depth information for the researcher. By

delivering the questionnaire, the researcher could collect a wealth of

information from target population within a short period of time. It

is, in other words, the quickest way to collect answers from scattered

participants with much precision and clarity since the needed

information was elicited by controlled questions (Jo and Steve, 1997

quoted in Nguyen, Pham & Luong, 2008). As the survey

questionnaire can bring the researcher a lot of advantages, it will be

utilized as the major source of data collection to gather statistic data.

As a wide range of questions are asked about the given issue,

diversified information relating to the research topic will be gained.

As regards to the design of the survey questionnaire, closed-

ended questions are chosen because responses are easier to collect

and analyze. Most items are put in multiple-choice questions. In

order to gain responses which more accurately reflect what the

respondents wants to say, almost all questions provide a choice for

them to specify. A set of survey questionnaire contains two main

parts. The first part including age, gender, nationality, occupation,

characteristics will provide the researcher the background

information about a participant. The researcher will mostly base on

the information from this part to address the second question. The

main part in the survey questionnaire is nonverbal communication in

sadness expression. In case the participants are not familiar with the

term “Nonverbal communication,” the researcher also adds its

definition to the survey questionnaire in the hope that the

participants might find it easier to fill in the questionnaire. There are

7 questions in this part. The first two questions are asked about the

frequency of using nonverbal communication and expressing

sadness with each type of communicator. The third question is about

the place in which the participants are more likely to express their

sadness via nonverbal cues. From the last four questions, the

researcher can find the specific information about the way which the

participants mostly use to show the sadness through facial

expression, eyes, hand gestures, postures, and proxemics as well as

to corresponding level of sadness for their choices. In order to save

time for the participants to fulfill the questionnaire, choices in these

questions are illustrated with images. This type of information will

be used to compare and contrast the two cultures.

The survey questionnaire will be written in two languages:

English and Vietnamese. English version is for Anglicist people and

the researcher will translate it into Vietnamese for Vietnamese

respondents so that possible misunderstandings leading to the

inaccuracy of the outcomes could be avoided first.

III. Procedures of data collection

The procedure of data collection goes through 4 following stages:

Stage 1: Preparing

A list of questions in survey and the interview content will be

prepared with much attention to anonymity to reach the target. The

researcher made a start to write effective items avoiding ambiguous,

repetitive, and redundant items.

Stage 2: Piloting

Before formulating the final draft, the researcher will invite a

supervisor to locate the problematic items, to see whether it is hard

to understand, whether it is ambiguous or redundant, which is

believed to improve the content and layout of questionnaire.

Stage 3: Delivering the questionnaire

The study will be conducted around the Old Quarters in Hanoi,

particularly Sword Lake because many host and foreign tourists pay

a visit to this place everyday. The researcher and the researcher’s

friends will go there, explain the purpose, the research topic and ask

them for their permission to complete the questionnaire. After

ensuring that the informants fully understand the questions, the

researcher will distribute the question. In the process of fulfilling

the questionnaire, if there are any further questions, the researcher is

willing to offer clearer instructions. In addition, the anonymity of

the questionnaire will be guaranteed in order that the respondents

will be more willing to choose their answers reflecting their

reaction. In order to get enough questionnaires back for the study,

the researcher also asks friends for help to send the survey

questionnaire to their friends or acquaintances in four countries via

email.

Stage 4: Synthesizing figures

After collecting the data from the questionnaires, the results

will quickly be synthesized to search for any unexpected outcomes.

Then the data collection procedure will continue with transcribing

the records and combining with data analysis procedure. As the data

from interviews can come in a large amount, the transcripts will be

summarized with detailed notes regarding time and place of the

interview. In order to avoid misinterpreting, the interviews’ words

will be kept and all the irrelevant information will be eliminated.

IV. Procedures of data analysis

Descriptive statistics is used to analyze quantitative and

qualitative data. Quantitative data will be quantified, calculated,

and synthesized from the data in closed-ended questions into bar

charts and tables. The analysis of numerical data aiming at

identifying statistical relations of variables are hard data on the

numbers and the percentage of participants sharing the same ideas

or rating. This type of data will be analysed more accurately and

objectively.

Qualitative data allows the researcher to gain insight into the

respondents’ reactions mainly from open-ended questions. Same

ideas will be grouped into different types of validity together to be

compared.

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

I. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN SADNESS

EXPRESSION VIA NONVERBAL CUES IN VIETNAM AND

ENGLISH - SPEAKING COUNTRIES

1. Frequency of using nonverbal communication in sadness

expression

Respondents Anglicist Vietnamese

Frequency (%) (%)

a. always 12 14

b. usually 32 34

c. sometimes 48 38

d. rarely 8 14

e. never 0 0

Table 3:

Frequency of using nonverbal communication

The table above shows the information about how often

Vietnamese and Anglicist respondents express their sadness through

nonverbal communication. ‘Sometimes’ is the most preferable choice of

48% of the Anglicist respondents and 38% of the Vietnamese ones. Some

of the Anglicist and Vietnamese respondents even always show the

sadness nonverbally (12% and 14% respectively). Despite bearing some

noticeable similarities, it is clear from the table that more Vietnamese

respondents (14%) rarely express their sadness via nonverbal cues than

Anglicist ones (8%). This finding support Hall’s suggestion in 1976. In

his book “Beyond Culture,” Hall claims that Vietnam belongs to a high-

context society which tends to be homogenous and collectivist meanwhile

Anglicist countries are considered a low-context culture which favors

more heterogeneous and individualist. As stated in Journal of Cross-

Cultural Psychology (1996), “people in collectivistic cultures would feel

less comfortable expressing negative emotions than people in

individualistic cultures.” The data collected for the present study supports

that claim. To be specific, fewer Anglicist participants claimed to rarely

show their sadness nonverbally than the other did. That means

Vietnamese people are likely to suppress their emotional displays in order

to maintain group harmony.

2. Sadness expression through eyes

Table 4:

Eye expression in percentage

Respondents A V

Eye expression (%) (%)

a. eyes cast down 36 48

b. narrowed eyes 24 34

c. closed eyes 4 6

d. damp or tearful eyes 28 10

e. no changes 8 0

f. others 0 2

As illustrated by table 4, casting down the eyes to show the

sadness is chosen by the largest number of participants coming

from both Anglicist and Vietnamese cultures. Nearly half of the

Vietnamese participants (48%) cast down their eyes when they are

sad. Although the number of the Anglicist participants who express

their sadness in the same way is smaller than that of the

Vietnamese ones, this figure is still the greatest (18 out of 50

accounts for 36%). Ranking the second position is narrowed eyes

which makes up 34% of Vietnamese respondents. Meanwhile,

regarding Anglicist respondents, damp or tearful eyes with 28%

ranks second, and it is followed by narrowed eyes at 24%.

While some similarities between Anglicist and Vietnamese

cultues in sadness expression through the eyes are noticeable, they

still bear some minor differences. The number of the Anglicist

participants who choose “closed eyes” is the smallest with just only

4% of the total respondents, whereas the lowest percentage belongs

to 2% of Vietnamese participants who wants to hide their sadness

by smiling instead. Perhaps they do not want their negative feeling

to affect other people around them in order to maintain social

harmony.

Many researchers demonstrated that sadness was one of six

universal expressions and narrowing eyes is employed to show

sadness. From the finding, however, beside narrowing eyes, there

is another way as the display of emotion which is more preferable

than that. That is casting down the eyes. If the eyes are closed or

damp or tearful, this is also considered to be the manifestation of

sadness. In the country where respect for hierarchy is as high as

Vietnam, casting down the eyes when sad is quite natural.

Nevertheless, Anglicist participants who belong to a low-context

culture also choose to avoid eye contacts. In this case, avoidance of

eye contact can be interpreted as hiding their negative emotion.

The following table gives more detailed information about

the level of sadness.

Table 5:

Level of sadness

Anglicist Vietnamese

No. % No. %

a1 2 11

a1 3 13

a2 10 56

a2 18 75

a3 6 33

a3 3 13

b1 2 17

b1 5 29

b2 6 50

b2 6 35

b3 4 33

b3 6 35

c1 2

c2 1 33

c3 2 67

d1 10 71

d1 3 60

d2 4 29

d2 2 40

e3 4

From the table, it is clear that casting down the eyes is

mostly used to show their emotion in both two cultures when they

are sad at an average level. In case they are deeply sad, the eyes

tend to be damp or tearful among Anglicist people. If Vietnamese

people narrow down the eyes, it could be inferred that they are

rather sad. This finding strenthens the idea stated in the precious

chapter that the intensity of emotion expression comes from the

eyes.

3. Sadness expression through eyebrows

It is clear from the two charts that by far the greatest proportion is

pulling eyebrows together, which accounts for 52% of the total Anglicist

participants. This number is nearly double the proportion collected from

Vietnamese respondents (28%). In Vietnamese culture, it is most likely

that there are no eyebrow changes at all when people show their sadness

as 19 per 50 Vietnamese respondents pick up this choice. In comparison,

just only 16% of Anglicist ones, which is the smallest percentage, choose

Chart 5:

Eyebrow expression in percentage

this. Pulling down the eyebrows also receives high responses from

participants in Anglicist and Vietnamese culture (32% and 34%

respectively).

Table 6:

Level of sadness

Anglicist Vietnamese

No. % No. %

a1 6 38

a1 12 71

a2 8 50

a2 5 29

a3 2 13

b1 12 46

b1 6 43

b2 12 46

b2 4 29

b3 2 8

b3 4 29

c3 8

c1 5 26

c2 4 21

c3 10 53

Statistics for Anglicist participants in table 4 indicates that if the

eyebrows are pulled together, people at that time maybe are deeply sad or

just at an average level. Unlike Anglicist participants, Vietnamese ones

often pull down the eyebrows when they are in that state. However, one

common feature shared by two groups is that the eyebrows are unchanged

when people feel pretty sad.

4. Sadness expression through lips

Concerning lip expression, as the charts show, in two cultures,

approximately half the respondents pinch lips when they feel sad.

Specifically, 48% and 40% are the percentage collected from Anglicist

and Vietnamese participants. Despite this similarity, there is still a

difference between two groups. For example, there are slightly over

half as many Anglicist participants who choose to pull their lips

laterally and downwards as Vietnamese ones (32% vs. 20%).

Moreover, 40% of Vietnamese respondents claim that their lips stay

the same if sad. This doubles the percentage of Anglicist ones.

5. Sadness expression through hand gestures

Chart 7:

Lip expression in percentage

The most striking feature from the chart is that the two ways

of expressing sadness via hand gestures are mostly used in two

cultures. In Anglicist countries, “one hand covering the forehead”

which account for 40% of the total participants ranks first. 14 per

Chart 8:

Hand gesture expression in number

Chart 9:

Hand gesture expression in percentage

50 Anglicist participants pick up “one hand covering eyes”, which

is the second-best.

The situation is different in Vietnamese culture. The largest

number of Vietnamese respondents who hold two cupped hands

covering their cheeks is 16 respondents. This is followed by choice

A “cheek leaning on one folded hand”, which makes up 20% of the

total population.

One hand covering the forehead

One h

and co

verin

g ey

es

Table 7:

Level of sadness

Anglicist Vietnamese

No. % No. %

a1 4 27

a2 4

a2 7 47

a3 4 27

b1 4

b1 4 80

b2 1 20

c1 4 50

c1 5 31

c2 2 25

c2 7 44

c3 2 25

c3 4 25

d1 10 71

d2 1 25

d2 4 29

d3 3 75

e1 6 30

e1 3 30

e2 12 60

e2 4 40

e3 2 10

e3 3 30

2 cupped hands covering cheeks

Cheek

leaning on one fo

lded hand

The table reveals that 10 out of 14 Anglicist people cover

their forehead with their hands when they feel sad. The more they

are sad, the more likely they show their sadness by covering the

eyes with hands. As regards to Vietnamese participants, when two

cupped hands support the cheeks or one cheek leans on one folded

hand, it can be inferred that the level of sadness at that time is just

average.

6. Sadness expression through postures

Here are illustrations of postures put in the questionnaire.

Postures Description

a.

This person is sitting

with her arms

clasping her knees.

The head is hanging

down.

b.

This person is sitting

with her chin resting

on folded arms.

c.

This person is sitting

bending the back

down, the forehead

towards the knees.

d.

This person is sitting

with arm-gripping,

staring into space.

The back is leaning

against a tree.

e.

This person is sitting

with arm-cross on the

table. She tilts her

head and rests her

chin on arm-cross.

As presented in the charts, nearly up to 80% of Anglicist

picks up choice B and D as the way to show their sadness. The

same number of respondents with the same choices is collected

from Vietnamese population. Regarding the other three choices,

each choice receives under 10 responses out of 50 from each

culture. As for choice A, no Anglicist participants convey their

emotion through this posture.

Chart 11:

Posture expression in percentage

The table below reveals a great similarity between Anglicist

and Vietnamese cultures. Out of 38 Anglicist respondents choosing

B and D, the total number of people who claims that the emotional

intensity is average at that time is 30, accounts for close to 80%.

Similarly, slightly over 60% of Vietnamese respondents do the

same.

Table 8:

Level of sadness

Anglicist Vietnamese

No. % No. %

a2 2 50

a3 2 50

b1 4 20

b1 4 19

b2 16 80

b2 13 62

b3 4 19

c1 6 75

c2 2 25

c2 2

d1 4 22

d1 2 12

d2 14 78

d2 10 59

d3 5 29

e1 1 17

e3 4

e3 5 83

7. Sadness expression through proxemics

Interlocutor

Conversational distance

Intimate

(0-0.5 m)

Personal

(0.5-1 m)

Social (1-

3.5 m)

Public

(3.5-7.5

m) > 7.5 m

A

V

A

V

A

V

A

V

A

V

The older 10 10 25 30 25

The younger 5 13 30 25 15 12

The same age 15 10 25 30 10 10

Same sex 10 15 32 30 8 5

Opposite sex 9 16 15 25 20 5 10

Family member 13 25 25 10 12 15

Close friend 25 30 25 10 10

Stranger 25 35 15 15 10

Interlocutor

Conversational distance

Intimate

(0-0.5 m)

Personal

(0.5-1 m)

Social (1-

3.5 m)

Public

(3.5-7.5

m) > 7.5 m

A

V

A

V

A

V

A

V

A

V

The older 20 20 50 60 50

The younger 10 26 60 50 30 24

The same age 30 20 50 60 20 20

Same sex 20 30 64 60 16 10

Opposite sex 18 32 30 50 40 10 20

Family member 26 50 50 20 24 30

Close friend 50 60 50 20 20

Stranger 50 70 30 30 20

Table 9:

Proxemics expression in number

Table 10:

Proxemics expression in percentage

Hall (1976) suggests that the intimate distance is used by

lovers, family members, and very close friends. This claim is

supported by statistics to some extent. Particularly, the percentage

of Anglicist and Vietnamese participants who keep intimate

distance with close friends is 50% and 60% respectively. To

strangers, intimate distance does not exist in both cultures.

Although they bear some superficial similarities, the differences

between Anglicist and Vietnamese culture are pronounced.

However, in Anglicist culture, only 26% of the total participants

are in direct contact with family members in intimate distance

whereas the proportion of Vietnamese ones (50%) approximately

doubles because in a high-context culture like Vietnam, close

contact is always maintained between family members. Intimate

distance is more acceptable when communicating with people at

the same age than family members in Anglicist culture (30% vs.

26%). However, no intimate distance is kept with the older and

younger among Anglicist people, meanwhile; more Vietnamese

people still maintain direct contact with those people. Although

Vietnamese culture does not accept intimate distance with people

of opposite sex, this distance is still kept by 18% of Anglicist

participants.

Personal distance is normal and acceptable for a casual and

personal conversation (Do &Dao, 2006). In Anglicist culture, 32

per 50 informants maintaining personal distance with people of

same sex is the greatest number. A marginally smaller number of

people who claims to be in personal zone with people at the same

age, family member and close friend comprise half the

respondents. On the other hand, the number of Vietnamese

participants keeping personal distance with the younger or the

people of the same sex or at the same age constitutes a significant

percentage of the total (60%), half of which accepts this distance

with people of opposite sex.

Concerning social distance, it is likely that both Anglicist

and Vietnamese people keep this distance with the older as claimed

by 50% and 60% of the total informants from two cultures. Social

distance is also acceptable when communicating with the younger

or the people of opposite sex in Anglicist culture or with stranger

in Vietnamese one.

Public distance is the most preferable distance when

communicating with strangers (70%) and the older (50%) in

Anglicist culture. 30% of Vietnamese respondents admit that they

also keep the same distance as Anglicist ones. In Vietnamese

culture, people also maintain public distance with people of

opposite sex, neither do Anglicist people. Commonly, physical

contact between members of the same sex is normal and

acceptable, direct contact with members of the opposite sex should

be avoided in Vietnam.

II. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE FREQUENCY OF SADNESS

EXPRESSION VIA NONVERBAL CUES IN VIETNAM AND

ENGLISH - SPEAKING COUNTRIES

1. Age

Table 11:

The influence of age

(in percentage)

Interlocutor

Always Usually Sometimes Rarely Never

A

V

A

V

A

V

A

V

A

V

The older 4 24 30 40 42 24 26 8 2

The younger 2 28 14 20 32 32 38 20 14

The same age 12 10 64 56 20 24 4 8 2

As can be clearly seen from the table, there is a great similarity

between the two groups of subjects regarding the influence of the

interlocutor’s age on the frequency of sadness expression. Two thirds of

Anglicist respondents (64%) claim that they “usually” show their sadness

with people of their age. Just as Anglicist people, over a half Vietnamese

respondents (56%) find it easier in sadness expression with people at the

same age than the older or the younger.

In contrast to the researcher’s expectation, as responded by 40%

and 42% of the participants from Anglicist and Vietnamese culture, they

show their sadness with the younger less frequently than the older. To the

younger, sadness expression rarely takes place in both cultures.

2. Gender

Table 12:

The influence of gender

(in percentage)

Interlocutor

Always Usually Sometimes Rarely Never

A

V

A

V

A

V

A

V

A

V

Same sex 12 6 60 32 24 48 4 12 2

Opposite sex 4 24 28 64 42 8 24 6

As suggested by Ph.D. John Gray, “Men are from Mars,

Women are from Venus”. In other words, he would like to put a

heavy emphasis on the differences between two genders: men and

women. Particularly, there is a strong agreement with John Gray’s

idea in the article “Gender Differences and Personal Interaction”.

3The author of this article stresses that “when it comes to body

language, men and women show definite differences in terms of

nonverbal behaviors as well as the purpose behind those

behaviours”. Truly, these differences greatly influence nonverbal

communication between genders. For example, based on statistics

in sadness expression via nonverbal communication, in Anglicist

and Vietnamese culture, people are more likely to express their

emotion with those who are of the same sex than of the opposite

sex. The website mentioned above also highlights that “women

tend to be more attuned to emotions, connections with others,

relationships, and the social parts of life,” whereas “men tend to be

more attuned to status, masculinity, and tasks.” This could be one

3

http://www.bodylanguageexpert.co.uk/GenderDifferncesAndPersonalI

nteraction.html

of the reasons for a strong preference for sadness expression

nonverbally with people of the same sex as little misunderstanding

could happen between them.

3. Personality

Table 13:

The influence of personality

(in percentage)

Personality A V

Introverted 12% 42%

Neutral 44% 10%

Extroverted 44% 48%

Chart 12: The influence of personality

(in percentage)

The chart indicates that concerning the personality, the number of

Vietnamese introverts is slightly three times as many as that of Anglicist

ones. This leads to less frequency of sadness expression via nonverbal

communication in Vietnamese culture as proved in the previous part.

Introverts are more interested in their own thoughts and feelings than

spending time with other people. As a result, when they are sad, they

appear to stay alone and not to be with others at that time. Conversely,

extroverts really enjoy being with other people, so that the possibility of

emotion expression nonverbally is higher.

Additionally, from the statistics in the chart, the inference is

different from Ellis’s idea (1995). He suggested in his book that

“compared with foreigners, the Vietnamese often sound shy and

reserved”. This manifests introversion of Vietnamese people. This might

be true ten years ago; this situation, however, has changed now. The chart

shows that the number of Anglicist and Vietnamese extroverts is almost

the same. Therefore, emotional expression of Vietnamese people is not so

limited as the time before.

4. Relationship

Table 14:

The influence of relationship

(in percentage)

Interlocutor

Always Usually Sometimes Rarely Never

A

V

A

V

A

V

A

V

A

V

Family member 12 6 18 16 12 22 6 3 2 3

Close friend 22 19 20 21 6 8 2 1 1

Stranger 4 4 8 9 8 14 30 23

There was a traditional belief that people in low-context cultures

felt less comfortable in expressing emotions to family members. This

belief is supported by (Gudykunst, 2003) as he stated that “in

individualistic cultures, family members often do their ‘own thing’ on

different schedules”. Thus, in a high-context environment, there is a

closer contact between family members compared to a low-context one.

In both cultures, nonverbal communication in sadness expression is

limited when communicating with a stranger and people tend to show

their emotion with those who are in relationship with them. However, as

indicated in the table, like Vietnamese respondents, Anglicist ones are

also more likely to express their sadness with their close friends rather

than with members of the family.

5. Social setting

Table 15:

The influence of social setting

(in percentage)

The place A

V

No. % No. %

At home 45 90% 33 66%

At the restaurant 5 10%

At the workplace 5 10%

In the park 5 10% 7 14%

It is clear from the table that home is the most preferable place to

show the sadness via nonverbal communication. This place is chosen by

up to 90% of the Anglicist participants, which is greater than the

percentage of the Vietnamese ones (66%). Another place which receives

fewer responses from Anglicist & Vietnamese cultures (10% and 14%

respectively) is the park. However, unlike Vietnamese people, Anglicist

people are not interested in expressing their sadness in such places as

restaurant and workplace. In sum, nonverbal communication in sadness

expression occurs in more places in Vietnam culture than in Anglicist

one.

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

I. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

On the whole, the researcher has carried out a comparative study of

nonverbal communication in sadness expression in Vietnamese and

English – speaking countries. Research questions have been addressed

through the process of in-depth data analysis. In this part, the researcher

will briefly sum up the outcomes of the study.

Firstly, main findings reveal that the Anglicist people tend to

express their sadness via nonverbal communication more frequently than

the Vietnamese people. When sad, the Vietnamese are more likely to

conceal their emotion to maintain social harmony. The similarities and

differences in sadness expression through five major channels: facial

expressions, eyes, hand gestures, postures and proxemics are also evident.

The biggest difference lies in hand gesture expression. In Anglicist

culture, sadness is often expressed through “one hand covering the

forehead” or “one hand covering eyes”. On the other hand, many

Vietnamese people show their sadness through “cheek leaning on one

folded hand” or “two cupped hands covering cheeks”. Therefore, ways of

sadness expression through hand gesture are totally different between two

cultures. Another striking finding in the research is the difference in eye

expression. As many scholars claim narrowed eyes as a universal

expression and this is true to all cultures. However, it is proved from the

study is that casting down the eyes seem to be more universal. As regards

to other nonverbal cues, ways of expressing sadness between two cultures

are quite similar to some extent. What makes a difference is the

corresponding intensity of sadness.

The findings of the study also highlight some important factors in

the frequency of sadness expression through nonverbal communication in

Vietnamese and English-speaking countries. Those factors are age,

gender, personality, relationship, and social setting. First, both

Vietnamese and Anglicist people are freer to show their sadness via

nonverbal cues with people of the same age than the older or the younger.

Similarly, in both cultures, people of the same sex often display their

emotion nonverbally with each other. Nonverbal emotional displays with

the people of the opposite sex, however, are more acceptable and normal

in Anglicist culture than in Vietnamese culture. Personality is another

important factor. Compared to Anglicist people, Vietnamese people tend

to be more introverted and their sadness expression is consequently

limited. Regarding the relationship, it can be referred that a stronger bond

exists between members in a Vietnamese family than in an Anglicist one.

Social setting also has an impact on the frequency of using nonverbal

communication in sadness expression. Unlike Vietnamese people,

Anglicist people are less likely to display their emotion in public places

like restaurant, café, or workplace.

From the results of the study, although sadness expression is

considered one of six universal expressions, people all around the world

do not express their sadness absolutely the same. There are still other

factors which determine the potential differences between two cultures.

As a result, when communicating with people from other cultures, we

should consider culture, age, gender, personality, relationship influences

on nonverbal communication in emotional expression. We should also

not take nonverbal communication out of the context. By taking into

considerations all the aspects of communication, we will be more

effective in communicating with people of different cultures.

II. LIMITATIONS

Even though the researcher has made a considerable effort during

the research time, time and resource constraint and the limitation of the

researcher’s experience led to some unavoidable limitations beyond hope.

The first limitation is related to research method. Though survey

questionnaire was claimed to be indispensable in the present study

because of a large number of advantages it brings, the researcher should

conduct an interview and make a careful observation if possible. With the

aim to triangulate the data collected, the findings will be more valuable

and highly-appreciated.

One more limitation is research sampling. As the research is cross-

cultural, 50 for each group is rather small, which might prevent the

researcher from obtaining accurate results. Kuechler (1987) suggested

one way to deal with problems is to work with researchers or assistants

from the host cultures being studied. However, this should be too difficult

for the researcher.

Despite the aforementioned shortcomings, the researcher’s

flexibility and dedication could help gain the findings’ validity and

reliability. It should be noted that future researchers should take those

limitations into serious consideration when conducting related studies.

III. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Cross-cultural study of emotion expression needs updating as the

world has been changing day by day and it is central to our understanding

of people all around the world. Therefore, it offers other researchers

opportunities to carry out further studies. What has been found in the

present study is still on the surface of the matter.

It is suggested that the study could be improved by expanding the

research sampling and conducting three research methods simultaneously

if possible in order to avoid such limitations.

Another alternative is to narrow the scope of study. For instance, a

comparison study between Vietnamese and American or British culture

should be considered.

IV. CONTRIBUTION OF THE RESEARCH

Hopefully, this paper can be a useful reference document for

teachers and students who are interested in the cross-cultural

communication. Moreover, the researcher would like to raise the

awareness and understanding of possible similarities and differences in

nonverbal communication in two cultures. We are living in the world in

which cross-cultural communication is indispensable. Therefore,

communication between different cultures should be improved. Then the

study could be seen as an attempt to provide more knowledge about

Vietnamese and Anglicist culture and to boost mutual understanding

between two cultures.

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REFERENCES FOR PICTURES

1. http://www.dreamstime.com/stock-image-sadness-image9080621

2. http://www.dreamstime.com/royalty-free-stock-image-sadness-

image6116656

3. http://www.sdims.com/site/sad/sad-faces.htm

4. http://www.dreamstime.com/royalty-free-stock-photo-little-child-in-

sadness-image10646825

5. http://www.dreamstime.com/royalty-free-stock-photography-sadness-

image8255327

6. http://www.face-and-emotion.com/dataface/emotion/x_sad.html

7. http://www.ssc.education.ed.ac.uk/courses/vi&multi/vdec082iii.html

8. http://todaysseniorsnetwork.com/Depression_Leads_to_Artery_Thickeni

ng.htm

9. http://www.dreamstime.com/stock-photos-sadness-image6023473

10. http://www.dreamstime.com/royalty-free-stock-images-sadness-

image4843019

11. http://www.dreamstime.com/stock-images-depression-or-sadness-

image9686204

12. http://www.dreamstime.com/stock-images-sad-women-image10503734

13. http://www.dreamstime.com/royalty-free-stock-image-sadness-

image5958276

14. http://www.dreamstime.com/royalty-free-stock-image-sadness-girl-

image11517326

15. http://www.taochu.com/pictures/?dir=/sad

16. http://www.dreamstime.com/royalty-free-stock-images-sad-woman-

image11342249

APPENDICES

SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

I am doing research on “Nonverbal communication in sadness expression in Vietnam and English - speaking countries” for my graduation paper.

This questionnaire is carefully designed for my study. Your completing these questions and giving your sincere answers could help me a lot in

accomplishing the research successfully. Your answers will be kept confidential and used for academic purposes only. If you have any questions,

please contact me at phamnhung312@gmail.com. Thank you very much for your contribution.

PART 1: BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Age:

Gender: Male / Female

Nationality: □ British □ American □ Canadian □Australian Others: …………..

Occupation:

Characteristics: □ Introverted □ Neutral □ Extroverted

PART 2: NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION IN SADNESS EXPRESSION

Nonverbal communication - body language includes the full range of gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, and conversational

distance (Levine and Adelman, 1993).

1. How often do you express your sadness via nonverbal communication? Circle one of these options:

a. always b. usually c. sometimes d. rarely e. never

2. How often do you express your sadness nonverbally with these people? Please tick the box that best describes you

Your partner Always Usually Sometimes Rarely Never

The older

The younger

The same age

Same sex

Opposite sex

Family member

Close friend

Stranger

3. Where are you more likely to express your sadness via nonverbal cues?

a. At home

b. At the restaurant

c. At the workplace

d. In the park

e. Others …………………………. (Please specify)

In question 4, 5, 6, circle the option that you mostly use and the corresponding level of sadness

1: extremely sad

2: sad

3: moderately sad

4. How do you show your sadness through facial expression?

Eyes a. eyes cast down

b. narrowed eyes

c. Closed eyes

d. Damp or tearful

eyes

e. no changes

1 2 3

f. others ….

(Please

describe)

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

Eyebrows a. pulling down

1 2 3

b. pulling together

1 2 3

c. no changes

1 2 3

d. others ….

(Please describe)

Lips a. lips pulling laterally and downwards

1 2 3

b. lips pinching

1 2 3

c. no changes

1 2 3

d. others ….

(Please

describe)

5. How do you show your sadness through hand gesture?

a. cheek leaning on one

folded hand

1 2 3

b. 2 hands covering the

face

1 2 3

c. 2 cupped hands covering

cheeks

1 2 3

d. one hand covering

eyes

1 2 3

e. one hand covering

the forehead

1 2 3

f. others ….

(Please

describe)

6. How do you show your sadness through posture?

a.

1 2 3

b.

1 2 3

c.

1 2 3

d.

1 2 3

e.

1 2 3

f. others

….

(Please

describe)

7. How far is your conversational distance when you express your sadness? For each kind of one partner, please tick (√ ) one option:

Your partner Conversational distance

Intimate (0-0.5 m) Personal (0.5-1 m) Social (1-3.5 m) Public (3.5-7.5 m) > 7.5 m

The older

The younger

The same age

Same sex

Opposite sex

Family member

Close friend

Stranger

☺♫♫♫ THANK YOU FOR YOUR HELP♫♫♫☺

Câu hỏi khảo sát

Tôi tên là Phạm Thị Hồng Nhung, sinh viên khóa 40, khoa Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa Anh Mỹ, trường Đại học Ngoại Ngữ, Đại học Quốc Gia Hà

Nội. Bản khảo sát này nhằm phục vụ cho đề tài khóa luận tốt nghiệp của tôi: “Biểu lộ nỗi buồn thông qua ngôn ngữ cơ thể ở Việt Nam và

các nước nói tiếng Anh”. Câu trả lời của bạn đóng góp rất lớn cho sự thành công của đề tài này. Tối xin đảm bảo rằng những thông tin cá

nhân của bạn sẽ không bị tiết lộ dưới bất kì trường hợp và dưới bất kỳ hình thức nào. Nếu bạn có bất kỳ câu hỏi nào, bạn có thể liên hệ với tôi

qua hòm thư phamnhung312@gmail.com, tôi xin vui lòng giải đáp. Tôi xin chân thành cảm ơn sự hợp tác của các bạn.

Phần I: Thông tin cá nhân

• Tuổi :

• Giới tính: Nam / Nữ

• Nghề nghiệp:

• Tính cách: □ Hướng nội □ Trung lập □ Hướng ngoại

Phần II: Biểu lộ nỗi buồn thông qua ngôn ngữ cơ thể ở Việt Nam và các nước nói tiếng Anh

S� d�ng ngôn ng� c� th� hay còn g�i là giao ti�p phi ngôn t� bao gm: nh�ng bi�u hin trên khuôn m�t, c� ch�, ánh m t, và

kho�ng cách giao ti�p. (Levine and Adelman, 1993).

1. Bạn có thường xuyên sử dụng ngôn ngữ cơ thể để biểu lộ nỗi buồn không? Khoanh tròn một trong những lựa chọn sau:

a. luôn luôn b. thường xuyên c. thỉnh thoảng d. hiếm khi e. không bao giờ

2. Bạn thường biểu lộ nỗi buồn với ai? Hãy đánh dấu vào ô trống

Người đối thoại Luôn luôn Thường xuyên Thỉnh thoảng Hiếm khi Không bao giờ

Người hơn tuổi

Người kém tuổi

Người cùng tuổi

Cùng giới

Khác giới

Người thân

Bạn thân

Người lạ

3. Bạn có xu hướng hay biểu lỗ nỗi buồn thông qua ngôn ngữ cơ thể ở đâu?

a. Ở nhà

b. Nhà hàng

c. Nơi làm việc

d. Công viên

e. Nơi khác (vui lòng nói rõ) …………………………………………

Trong 3 câu 4, 5, 6, b�n hãy khoanh tròn 1 bi�u hin thư�ng xuyên nh�t c�a b�n và ch� ra m�c đ� n�i bu�n tư�ng �ng:

1: r�t bun

2: bun

3: khá là bun

4. Bạn thể hiện nỗi buồn như thế nào trên khuôn mặt?

Mắt

a. nhìn xuống

1 2 3

b. mắt thu hẹp lại

1 2 3

c. nhắm mắt

1 2 3

d. mắt buồn ủ rũ

hoặc khóc

1 2 3

e. không thay

đổi

1 2 3

f. biểu

hiện khác

….

(Bạn vui

lòng miêu

tả)

Lông mày

a. nhíu xuống

1 2 3

b. nhíu lại với nhau

1 2 3

c. không thay đổi

1 2 3

d. biểu

hiện khác

….

(Bạn vui lòng miêu tả)

Môi

a. miệng rộng ra và kéo 2 khóe môi xuống

1 2 3

b. bặm môi

1 2 3

c. không thay đổi

1 2 3

d. biểu

hiện khác

….

(Bạn vui

lòng miêu

tả)

5. Bạn thể hiện nỗi buồn qua cử chỉ của bàn tay như thế nào? Bạn vui lòng miêu tả.

a. tựa má vào tay

1 2 3

b. 2 tay che mặt

1 2 3

c. 2 tay đặt lên

má

1 2 3

d. 1 tay che mắt

1 2 3

e. 1 tay bóp trán

1 2 3

f. biểu hiện khác

….

(Bạn vui lòng

miêu tả)

6. Bạn thể hiện nỗi buồn qua tư thế, dáng điệu như thế nào? Bạn vui lòng miêu tả.

a.

1 2 3

b.

1 2 3

c.

1 2 3

d.

1 2 3

e.

1 2 3

f. biểu hiện

khác ….

(Bạn vui lòng

miêu tả)

7. Khi bạn thể hiện nỗi buồn, khoảng cách giao tiếp giữa bạn và người đối thoại là bao nhiêu? Bạn hãy đánh dấu vào ô trống thích hợp

Người đối thoại Khoảng cách giao tiếp

Thân mật (từ 0 � 0.5 mét)

Riêng tư (từ 0.5 � 1 mét).

Xã hội (từ 1 � 3.5 mét).

Công cộng (từ 3.5 � 7.5 mét).

> 7.5 m

Người hơn tuổi

Người kém tuổi

Người cùng tuổi

Cùng giới

Khác giới

Người thân

Bạn thân

Người lạ

Cảm ơn các bạn đã dành thời gian điền vào bản khảo sát.

☺♫♫♫ Tôi xin chân thành cảm ơn ♫♫♫☺