Thematic Paper 8

A Global Framework for Action

Governance at the point of abstraction

Social adoption of groundwater pumping technologyand the development of groundwater cultures;

Groundwater Governance - A Global Framework for Action

Groundwater Governance - A Global Framework for Action (2011-2014) is a joint project supported by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and implemented by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), jointly with UNESCO's International Hydrological Programme (UNESCO-IHP), the International Association of Hydrologists (IAH) and the World Bank.

The project is designed to raise awareness of the importance of groundwater resources for many regions of the world, and identify and promote best practices in groundwater governance as a way to achieve the sustainable management of groundwater resources.

The first phase of the project consists of a review of the global situation of groundwater governance and aims to develop of a Global Groundwater Diagnostic that integrates regional and country experiences with prospects for the future. This first phase builds on a series of case studies, thematic papers and five regional consultations.

Twelve thematic papers have thus been prepared to synthesize the current knowledge and experience concerning key economic, policy, institutional, environmental and technical aspects of groundwater management, and address emerging issues and innovative approaches. The 12 thematic papers are listed below and are available on the project website along with a Synthesis Report on Groundwater Governance that compiles the results of the case studies and the thematic papers.

The second phase of the project will develop the main project outcome, a Global Framework for Action consisting of a set of policy and institutional guidelines, recommendations and best practices designed to improve groundwater management at country/local level, and groundwater governance at local, national and transboundary levels.

Thematic PapersNo.1 - Trends in groundwater pollution; trends in loss of groundwater quality and related

aquifers servicesNo.2 - Conjunctive use and management of groundwater and surface waterNo.3 - Urban-rural tensions; opportunities for co-managementNo.4 - Management of recharge / discharge processes and aquifer equilibrium statesNo.5 - Groundwater policy and governanceNo.6 - Legal framework for sustainable groundwater governanceNo.7 - Trends in local groundwater management institutions / user partnershipsNo.8 - Social adoption of groundwater pumping technology and the development of groundwater

cultures: governance at the point of abstractionNo.9 - Macro-economic trends that influence demand for groundwater and related aquifer servicesNo. 10 - Governance of the subsurface and groundwater frontierNo.11 - Political economy of groundwater governanceNo.12 - Groundwater and climate change adaptation

www.groundwatergovernance.org

GROUNDWATERGOVERNANCE:AGlobalFrameworkforCountryAction

GEFID3726

ThematicPaper8:Socialadoptionofgroundwaterpumpingtechnologyandthedevelopmentofgroundwatercultures:

governanceatthepointofabstraction.

MJJones(FAOConsultant)

Rome,January2012

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................6

Part1:Baseline ..............................................................................................................................................9

2. StylesandPatternsofGroundwaterAccessandUsebeforeMechanizedDrillingandLifting ...................92.1 Liftingwaterthroughdirecthumanandanimalenergy.....................................................................92.2 Mobilisinggravityanddrainage .......................................................................................................102.3 Rulesofthegameunderlowintensityabstraction..........................................................................112.4 Mobilisingwindenergy ....................................................................................................................122.5 Suctionpumps–Low‐liftagrariansocieties .....................................................................................132.6 Steampower–Firstmotorisedpumpsandthebeginningsofhydrogeologicalscience .................13

3. TwentiethCenturyDevelopments ............................................................................................................153.1 Shaft‐drivenpumps–Fromminestoagriculture.............................................................................153.2 Thebeginningsofgroundwaterirrigation–TheHighPlainsAquifer,USA ......................................153.3 Growthofgroundwater‐basedurbanwatersupplies ......................................................................183.4 Electro‐submersiblepumps–Self‐supplyandtheracetodeplete ..................................................193.5 Firstgroundwatergovernanceinitiatives .........................................................................................193.6 Worldwideexpansionofurbanandruralgroundwaterdevelopments ...........................................203.7 Groundwaterdevelopment–Theperceivedruralwatersupplysolution .......................................203.8 InternationalDrinking‐WaterSupplyandSanitationDecade(IDWSSD1981‐1990) ........................233.9 Legacyofmodernhand‐pumps–Sustainingaruralwatersupplyculture ......................................243.10 Theascendencyofelectricsubmersiblepumps ...............................................................................263.11 Dieselpoweredshaft‐drivenpumps–Adyingculture.....................................................................283.12 Powersupplyandtheelectro‐submersible ......................................................................................283.13 Lowheadsuctionpumps–Lowintensityscavengingofshallowgroundwater ...............................29

4. TechnologyBaselineandAssociatedCulturesofUseinthe21stCentury..............................................304.1 Regulationandconsolidationofpumpmanufacture .......................................................................304.2 Improvedpumpsandgroundwaterover‐development,inevitableself‐perpetuatingtrends? .......304.3 TheUSHighPlainsAquiferwilfuloverexploitation .........................................................................314.5 Elasticityofdemand–Theenergyequationandalternativeenergysources..................................384.6 Greaterenergyefficiency .................................................................................................................394.7 Suctionpumps–Low‐liftagrariansocieties .....................................................................................394.8 Alternativesources:solarandwindturbines ...................................................................................414.9 Reinvigoratingruralwatersupplyprogrammes ...............................................................................424.10 Improvedsustainability–Communitydemand,managementandparticipationkeys....................42

Part2:Diagnostic ......................................................................................................................................... 44

5. Constraints................................................................................................................................................445.1 Institutionalbarrierstotechnologyaccessanduptake....................................................................445.2 Institutionalbarrierstoefficientuseofenergyingroundwaterpumping .......................................455.3 Economiclimitstopumping .............................................................................................................46

6. ScopeforSecuringSocialandEnvironmentalBenefitsthroughGovernance .......................................486.1 Accesstowellinformedtechnologyoptions....................................................................................486.2 Energyefficiencyprogrammesandgroundwaterpumping .............................................................496.3 Reducingemissions ..........................................................................................................................506.4 Institutionalenvironmentsthatcanwork–economicandenvironmentalregulation....................516.5 Institutionalenvironment–Settingdevelopmentstandards...........................................................52

7. ARationaleforManagingDemand ..........................................................................................................557.1 Absorbingactualcostsatthepointofsupply–Spreadingrisks.......................................................55

Part3:Prospects .......................................................................................................................................... 57

8. ProjectedEvolutionofPumpingTechnologyandCulturesofUse ............................................................578.1 Ruralwatersupplies,meetingthesustainabilitytargets .................................................................57

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8.2 Improvinglow‐liftirrigationlivelihoods ...........................................................................................578.3 Easingthecommunitytechnologyload............................................................................................58

9. ProspectsforManagingGroundwaterDemandatthePointofAbstraction ...........................................59

10. ProspectsforRegulatingEnergyEfficiencyandSmarter‘Skimming’inThinAquifers .........................60

11. TowardConvergenceofTechnology,SustainableUseandEmissionsReduction .................................6111.1 Re‐writingordelegatingthelegislativeframework .........................................................................6111.2 Reappraisingthecultureofsubsidies...............................................................................................6111.3 Equitableredistributionandsharingoftheresource.......................................................................6211.4 Futuretechnologicaldevelopments .................................................................................................64

12. Conclusions ...........................................................................................................................................65DepartmentforEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairs..................................................................................66

References ................................................................................................................................................... 67

LISTOFBOXES,FIGURESANDTABLES

Box1:OromoWells,Ethiopia

Box2:NebraskaGrowthofGroundwaterUsage

Box3:ExtractsfromtheUnitedStatesDepartmentofCommerce,BureauoftheCensus,14th,15thand16thCensus(1920,1930,1940)oftheUnitedStates:IrrigationofAgriculturalLands

Box4:RuralWaterDevelopment–TheRootsofOwnershipandSustainability

Box5:UnequippedBoreholesandAcceleratedPump‐Based,RuralWaterSupplyProgrammes

Box6:TheHand‐pumpConundrum

Box7:RuralElectrification–OpportunitiesMissedandOpen

Box8:GroundwaterIrrigationinIndia

Figure1:Basicclassificationofrotodynamicpumps.

FigureB1‐1:TraditionalBoranatulawell,SidamoRegion,southernEthiopia.Clustersofsuchwellsarecollectivelyclan‐ownedandmaintained.

FigureB1‐2:TraditionalOromohand‐dugwellbetweenBoraandBurkainnortheastEthiopia.

FigureB1‐3:Boranatulawelllocatedinacommunity30kmsouth‐southwestofWachile,SidamoEthiopia.

FigureB2‐1:HighPlainsdistributionofirrigatedlands.

Figure2:Areaundergroundwaterirrigationbycountry:1993‐2002withsubjectiveviewofirrigationwithdrawal‐rechargebalance.

Figure3:GroundwaterHydrographsfromtheHighPlainsAquiferinNebraska(leftscaleinfeet)andGujarat(abovescaleinmetres)from1976to2008showingtheimpactofoverabstractionongroundwaterlevels.

FigureB6‐1:Percentageofbrokendownhand‐pumpsinselectedSub‐Saharancountries.

FigureB6‐2:Maincausesofhand‐pumpbreakdowns.

FigureB7‐1:RuralelectrificationdistributioninsubSahelAfrica.

FigureB8‐1:PercentagedistributionofelectricpumpsinIndia.

FigureB8‐2:Groundwaterdevelopmentlevels.

FigureB8‐3:Indiaareaunderirrigationandwatersources.

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FigureB8‐4:IndiaAgriculturalInputsubsidiesinUSDandpercentageofagriculturaloutputvalue.

Figure4:EastBengalnewelectricpumpconnections1979–2004.

Figure5:UttarPradeshdieselandirrigationwaterpricerises.

Figure6:Farmersreportinginadequateaccesstogroundwaterandelectricityin1998.

Figure7:PeninsulaIndianStates–percentagedistributionfamilyfarmsizesandpercentageareasownedbymarginalfarmers(>0.4ha),smallfarmers(0.4‐1ha),mediumfarmers(2‐5ha)andlargefarmers(>5ha).

Figure8:IndianGangesBasinStates–percentagedistributionfamilyfarmsizesandpercentageareasownedbymarginalfarmers(>0.4ha),smallfarmers(0.4‐1ha),mediumfarmers(2‐5ha)andlargefarmers(>5ha).

Figure9:DeclineingroundwaterpumpingsubsidiescosttotheStateofGujaratpostimplementationofJyotirgramscheme.

Figure10:Gujarat–historicandprojectedcostperhectareoflifting600mmofgroundwaterofirrigation.

Figure11:DistributionofstaticgroundwaterlevelsacrossBangladesh.

Figure12:EnergysourcesforsmallpipedwatersuppliessurveyedinAfrica.

Figure13:Growthininstalledwindpoweredgeneratingcapacity1999‐2011.

Figure14:RelationshipbetweenaMinimumEfficiencyPerformanceStandard(MEPS)7,5kWelectricmotorworkingloadandefficiency.

Figure15:TexasandNewMexicosouthernHighPlainsaquifer,urbangroundwatersupplysources.

Figure16:Variablespeeddrive(VSD)optionsandgenericelectricmotors.

TableB2‐1:Datafrom1930Census.

TableB2‐2:Datafromthe1940Census.

TableB3‐3:Datafromthe1920,1930and1940Census.

Table1:SummaryofGroundwaterDevelopmentWorks,1942‐1952,Zambia.

TableB5‐1:StatusofBoreholesdrilledbetween1973and1989inEthiopia.

TableB6‐1:Selectedhand‐pumpperformanceandVLOMcharacteristics.

TableB7‐1:Progress2001‐2007onruralelectrification–Ghana.

Table2:NebraskagroundwaterirrigationstatisticsandsourcesofenergyabstractedfromtheUSCensusofAgriculture,FarmandIrrigationSurveysof1998and2003

Table3:Subjectiveassessmentofbasictechnicalandeconomicfactorsinfluencinggroundwaterirrigationfarmingin3villagecommunitiesinPunjab,India.

Table4:Effectsofaltitudeabovesealevel(asl)ontheNetPositiveSuctionHead(NPSH)andthereductioninefficiencyduetotheinternalcombustionenginepowerlosses.

Table5:Nominalrelationshipbetweenelectricmotorpowerandefficiency.

Table6:AssessmentofpotentialforenergysavingsbyapplyingVSDspumpsintheEuropeanUnionVSDsPumps.

Table7:Indiainstalledgeneratingcapacity,October2010.

Table8:PPPwatersupplyprogrammes‐stakeholderprofiles.

Table9:Watersupplyschemeprofiles.

Table10:Designattributesandprinciplesofunitizationversuscommon‐poolresources.

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CompilersNote:Theconcentrationofexamplesofgroundwater irrigation from Indiaand fromtheHighPlainsAquifer in theUnited States of America (USA) reflects the extensive availability of appropriate technical papers. Theconsiderableworkundertakenandreportedonfromothermajorgroundwater‐basedirrigationareashasbeenexaminedbutcoverage fromtheseareas ismore fragmented.However, theavailablepapers inmanycasesreport similar situations developing across all groundwater basins in Europe, Asia, theMiddle East, Africa,AustraliaandtheAmericas.Thedetailedroleofpump‐usermanagementgroupshasnotbeenspecificallyexaminedastheseareseenasconstantly evolving. The schemes are seen to expand, mature and decline as the social structure of thecommunitiesalterundertheinfluenceofexternalandinternalpoliticalandeconomicdevelopments.

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1. Introduction

Thelasttenthousandyearshaveseenwatersupplytechnologydevelopedfromthecollectionofsurfacewaterfromriversandpondsandgroundwaterfromspringsandwellsinbasiccontainerstocomplexpumped‐pipeddistributionschemes.Duringthefirstninethousandyears,waterresourcedevelopmentsandsocialregulationwere aimed at satisfying domestic and irrigation supplies. The last fewhundred years, however, have seenrapidadvancesinpumpingtechnologythathaveoutstrippedthesocialadjustmentstotherulesgoverningtheuseoftheresources.Mankind was initially concerned about building effective groundwater‐pumpingmachinery. However, oncesuitable technical and social solutionswere developed, the impacts of large‐scale groundwater abstractionweresoonfoundtorequirenewmeasuresleadingtolegislationandconservationoftheresource.Overtimeavarietyofpumpsandmotivemechanismsweredevelopedassetoutin“MineDrainage,Pumps,Etc.”(Behr,1896).Thisprovidesextensivelyillustrateddescriptionsofthelatesttechnologyattheendofthe19thcenturyandhasanappendixcovering“Water‐RaisingMachinery for IrrigationorLandDrainage”. Italsodescribes compressedair‐poweredandair‐liftpumps.TwoFoodandAgricultureOrganizationof theUnitedNations (FAO) monographs – "Water Lifting Devices for Irrigation" byMolenaar (1956) and "Water LiftingDevices"byFraenkel(1986)–providefurthercomprehensivesummariesoftraditionalandmotorizedwater‐pumpingtechnologyatthetimeofpublication.The1956monographconcentratesondescribingandcostingtraditional and mechanized low‐lift surface‐water pumps for rice irrigation, while the 1986 monographexpands coverage to the design parameters, operational efficiency and economics of wind‐powered andmotorizedpumpingsystems.Thefourmethodsavailabletoabstractwaterverticallyagainstgravityfromadug‐wellorboreholeare:

• direct lifting of a fixed volumewith a container – rope andbucket(s) including themulti‐containerPersianWheel;

• positivedisplacementofavolumebythemovementofaplungerorintermeshingrotatingwalls1;• rotodynamic propelling by rotating blades or impellers (Figure 1) – shaft and electric submersible

pumps, centrifugal suction (initialwater flow at right angles to direction of rotation axis), turbines(waterflowparalleloratandacuteangletorotationaxis)andeducatorjetpumps;

• differentialpressurebyloweringthedensityofawatercolumn–airlift.Since1900,progressivedevelopments inpumpingtechnologyandmotivepowerhaveunderpinnedanever‐expanding worldwide use of groundwater for rural, urban and industrial water supplies, as well as forlivestock, agricultural and irrigation purposes. The main developments driving this expansion were theintroductionof reliabledieselandelectric‐powered,shaft‐driven,multi‐stagecentrifugalpumps.Thesehavesinceenableddeeperaquiferstobesystematicallyexploited.Between the publication of the FAOmonographs in 1956 and 1985, twohighly significant developments ingroundwater pumping became established. The firstwas the initiation by donor agencies and internationallending institutions of large‐scale hand‐pump‐based rural water supply programmes aimed at meeting the1977MardelPlata(Argentina)ActionPlanthatledtothedeclarationofthe1981‐1990InternationalDrinking‐Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (IDWSSD).The second development was the evolution and rapid

1Datingtothe3rdcenturyBCtheforcepumpusedaplungertopresswateroutofacylinder.Plungerpumpsrequireanon‐return valve and can bemounted at the surface and rely on suction and air pressure to lift water to the surface andthereforehaveamaximumpossibleliftoflessthan10m.Plungerpumpssetbelowthewatersurfaceinthewelldirectlyliftthecolumnofwaterintherisingmain,andtheliftcapabilitydependsonthepoweravailableandthestrengthofthematerialsusedtoconstructthepump.Bothformsofplungerpumpwereinusebythe15thcenturyAD.Theropeorchainpumppulls a continuous string of plungers though guide and lifting pipes.Diaphragmpumps rely of displacement of aflexiblemembrane.Rotaryprogressivecavitypumpsare incommonuse (MonoPumps)butgear, screw,eccentricvaneandsqueezepumpshavemorelimitedapplication.

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expansion in the use of electric submersible pumps for groundwater‐based urban water supplies andirrigation.Large‐scalesubmersiblepumpgroundwater irrigation took‐offwith the introductionof thecentrepivotinColoradointhe1950s(Kepfield,1993).Inmany countries, the adverse impact of this growth in use of submersible pumps on groundwater levelsand/or quality triggered the need for legislation to regulate abstraction. The introduction of appropriatelegislation, however, has been uneven given the population and economic demands placed on thegroundwater resource base. In some cases, current legislation is conflicted by the impact of governmentsubsidiesandpromotiontoencouragefurthergroundwaterabstractionastypifiedbythebiofuelmarket.This thematic paper examines the historic and on‐going development of water‐lifting technologies and thegovernanceproblemsandsolutionsthathavearisenfromcontrolledoruncontrolledgroundwaterabstraction.Italsoexamineslegislationonimprovedpumpefficiencyandtheeconomicsandlife‐cyclecostingofboreholepumps.

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Part1:Baseline

2. StylesandPatternsofGroundwaterAccessandUsebeforeMechanizedDrillingandLiftingThe development of steam power at the end of the 17thcentury marks an appropriate break in thedevelopment timeline forpumping technology. It alsomarks thepointwheredirect‐lift pumpswere largelyreplacedbyrotodynamicpumpsthateffectivelypropelledwaterupwards.Pre‐17thCenturyDevelopmentsFrom the start,humans reliedonopenaccess to springs, riverbaseflowand shallowgroundwater stored insandy dry riverbeds as their main dry‐season water sources. It is, therefore, reasonable to assume earlyhumansestablishedstrategiestoensuresafeaccesstothesewatersupplies.Thereisevidenceoftheirlimitedmeansforcollectingandtransportingwater.Untilrecently,theAustralianAboriginalcultureswithnoceramictechnologyusedanimalskins,delicatelyfoldedandstitched leaves,treebarkcontainers,woodedbowlsandsea,eggandcoconutshellsascontainers.Society’ssystematicexploitationofgroundwaterfordomesticandcattlewateringcoincidedwiththetransitionfromforagertosedentaryfarmer.Thisfollowedthedomesticationoflivestockandfoodplantsbetween9000and11000yearsBP.Wateravailabilitywascentralindetermininghumansettlementpatterns.Thegroupof5‐m‐deep water wells of this age uncovered in Cyprus and elsewhere in the Eastern Mediterranean Regionreflects a certain understanding of shallow groundwater occurrences. This was likely linked to experiencegainedwhenminingofflintsand,later,metallicmineralsfortoolmaking.Theestablishmentofsettledfarminginherently engendered the concepts of individual or communal ownership of land and water pointsthatrequiredprotectionbyphysicalforceorasystemofcustomarylaw.ArchaeologicalevidenceshowstherapiddiffusionofallformsoftechnologicaladvancesacrossNorthAfrica,theMiddleEast,Arabia,WesternAsia,theIndusValleyandbeyondbetween10000to4000yearsBP.Paralleltechnological developments occurred independently across Eastern Asia and South America. By 4000 BP,wood‐linedhand‐dugwaterwellswereinroutineusesforcommunitywatersupplies.Underdifferingregionalclimaticregimes,threemainformsoflanduseevolved:

• Dryland(rain‐fed)arablefarmingdevelopedinthetopicalandtemperatehumidzones.

• Surfacewaterirrigationspreadalongthemajorrivervalleysaround8000yearsBPandmorelocalizedpocketsofgroundwaterspringbasedirrigationdevelopedinthemorearidpartsofSouthernArabiaandalongthePersianGulf.

• Inthesub‐humidandsemi‐aridzones,nomadicpastoralistsreliedonseasonalvegetationcoverandonsurfaceandgroundwatersources.

Ample surface and groundwater sources are found in rain‐fed farming areas and potentially supported thehighpopulationdensitiesasseenintheAfricanLakesRegion.In the tropical arid and semi‐arid zones from North Africa to Central Asia, a weakening of the southwestmonsoonaround5700BPcausedaregionaldecline inprecipitation.Theclimateshifted fromsub‐humidtosemi‐aridandarid,andthewoodlandsandsavannahgrasslandsacrossabroadswathofthenorthernSaharaDesert retreated.Thepastoralistanddry‐land farmingpopulationmovedeast to theNileValleywhere theymergedwithafastdevelopingsurfacewaterirrigationfarmingculturethatmirroredtheculturesintheTigris‐EuphratesValleyandtheIndusBasin(Bazza,2007).

2.1 Liftingwaterthroughdirecthumanandanimalenergy

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Between4000and2500yearsBP,manyofthetraditionalman‐,animal‐andwater‐poweredlow‐liftdevicestosupportthesurfacewaterirrigationwereinvented:thewaterwasmovedbyliftingorpaddling.Theearliestand most widely used lifting device from 2000 years BC was the shaduf, which was supplemented byArchimedes Screw around 100 BC. The use of a bucket and rope to liftwater undoubtedly has the longesthistory,and itsuse inwaterwellswas improvedby the introductionof thewindlass. These irrigation‐basedearly societies implemented appropriate protocols and laws covering distribution of the surface waterresourcesandmaintenanceofthesupplysystems.Thebulkoftheirrigationreliedontheriseandfalloftheriver,withannualfloodsdivertedintocanalsystemsfromwherethewaterwasallowedtoflowbygravityorwasliftedontothesurroundingfields.Thepost5700yearsBPdeclineinprecipitationwasaccompaniedbyincreasingunpredictabilityintheclimate.Across southern Arabia and down the Pacific Coast of South America, the areas under irrigation declinedsteadily until the mean catchment precipitation fell below 70mm at which stage irrigation was no longerviable. Populations were forced to withdraw to those areas where they could exploit spate floods andgroundwater for irrigation. This is possibly best seen in the archaeological record of southern Arabia. HereHarrower (2006) provides a detailed account of archaeological research into the ancient spate irrigationsystemsdating from themid to late6000yearsBP in theWadi Sana’ thatdrains theSouthern Jol inWadiHadhramaut‐MassilaCatchment,SouthYemen.ExtensiveNeolithictool‐makingsitesandcattleremainsdatedto 7000 years BP point to an ancestral pastoralist culture thatwas supplemented by spate flood diversionsystemsandspringfedirrigationuntilclimaticconditionsdeterioratedabout4000yearsBP.SimilardevelopmentscanbetracedalongotherWadiHadhramauttributaryvalleysandtotheEastinDhofar,Oman.Here,waterwellsatShisurandMaShedid inWadiGhudunsupportedtheagriculturaldevelopmentscentredon theancient cityofUbar. There is ahiatus in thearchaeological record in theHadhramaut from4000to3000yearsBP.Followingthisthereisevidencethatshallowgroundwaterwellsstartedtobeusedforextensive irrigationfarmingalongthemainHadhramautValley.Atpresent, therearestillappreciablespringflowsfromtheUmmerRahummaLimestonesupportingirrigatedfarmingintributaryvalleys,WadiAin,WadiIdm(ArdarRaydah)andWadiSana’.Theimplementationofirrigationsystemsmusthaverapidlyprogressedfromanindividualtasktoacollectiveundertaking that allowed the worldwide emergence of the early city‐states. Prior to the spread of theAbrahamicreligions,thereligiousandcivilleadershippowersofthesurfacewaterirrigationcultureswereheldbygod‐king‐priest rulingeliteswho tightly controlledall aspectsof the rights to landandwaterownership.Many of the earliest written records of these irrigation‐based societies concerned water rights andresponsibilities for maintenance of the water capture and diversion structures. The situation regardinggroundwaterother than thatdevelopedby theqanat systemswas largelyoutside the interestof the rulingelite.Thus,theearlylawsregardinggroundwatercentredontheprivateownershipofthelandandthehand‐dugwells.Inmanycases,theprinciplesbehindtheselawshavebeenlargelycarriedovertothepresentday.

2.2 Mobilisinggravityanddrainage

The development of horizontal infiltration galleries to exploit groundwater from extensive mountain frontoutwashfansstartedaround1000BCinnorthwestPersiawheretheyareknownasqanat.Theyrelyongravitydrainage(MohammedKaraji,ca.1100AD)andlikelyweredevelopedfromobservedgroundwaterflowsthatoccurredwhenhorizontalcoppermineaditsweredrivenintothewatertable.Althoughlengthanddepthofanaverageqanatarerespectivelyaround5kmandlessthat200m,somemaybeconsiderablygreater,reaching70km in length and 350m in depth (Yazdi, 2006). During the Achaemenian period (550‐330BC) qanatconstructionwas subsidizedby tax relief: this benefitwas reinstatedduring thepost 621AD Islamic Periodwhenmanyof theqanatwere controlledby the local government under formalized rules as set out in the“Alghani”–TheBookofQanat(Yazdi2006).Theseincludedaminimumseparationdistanceof375mbetweentwoqanats.QanattechnologywastransferredfromPersiatohydrogeologicallyfavourablesites intheNearEast,CentralAsia,NorthAfricaandSouthernArabia(Lightfoot,2000).Heretheyareknownunderavarietyofnames,falaj

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(Oman), karez (Afghanistan, China, Pakistan) and foggara (North Africa). These terms, however, frequentlydescribe spring‐capture structures and the downstream water channel with no underground infiltrationgallery.Thepeakofqanatdevelopmentoccurredbetweenthe16thand18thcenturieswhenmorethan380000wererecordedintheHamadan,IsfahanandTehranregions(Yazdi,2006).Yazdialsoreportsthat34355qanatswerestillinuseduring2003‐2004withacombinedyieldof8,2km3/year.

2.3 Rulesofthegameunderlowintensityabstraction

Thearchaeological record shows theearliest pastoralist cultures freely exploitedamplywatered rangelandsand adopted small‐scale rain‐fed cropping. The grazing areas of the more arid areas of the Near East areseasonal and localized. This forced the pastoralists to adopt a nomadic lifestyle. They, however, benefitedfromafavourabledistributionofperennialriversandspringsforwateringlivestockthatweresupplementedwithsurfacestoragetanksandhand‐dugwells.Mostofthewinter‐grazinggroundswereonthelowerslopesof themountains that flanked the lowland drainage basins close to thewell‐regulated centres of irrigationfarming.Theseprovidedareadymarketforthepastoralists’flocksofsheepandgoats.Overtime,pastoralistsacquired formal rights to the winter grazing lands and access water. Both pre‐Islamic and Islamic lawsrecognisedandprotectedtheserights.Therangelandsofthesemi‐aridSahelandtheHornofAfricahavemorelimitedsurfacewatersources.Herepastoralistsrelyonsprings,waterharvestingstructuresandhand‐dugwellsthathavebeeninusethroughoutthearchaeologicalrecord,essentiallyunchanged.Somewere,andare,ofsubstantialsizeandrequiredregularcommunal maintenance inputs. Established by 7500 years BP, the pastoralist and small‐scale subsistencefarmingcommunitiesresistedoraccommodatedexternalinfluencesthatcouldhaveimpactedontheirstablesocialsystemoflanduse.Thislevelofsocialstabilityisreflectedinalongoralandwrittentraditionasaseriesof city‐states rose and declined from the 5th century BC onwards. Traditional rights to groundwater werecentredonthecollectiveclantenureoflandsandhand‐dugwells.Inmanycases,theprinciplesbehindtheserightshavebeenlargelycarriedovertothepresentdayastypified intheOromo‐Boranacustomary lands inEthiopiaandNorthKenya(Box1). AcrosstheIndiansub‐continent,thestepwellthatcameintousearound200ADisamorehighlyengineeredversionoftheBorana“tula”.Box1:OromoWells,EthiopiaTheOromohave stronghomogeneous culture andsocial orderbasedonagegroups (Gada). CoveringlargeareasofEthiopiaandnorthernKenya,thelandthey occupy lies in a range of agro‐climatic zones.They have ancient collective democratic traditionsthatenabled themtopractice sustainable landuse,underpinned by the concept of a proper andequitabledistributionofarableandgrazinglands.TheBoranaareoneofthemajorpastoralistgroupsof the Oromo. Their rangelands occupy the semi‐aridpartsoftheSidamoRegioninsouthernEthiopia

and the more arid Marsabit Region of northernKenya. The underlying beliefs of the Oromo areillustratedbythisextractofatraditionalpoemaboutmotherearth:

Uponyouthereisfood.Underyouthereiswater,Wegrazeourherdsonyou.

To effectively manage the resources of their semi‐arid and arid rangelands, the Borana employ rain‐waterharvesting,springsourcesandhand‐dugwellsinawaymirroringmankind’sfirstendeavours.

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Figure B1-1 (left): Traditional Borana tula well, Sidamo Region, southern Ethiopia. Clusters of such wells are collectively clan‐owned and maintained. The use is regulated by an appointed overseer (konfi) and in times of drought ,tula can be jointly used by an alliance of clans that share the upkeep of the well and surroundings. Access to watering days at the tula is allocated according to an established schedule. (Gufu Oba, 1996; Skinner, 2010).Figure B1-2(lowerleft): Traditional Oromo hand-dug well between Bora and Burka in northeastEthiopia. Water is collected using leather buckets thrown hand-to-hand to the surface from some 15m below ground.Figure B1-3(lowerright): Borana tula well located in a community 30km south‐southwest of Wachile, Sidamo Ethiopia. Google Earth Image (4o 16’ 54N” 38 o 58’ 30”S). Such wells have enabled the Borana to establish sustainable use of the available grazing across the rangelands.

2.4 Mobilisingwindenergy

Thefirstuseofwindpowerappearedaroundthe4thcenturyADinEuropeandChinaandtheuseofhorizontalsail windmills to pump water for irrigation was recorded in Afghanistan and Persia by 700 AD. In the14thcentury AD, vertical sail windmillswere in use for drainage in Holland but these had a very limited liftcapacity(±1m).Thediscoveryofmetalworkingpromptedtheuseofbellowsandfanstopumpairforsmeltingandmineventilation.Theseprovidedtheblueprintforsomeofthefirstwaterpumps.Cylinderplungerpumpswithpackedsealswereintroducedin1675.Bytheendofthe17thcentury,manyformsof low‐liftdeviceswereemployedforpumpingsurfacewater forirrigation and domestic supply purposes. The options for meeting higher lifts required for abstractinggroundwaterfromhand‐dugwellsornaturalcavernswerelimitedtousingrotatingdevicesfittedwithasingle

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oramultiple seriesof containersas typifiedby thePersianWheel (Saqiya).At that time, it is reasonable tostate that individual owners and communitieswere largely responsible for looking out for their ownwatersuppliesintermsofownership.

2.5 Suctionpumps–Low‐liftagrariansocieties

As engineering and metal working improved during the 18thcentury, effective lever‐action cylinder hand‐pumps came intowider use for liftingwater from hand‐dugwells for domestic purposes and they becamecentral to meeting the demands of rapidly growing urbanized communities. However, with undergroundminingneedingtomovegreatervolumesofwater,the18thand19thcenturiesalsosawashiftfrompureliftingof water to more efficient methods of pushing or impelling water against a head2. Based on advances inmathematical analysis, physics and metallurgy, practical designs for suction and positive‐displacementreciprocatingcylinderpumpsstartedtobedevelopedandpatented.AmongthetheoreticaladvanceswerethedefinitionofpowerintermsofrateofliftandweightbyJohnSmeatonin1752and,basedonNewton’slaws,LeonhardEuler’smathematicalanalysisofcentrifugalforcesasappliedtowaterpumpingin1754.While theuseof rotating fans forventilatingcoppermines inPortugalpossiblydatesbackto the5thcenturyAD,theconceptforthecentrifugalpumpwassetoutbyItalianengineerFrancescodiGiorgioin1475.Thefirstcentrifugal pumps with straight vanes appeared in the 17thcentury AD. Curved vanes developed by JohnAppoldin1851werefoundthreetimesmoreefficientthanthestraightvanecentrifugalwaterpumpsthenincurrentuse.Otherdevelopmentsaroundthesametimeweretheintroductionoftheshroudedimpeller,thewhirlpool chamber andmultistage pumps. The lifting heads achieved by centrifugal pumps, however,wereconstrainedby the lowshaft rotation speedsand theefficiencyof thewater seals3. The introductionof thevanediffuserinthelastquarterofthe19thcenturysawafurtherincreaseincentrifugalpumpefficiency.

2.6 Steampower–Firstmotorisedpumpsandthebeginningsofhydrogeologicalscience

The parallel development of steam power saw, in 1712, the introduction of the Newcomen beam enginecoupledtopositivedisplacementpumps.Althoughinitiallyusedforminedewatering,thesepumpsweresooninuseforurbansurfacewatersupplies.Themorefuel‐efficientWattsteamenginewas introducedbetween1760and1775.Thiswasfollowedbythehigh‐pressuresteamenginearound1800andtherapidintroductionofawiderangeofsteampoweredapplicationsforindustrialmanufacture,railwaylocomotives,paddlewheelandscrewdrivenships.Thesedemandedlighter,higherpoweredandfasterengines.Stationaryhigh‐poweredlong‐stroke engines had a wider application in water pumping as typified by the installation of the KewpumpingstationontheRiverThamesupstreamofLondonin1837.By the early 1800s, themain principles of geologywere being established, and by the 1820s the basics ofgroundwaterflowandoccurrencehadbeendefinedinFrance,includinganunderstandingoftheartesianParisBasin.PickedupbyBritishgeologists,thisknowledgewasappliedtotheartesianLondonBasinandopenedupthepossibilityoffuturelarge‐scalegroundwaterabstractionforurbanwatersupplies.Asworldwideurbanandindustrialgrowthpollutedtheimmediatesurfacewatersourcesduringthefirsthalfof the 19thcentury, newly established water supply companies turned to investigating and developingalternativegroundwaterresources.AspartofatechnicalproposaltoaugmentLondon’ssurfacewatersuppliesusinggroundwaterfromtheCretaceousChalkaquifer,Mylne(1840)reportsthattheconstructionofartesianboreholes intheLondonBasinhadbecomewidespread.Thewellsweretypicallyseveralmetres indiameterand often had additional horizontal headings or adits. Supporters and objectors to this developmentdemonstrated an understanding of the cone of depression around an abstraction well and the seasonal

2Forthepurposesofthispapertheterm“head”coversboththetotalphysicaldistancewaterisliftedplusthehydraulicpipelosses.3Thepumpingheadcapabilityofallrotodynamicpumpsisafunctionoftheimpellertipspeed.

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variations in groundwater levels in response to recharge (Stephenson, 1841; Clutterbuck, 1842, 1843 and1850).Manyearlyurban supply schemes reliedonoverflowingartesiangroundwaterand therewasno immediateneed to turn to pumps. In London, 120‐m‐deepwells commissioned in 1844 powered the Trafalgar Squarefountains until around 1890 when the declining artesian pressure had to be augmented by pumps. Thedecades following the 1850s saw rapid growth in urban populations and when, in 1854, John SnowdemonstratedtheBroadStreetwaterwellasthesourceofamajorcholeraoutbreakinLondon,metropolitanauthoritiesworldwide responded by commissioning and putting in place, large‐scalewater supply schemesbased,inpart,ongroundwater.InNorthAmerica,themajorityoftheurbangroundwatersuppliesweretakenfromunconsolidatedalluvial sandsandgravels. InEurope,attention focusedonpumpinggroundwater fromconsolidatedsedimentaryaquifers.Thisexpansioncreatedademandforimprovementsinpumpcapabilitiesintermsofdischargeandhead.Withtheintroductionofsteam‐tractionenginesinthe1850s,farmersandminershadmobilepowerplantstodriveavarietyofwaterpumpsfordrainageandliftingpurposes.Theuseofsteamtractionenginescontinuedwell into the1930s. In addition, thepowerful commercialDCandACelectricmotors introduced in themid1880swere quickly adapted by pumpmanufactures as substitutes for existing steam engines and then forpurpose‐built belt‐driven pumps. By themid 1890s, reliable internal combustion engines were adopted topower both reciprocating cylinder and centrifugal pumps for water supply. In agricultural areas,motorizedpumpsbegantoaugmentthewindmillsthatwereinwideusefordomesticandlivestockwatersuppliesandirrigation.As the 19thcentury closed, engineers had produced very robust positive‐displace pumps capable of lifting10000m3/dayto150metresandlessreliablerotodynamicpumpscapableofmoving2000m3/daybutwithalift limited to a few metres by the shaft seals. Most expanding urban water companies constructed largediametershaftsandinstalledverylargebeamenginescylinderpumpstoabstractgroundwater.Inmanyurbanareas, the increase inpublicandprivatewater supplyabstractionhadalready resulted in significantly lowergroundwaterlevels.Away from Europe and the USA, many urban communities continued to rely on traditional groundwatersources.QanatscontinuedtosupplymanycitiesinIran.Theuseofopenhand‐dugwellscontinuedtosupplymanytownsandvillageswithanimal‐andman‐poweredliftingdevices.Forexample,groundwaterwasliftedfromwellstappingtheshallowaquifersoftheWadiTubanatSheikhOthmantoanaqueductfeedingtheportofAdeninsouthernYemenaslateas1914(Connelly,2005).

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3. TwentiethCenturyDevelopments

3.1 Shaft‐drivenpumps–Fromminestoagriculture

Between1901and1920,inAmerica,specialistpump‐manufacturers’attemptstosatisfythenewgroundwaterirrigationmarketintheMid‐WestandPacificCoastStateswithhigh‐volume,lowliftandline‐shaftcentrifugalsuction pumps was slow to take off. In Nebraska4 this was largely due to the speculative nature of theinvestmentinirrigationfarming(Kepfield,1993).Thefarmersfoundthatundertheprevailingeconomicconditions,thereweretoomanyrisksinvolvedinchangingfromtheirexistingwindmillsandreciprocatingpumps.Prototype line‐shaft turbine pumps were developed in 1897. These were quickly followed by the firstcommercial pumps in theearly 1900s as several Californiamanufactures saw theopportunity to satisfy thedemandforhigh‐yieldpumpsthatwouldfitinsmalldiameterwaterwells.Facedwithdeclininggroundwaterlevels and increased drawdowns as the use of these pumps grew, the manufacturers concentrated onimprovingthehydraulicefficiencyandmaterialqualityoftheirpumps.By1920,thethreemaintypesofrotodynamicpumps–radial,mixedandaxel flow–were inuse(Figure1).The essential components of the high‐lift line‐shaft pumps, the discharge head, the vertical drive shaft andsupportbearingsandthecentrifugalimpellersandhousinghadbeenlargelyperfected.Theintroductionofthegear head pumpdrives enabled direct coupling of internal combustion engines and electricmotors to highspeedpumps.

Figure 1: Basic classification of rotodynamic pumps (reproduced from BPMA, 2006).

3.2 Thebeginningsofgroundwaterirrigation–TheHighPlainsAquifer,USA

The take up by irrigation farmers inNebraska in the 1920s remained lowwith irrigated lands beginning toextend up the interfluves from the shallow groundwater areas close to themain river valleys. Despite thisreluctancetoinvestinnewpumpsduelowgrainprices,aminordroughtin1925‐6showedtheadvantagesofgroundwaterbasedirrigationandby1930overonethousandpumpswereusedtoirrigatesome12000haInNebraska(Box2).Accordingtothe1930censusof IrrigationDistricts inCaliforniasome100000haof landwas irrigatedusing420Mm3peryearofgroundwaterpumpedfromwells(equivalentapplication420mm/year).Thiswasabout15percentofthetotalwaterdivertedforirrigationanddomesticsuppliesintheState.TheUSACensusdata(Box3)clearlyreflectsthemajorchangesinthegroundwaterirrigationsceneinthe19mainirrigationStatesaselectricpoweredline‐shaftturbinepumpsbecamedominant.Thesechangeswerelargelydictatedbythe5‐to‐10‐mdeclineperdecadeingroundwaterlevelsacrossmostirrigationareas.From 1930, the introduction of higher performance line‐shaft pumps, movable sprinkles and gated pipes,couplewith cheaperhigh‐speedpetrol engines, lowered the costs and improved the reliabilityof irrigation.Thisledtoanacceleratingexpansioningroundwaterirrigation(Green,1992).Theimpetuswasfurtherdriven

4TheStateofNebraskaiscitedasanexampleasitranksfirstintheUSAforgroundwater‐basedirrigation.

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bythe1930‐36“DustBowl”droughtthataffectedmostoftheGreatPlainsareaofNorthAmericalyingtotheWestofthe100thmeridian.Therapidexpansioninruralelectrificationunderthe“NewDeal”sawwidespreadphasing‐inof electricmotor‐poweredpumps andby 1944, over 5150 groundwater irrigation areas coveredsome100000hainNebraska(Conda,1944).Box2:NebraskaGrowthofGroundwaterUsageThetimetableofgroundwaterdevelopmentfor irrigationinNebraska,USA, illustratestheinterplaybetweengovernment policies, economics, pumping technology, environmental impact and legislation. Surface waterirrigation intheStatestarted inthe1850sandbythe1960s,thesurface‐water‐irrigated landcoveredabout400km2. Followingdroughtsbetween1883and1895, theStateofNebraska introduced lawsgoverning therighttousesurfacewaterbasedona“firstintime,firstinright”principle.The450000km2HighPlainsAquiferunderliespartsofNebraska,SouthDakota,Wyoming,Colorado,Kansas,NewMexico,OklahomaandTexas,inmid‐western USA (Figure B2‐1). Although large sections of the area are underlain by numerous oil fields,agricultureisthedominanteconomicactivity.TheHighPlainsAquiferoutcropinNebraskacovers130000km2

andsupports3000to3300km2ofgroundwaterirrigationmakingitthelargestStateuserintheUSA.Between1901and1920,asmentionedearlier,Americanpumpmanufacturers’ attempts to satisfy thenewspeculativegroundwaterirrigationmarketintheMid‐WestandPacificCoastStateswithhigh‐volume,lowliftandline‐shaftcentrifugalpumpslargelyfailedpartlyduemainlytounreliablebeltdrivesandlackofsuitablehigh‐speed power units. In addition, irrigation farmers did not have access to the skills necessary formaintainingpumpingequipment.In Nebraska by 1928, the impact of groundwater irrigation on thewater table along the Platte Valley wassufficient to dispel the idea that the resource was unlimited, and the State was called on to survey theresource. Published in 1943, the resulting report included mapping of the groundwater resources. On theotherhand,ruralelectrificationwasacentralprogrammetothe1935AmericanNewDealandthepercentageoffarmsinNebraskawithelectricpowerrosefrom9,7percentin1919to95percentby1954.Manufacturerswere quick to produce electric‐powered in‐line shaft pumps. Theseweremore efficient andeasier to maintain than gasoline pumps and more consistent than windmills. This, coupled with pump‐purchasecreditplansprompteda rapidexpansion ingroundwater irrigationandby1940 theState found itnecessary to introducenew legaland technicalmanagementmeasures.Subsequently thesewere revisedasnatural conditions became better understood and demands on the resource changed. The first revision,passedin1957,coveredtheregistrationofirrigationwellsandplacedaminimum200mwellspacing.In1969,legislationwasconsolidatedunderabillestablishingLandandWaterConservationDistricts.TheGroundwaterControl Act passed in 1975 was supplement by the1996 Act (Legislative Bill 108) covering the integratedmanagementofhydrologicallyconnectedgroundwaterandsurfacewater.

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The widespread introduction of the centre pivotirrigationspurredthemaingrowthofgroundwaterirrigationfrom1960to1980.Thisperiodgaveriseto the philosophy of the USA water well drillingindustry:“wedrillwaterwellstosellpumps”.After1980, farm profits fell due to low agriculturalcommodity prices and rising pumping cost causedby declining groundwater levels. Since then mosteconomic studies show groundwater irrigation tohave negative returns without the receipt ofexternal subsidies (Gilsonet al., 2001). In 1988,agricultural economists projected a slowwithdrawal from irrigated farming to dry‐landfarming as the water table declined, and newinvestment in wells and irrigation equipmentbecameuneconomic(H.P.Mapp,1988).The area under irrigation from 1980 to 1998wasstabilized by a variety federal subsidies and taxbreaks, including resource depletion relief andguaranteed crop prices. Between 1998 and 2001,increased subsidies covered a dip in commodityprices and boosted the farming economy acrossthe High Plains. In addition, targeted subsidies toencourage soya‐based biodiesel production wereintroduced in 2002, followed in 2005 by moreemphatic subsidies for the production of graincrops for ethanol biofuels. In 2007, the USAdeclared a nationwide target of 133Mm3 /a bio‐ethanol production by 2017. To achieve this,furthersubsidiesandeasingoflanduserestrictionswere introduced (Water Science and TechnologyBoardoftheNationalResearchCouncil,2007).TheEnvironment News Service (ENS, 2007)estimates4Mm3 of process water is required toproduce 1Mm3 of bio‐ethanol on top of theirrigationwaterdemand required toproducecornfeedstock.

FigureB2‐1:HighPlainsdistributionofirrigatedlands(adaptedfromLitke,2001)

Box 3: Extracts from the United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 14th, 15th and 16th Census (1920, 1930, 1940) of the United States: Irrigation of Agricultural Lands Covering the19 irrigationStates(Arizona,Arkansas,California,Colorado, Idaho,Kansas, Louisiana,Montana,Nebraska,Nevada,NewMexico,NorthDakota,Oklahoma,Oregon, SouthDakota, Texas,Utah,WashingtonandWyoming), thecensusdatashowsthesteadygrowth in thenumberofwellsandgroundwaterusage. Itshows the transition from centrifugal to turbine pumps and the rise in the use of electrical motors. Alsonotablearethedecline insteampowerandthedecliningtrend inoverflowingartesianwells (thepost1900impactoftheartesianDakotaSandstoneBasinpeakedin1910‐1914andisseentobedecliningby1930andisunremarkeduponinthe1940census).

FlowingWells

m3/sec PumpedWells

m3/sec Pumps m3/sec Motors

Pre1860 9 0,02 75 3,84 101 5,68 891860‐69 21 0,02 54 1,55 78 4,69 721870‐79 107 0,41 82 4,31 115 51,61 105

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1880‐89 513 2,47 260 11,21 373 81,52 3381890‐99 319 1,35 610 27,19 714 0,17 6231900‐04 426 4,08 794 28,57 990 186,56 9161905‐09 396 7,07 1704 83,34 2075 339,70 19111910‐14 677 7,36 5371 198,52 5940 375,19 56021915‐19 517 2,62 6623 269,78 8468 599,59 69611920‐24 572 3,62 7902 288,15 7216 419,05 82581925‐29 532 4,48 10829 396,16 11551 508,92 11551

Table B2-1: Data from 1930 Census

1920 1930 1940NumberofPumpedWells 32,094 56,729 88,279∑Potentialyieldm3/s 1160.6 2048.3 2735.3

Electricmotor 289,018 876,186 1,118,024Internalcombustionengine 259,615 265,756 588,123

Water 8,093 12,058 ‐Steam 10,768 872 ‐Other* 125,429 50,343 56,540

TableB2‐2:Datafromthe1940Census

1920 1930 1940Centrifugal 581274 726301 597057Turbine 24390 302294 901157Rotary 36716 118856 Reciprocating 32344 5338 Air Lift 10072 1627 Plunger 17503 17558Screw 8732 Water Wheel 285 Bucket 117 Scoop Wheel 45 Other/Mixed* 143307 50343 56540

TableB3‐3:Datafromthe1920,1930and1940Census

*OtherandOther/Mixedlargelyimpliesacombinationofpumptypesand/orpowerplantswereinuse.

3.3 Growthofgroundwater‐basedurbanwatersupplies

The demands of the urbanwater supply andmine dewateringmarkets at the beginning of the 20thcenturywere largely satisfied by the existing high‐head, high‐volume, beam‐reciprocating cylinder pumps. Althoughinefficient,theseusersvaluedthereliabilityandrobustnessofthesemachinesandextendedtheiruseintothe1950s. With the recognition of biological pollution of groundwater, the first step in protecting urbangroundwatersuppliesIntheUnitedKingdom(UK)wastheMargateActof1902thatempoweredwaterboardstoestablish1500yard(ca.1360m)protectionzonesaroundtheirabstractionwells(ThreshandBeale,1925).Severedroughts insouthernEnglandbetween1932and1934promptedlegislativemoves intheUKandtheestablishmentofaWaterUnitwithintheBritishGeologicalSurveyin1937.Bythistime,withover750wellsabstracting some10000m3/daywithin the Londonarea, groundwater levelshaddeclined from15 to45mundertheNorthLondonpumpingstationsof theMetropolitanWaterSupply (Walters,1936).Theperceivedmounting water resources deficit was addressed in the UK Water Act of 1945. This initiated a broadassessmentoftheNation’swaterresources.Inaddition,thewatercompaniesbeganwholesalereplacementofsteam‐poweredgroundwater‐pumpingmachinerywithelectrically‐poweredclose‐coupledline‐shaftpumps.

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Fromthe1850stothemid20thcentury,expansionoftherailwaysinSouthAmerica,Africa,AustraliaandAsiawas heavily dependent on groundwater wells for boiler water. These encouraged a rapid spread of drilledwells and pumps. For example, the boreholes drilled in Zambia between 1902 and 1908 for the railwayconnecting Livingstone to the Copperbelt discovered the prolific Lusaka dolomite aquifer, and the earliestprivateboreholerecordedinLusaka,Zambia,datesfrom1909.Equallysignificantisthefactthatthesitesforthe new capital cities in Zambia and Tanzania (Dodoma) were largely selected on the basis of recentlydiscoveredgroundwaterresources.

3.4 Electro‐submersiblepumps–Self‐supplyandtheracetodeplete

Manufacture of waterproof electric motor pumps began around 1904 and until the 1940s, the termsubmersiblemotorandpumpwaslargelyappliedtosumpandbilgepumpsthatworkedunderwater. Inthemid‐1940s, the use of the term changed to describe the close‐coupled electric submersible borehole pumpconfiguration.Withtheintroductionofpowerful,high‐speed,submergibleelectricmotorsandeffectivehigh‐pressureshaftseals,specializedpumpmanufacturersdevelopedhigh‐liftcentrifugalandturbinepumpsfittedwithdiffusers forminedrainage in the1930s. This enableddeeperundergroundminingbelow the regionalwatertableastypifiedbytheleadandzincBrokenHillMineatKabwe,Zambia.Priortothe1930s,manufacturersfrequentlyusedmodelsandprototypestoperfectthedesignofcentrifugalandturbinevanes,impellersandshrouds.Usingthesemethods,designerswereabletoproducepumpswithspecificyieldandheadperformancecurves.In1932,hydraulicresearchthatshowedpreviousvisualizationoffrictionless non‐viscous water flow failed to represent the actual velocities and flowpaths generated byrotating pump impellers (Fischer and Thoma, 1932). This research provided a base for future perfection ofsubmersibleandline‐shaftpumps.Cavitationdamagetoimpellerswasseenasamajorwearfactorassociatedwithexcessivevanetipspeeds.The1930salsosawtheintroductionofthelineshaftdrivenprogressivecavitypumps.Technically,therefore,from around 1930,with a range of purpose designed borehole pumps and versatilewell drillingmachines,plannersandinvestorshadworldwideaccesstogroundwaterastypifiedbythegroundwaterdevelopmentinWadiHadhramautinSouthYemenforthepipedTarimurbanwatersupplycommissionedin1932.

3.5 Firstgroundwatergovernanceinitiatives

Bythemiddleofthe20thcenturynomanagementorlegalconstraintshadbeenplacedontheconstructionandmaintenanceofwaterwellsor the installationofpumpsbeyondthecommunitymanagementas typifiedbythe Oromo in Ethiopia, the recognition of traditional water rights under Muslim Law and the creation ofprotectionzonesaroundpublicwatersupplywells.Almostallusers,fromindividualhouseholdersthroughirrigationanddry‐landfarmerstourbanwatersupplyand industrial companieshad full confidence in their installedgroundwaterpumpingequipment in termsofreliability and durability. Having had a role in selecting the equipment, they understood and accepted theoperationandmaintenancedemandsinvolvedintheuseofpumps.Whileformostofthegeneralpublicthemajorityofgroundwaterdevelopmentsstemmingfromtheseadvanceshadlargelytakenplaceunnoticedandunremarked,therewasadegreeofawarenessamonggroundwaterexpertsoftheir lackofunderstandingofthe resources being exploited. This awareness was sharpened in countries with recurrent droughts andexpandingdemandsfromgrowingpopulationsandeconomies.Italsobroughtexistingwaterrightslegislationintoquestionassocietyadoptedtheviewthatgroundwaterwasacommonpropertyresource.Thisviewledtorefocusing of legislation aimed at ensuring the security of supply for right holders. This required a muchsounderunderstandingofthegroundwaterresourcesthanhadpreviouslybeennecessary.To fill this knowledgegap inNorthAmericaandEurope, the responsibility formonitoringandevaluatingofgroundwaterwasvested in theNationalandStateGeologicalSurveysorWaterResourceAgencies.The first

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step intheUKwasthe1945UKWaterAct.Butbynottreatingthesurfaceandgroundwaterassingleentity,thisActfailedtoaddresstheimpactofincreasedgroundwaterabstractiononriverflowsinsouthernEngland.The 1963Water Resources Act rectified this oversight and created aWater Resources Board chargedwithplanningtheintegrateddevelopmentandconservationofwaterresourcesonanationalscale.

3.6 Worldwideexpansionofurbanandruralgroundwaterdevelopments

OutsideNorthAmericaandEurope,takingadvantageofreadyaccesstosmalldiameterdrilledwaterwellsandline‐shaft pumps, groundwater was the prime source formany of the first piped urbanwater supplies. By1960,thispatternofgroundwaterdevelopmentprovidedanestimated50percentofallurbanwatersuppliesto population centres of less than 100000 in Africa, Asia, South America and Australia. In addition,groundwaterdominatedthedevelopmentofruralwatersupplies.In Africa, following European procedures, annual budgets were centrally allocated for the steady andsystematicconstructionofhand‐duganddrilledwellprogrammesatsitesdecidedatthedistrictandprovincialgovernment level.Usually some200hand‐dugwells and100 to200boreholes (Table1)wereprogrammedcountrywideinSouthernandCentralAfrica(Box4).Mostboreholeswerefinishedat150or200mmdiameterandequippedwithdieselpoweredreciprocatingcylinderpumpsuntil the1960swhen line‐shaftprogressivecavitypumpsbecamemorepopular.Thehand‐dugwellswereusuallyequippedwithbucketsandwindlasses.Workscompleted

1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 Total1942‐52

Boreholes 24 18 40 38 40 89 110 178 178 148 184 1047Totalmeterage

1154 973 2019 1570 1580 3415 4372 6294 6179 4966 6478 39000

Hand‐dugWells

114 134 105 82 54 101 163 202 219 266 237 1767

Table1:SummaryofGroundwaterDevelopmentWorks,1942‐1952,Zambia(WDID,1953).Rarely, groundwater developments for rural water supplies ran into unexpected problems. During the late1950sandearly1960s,amongunreportedgovernmentgroundwater‐basedruralwatersupplyinitiativesthatshould have impacted on the planning of future developmentswas the Colonial Government’s Lake KaribaresettlementschemeinsouthernZambia.Some57000peopleweremovedtonewgovernmentconstructedvillagesastheirtraditionalGwembeValleyhomelandwasfloodedbehindtheKaribaDam.Ataround20sitesfollowingresettlement,villagerswerefoundtobesufferingfromseverefluorosis. Investigationsshowedthenewwatersupplyboreholestohavedamaginglyhighfluoride levels.Thegovernmentwasforcedtodestroythe affected boreholes and again move the villagers to new sites. Subsequently, water samples from allsuccessful government‐drilled domestic supply boreholes were sent to the government analyst for fullchemicaldeterminations.Decades later,underanotheracceleratedprogramme inBangladesh,groundwaterfromthehundredsof thousandsof tubewells sunk in the1970s,1980sand1990swerebelatedly found tocontainpoisonouslevelsofarsenic.Althoughnatural contaminationof groundwater is uncommonand geographically localized, there areotherrecognized cases. The twoexamplesof hazardous groundwatermentioned above suggest that proof of theacceptable chemical quality of any new source should be required in administrative procedures for thegrantingofwaterrightsfordomesticuseand,possibly,duringpumppurchase.

3.7 Groundwaterdevelopment–Theperceivedruralwatersupplysolution

From the mid‐1960s, with rising populations, the newly independent nations found a steady incrementalexpansion in ruralwatersuppliespoliticallyunacceptable.Acceleratedprogrammeswereneededtoprovideclean drinking water that would improve the nations’ health and welfare. To meet this demand, theinternationallendinganddevelopmentagenciesfocusedonruralwatersupplies.Groundwaterhadlongbeen

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identifiedas theprimesource for improved ruralwater supplieswithhand‐duganddrilledwells fittedwithhand pumps as the obvious route to implementing the programmes (Wagner and Lanoix, 1959; UnitedNations,1960;WorldBank,1976;McJwikin,1977;Hughes,2000).Box4:RuralWaterDevelopment–RootsofOwnershipandSustainabilityBasedonanannualbudget,thePre‐andimmediatePostIndependenceruralwaterdevelopmentpolicyoftheZambianDepartmentforWaterandIrrigationDevelopment(DWID)wasdrivenbydecentralizedrequestsforimprovedwatersuppliesoriginatingfromdistrictlevelgovernmentcommittees.Onreceiptoftherequestsatregional level, theprovincialDWIDofficeundertooka feasibilitysurvey that includedanoutlineselectionoftherawwatersourceandpreliminarycosting.Inpractice,thisapproachwaslargelydemand‐drivenwiththeCentralGovernmentsupplyingfundswithinitsbudgetlimitations.A1952Report(DWID,1953)records:

The concrete-lined well retains its popularity as a source for domestic water supply, and there is very little reduction in the demand for wells. It is worth noting that villages are now beginning to realise that the wells are theirs and that it is their responsibility to look after them. Wells are being kept in better condition, surrounds are being kept cleaner, and there have been fewer demands on the Department for well repairs, although the number of wells in use is much higher.

TheReportfortheSouthernRegiongoesfurther:

Very few wells were sunk by the Department in (…) rural areas. There is an increasing tendency for this type of work to be done by local well diggers, trained by the Department. The Department provides the materials and general supervision but the community supplies the labour.

Howruraldevelopmentshiftedfromtheabovemodeltothatdescribedintheinfluential“DrawersofWater”(White,Bradley andWhite, 1972) represents amajor fault line in theprogress in implementing ruralwatersupply.White,BradleyandWhitedonotcommentonthislinkagebetweenownershipandsustainability,butdosuggestanapproachtolow‐costruralwatersuppliesthatfeaturesthesameideas:

Individual homeowners would be systematically encouraged to make independent improvements. These include individual cisterns, shallow wells, spring protection (...). Social guides would include research on new methods, information on improving techniques, and technical assistance in design and construction.Such a policy would depart from the current tendency to focus nation efforts on rural projects directly administered by national agencies. More emphasis would be placed on stimulating individuals and community groups to make their own improvements. (Page 267)

Atpresentitisvalidtoincludedonorsandinternationaldevelopmentloanprojectstonationalagenciesinthiscomment. The natural wish of donors and development agencies to acclaim their works with prominentbillboardsattheentrancetoendowedcommunitieswouldseemtodetract fromengenderingthenecessarycommunityownershipof theschemeandhence its sustainability.Howmuchbetter toproclaim: thisvillagewiththehelpofthexyzdonorhaveinstalledtheirownwatersupplysystem.Intheearly1990s,theWorldBankindicatedareturntoadecentralizedmodelforwatersupplydevelopmentthat embodied many aspects of the earlier Zambian DWID practices. In 1994, Zambia re‐adopteddecentralizationandcommunity‐basedprojects(HarveyandSkinner,2002),andnowtheZambianMinistryofLocalGovernment andHousing (MLGH,2007) setsout theguidelines for communitymanagementofhand‐pumpsthatimpliestotalcommunityownershipoftheinstallations.While virtually all externally funded development projects included counterpart training and institutionalstrengthening, inpracticemostnationalgovernmentorganisationsdidnothavethemanpowerresourcesorestablishment to provide suitable candidates for training. This led to the projects concentrating on thetechnicalexecutionoftheworkandtheschemessubsequentlyprovingunsustainablewithlocalstaffunabletooperateormaintaintheequipment.Indetail,anothersignificantproblemwithmanyacceleratedprogrammes

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occurredandstilloccurs,when the installationofpumps in successfulboreholes falls rapidlybehinddrillingprogressuntilthetimelagbetweenwellcompletionandequippingismeasuredinyears(Box5).Box5:UnequippedBoreholesandAcceleratedPump‐BasedRuralWaterSupplyProgrammesThe 1960 United Nations (UN) monograph “Large Scale Ground‐Water Development” presents conciseguidelines and advice to all professionals engaged on groundwater programmes. It covers the phasing ofgroundwaterdevelopments,organizational and technical requirements, and its appendices covera rangeofpumpingoptions.Itstressesthestaffingrequiredfornormaldevelopmentactivitiesandrecommendscallinginexternalconsultancytohelpcoveremergencyoracceleratedprogrammes.Theonenothighlightedproblemarea, however, that continues to hamper most rural groundwater programmes is the hiatus between thecompletionofagroundwaterabstractionboreholeandtheinstallationofapump.TheAmericandrillers’viewof theirwaterwell industry issummedupbytheirmaxim:“wedrillwells tosellpumps”.Thiscontrastswiththecommonfragmentedoperationalmodelwereonegroupdrillswells–oftenagovernment drilling section or a contractor – and a second group is responsible for the task of installingpumps.While this arrangementworked reasonablywhen district or provincialwater engineerswere solelyresponsibleandfinancedthedrillingandequippingofwellswithinasinglefinancialyear,itbrokedownwhenfieldworkwasdisrupted,orafinancialover‐spendcurtailedinstallationwork.Whenthishappenedanumberofrecentlycompletedwellswereleftwithnopumpsinstalledattheendofthatfinancialyearandtherewasusuallynobudgetarycarryovertofundtheircompletioninthenextfinancialyear.Bythetimefundsbecameavailabletoequipthesesuspendedwells,theinstallationteamsfrequentlycouldnotfindthewellortheholewaspartiallyortotallyblockedwithstones.Across Africa, the number of uncompleted, but successfully testedwells is poorly recorded.Where data isavailable,thefigureprobablyrepresents20to30percentofthetotalsuccessfuldrilled‐wells(TableB5‐1)butcanbe considerablemore.Of 243boreholes drilled in 1971by the ZambianGovernment, 60were dry andabandoned,118wereequippedand125wereunequipped(DWA,1974).A 1987 inventory ofwells in Ethiopia showed that,while themajority of the uncompleted boreholesweredrilledaftertheendofaruralwatersupplyprogrammeofUnitedNationsChildren'sFund(UNICEF) in1981,someofthesuccessfulUNICEFboreholeshadstoodunequippedfor12years.To add to this viewofwastedendeavour canbe added the largenumberof investigationboreholesdrilledduringWaterMasterPlaninvestigationsandsmalltownwatersupplyfeasibilitystudiesacrossAfricaandAsia.In1979‐82,twowatermasterplanstudiesinTanzaniadrilled53and70boreholeswitha65percentsuccessratebutnohandpumpswereinstalled.Incontrast,IndiaMk2hand‐pumpswereinstalledbythedrillingcrewin8ofthe20investigationholesconstructedforaBattambangUrbanWaterSupplystudy,fundedbytheUKDepartmentforInternationalDevelopment(DfID)in1994.Total Boreholesdrilled

Equipped withmotorisedpump

Equipped withhandpump

Capped waitingpumpinstallation

Abandoned

540 97 179 135 129TableB5‐1:StatusofBoreholesdrilledbetween1973and1989inEthiopiaAnumberofreasons–suchastheneedtoknowtypeandsizeofpumpsandinstallationdepth–canbegiventojustifythisbreakinwhatshouldbeacontinuousprocessofwellconstruction,testingandpumpinstallation.In many cases, these reasons are immaterial, particularly in the case of hand‐pumps, and can be short‐circuitedby improvedmanagementanda flexible supplychain,as suggested in the1960UNpublication. Infact, the only acceptable constraint may concern groundwater quality, but with a borehole database thisshouldrarelyarise.InAsiamuchof theworkwasundertakenwith reasonable successby international consultants andprivatecontractors. The first and second tube‐well programmes in Bangladesh, for example, were funded by theWorldBank’sInternationalDevelopmentAssociation.Elsewhere,theacceleratedprogrammeswereexecuted

23

followingEuropeanmodelswithinareceivingnationalgovernmentframework.Theresultsweremoremixedastheprojectdesignandprogrammesusually failedtotake intoaccountthe localconditions, infrastructureand technical resources (Vaa, 1993). Classic examples include the access problems involved in moving 20‐tonne drilling rigs though rural areas along tracks and over bridges designed for the 7‐tonne trucks, farmtractors and trailers. Equally, the complexity of the drilling rigs and, evenmore so, the compressors werebeyond the capabilities of the local mechanics. This was seen in an early, relatively large‐scale UNICEFintervention in Pakistan that floundered as the receiving agency did not have the means and technicalresourcestodeployandutilizewatersupplyequipmentprovidedundertheprogramme(Bayer,1987).

3.8 InternationalDrinking‐WaterSupplyandSanitationDecade(IDWSSD1981‐1990)

Torationalizeaglobalapproachtoimprovingrurallivelihoodsbysecuringsafedrinkingwaterforall,the1977MardelPlataWorldWaterConferenceActionPlanformulatedplansleadingtotheUNInternationalDrinking‐Water Supply and SanitationDecade (IDWSSD1981‐1990)with theobjective to:"provide everypersonwithaccesstowaterofsafequalityandadequatequantity,alongwithbasicsanitaryfacilities,by1990."Executingthisdirectiverequiredcoordinatedactionfromboththesupplysideandthedemandside.Forthefirstdecadeorso,thesupplyside–comprisingtheinternationalandbilaterallendersanddonorsandtheequipmentmanufacturers–dominatedthefield.Thedemandsidecomprisingthebeneficiaries–generallythe national governments perceived as defacto representatives of their populations – were largely passiverecipients.Giventhescaleofthetask,closeattentionwasgiventotheselectionandpriceofequipmentandmaterials (Weiss and Jequier, 1984; UNICEF, 1999). By themid 1990s, the views of the community on thedemandside–mainlyfromnon‐governmentalorganization(NGO)feedback–begantoreceivemoreattention(Carter,TyrrelandHowsam,1996).A 1998 analysis prepared for theWorld Bank uses different terminology,with the 1978‐1988 period beingconsideredtheappropriatetechnologyphaseandthe1988‐1994periodasthetransitionfromahardwaretoasoftwarephase(Black,1998).Translatedthis impliesrecognitionofthesupply‐sidefailuretook10yearsandthat a further 10 years were required to fully recognize that sustainable development depended not on acentralgovernmentdemandbutonthedemandatthecommunitylevel.Theperceivedneedforanappropriate technologyphasecontrastsagainst theearlierpragmaticapproachesoutlinedinBox4andwiththeWagnerandLanoix(1959)guidelinesforruralwatersupply5.

5WagnerandLanoix(1959)alsohighlightedthesuperiorpracticalityofchainpumpsoverregularhand‐pumpsintermsofperformanceandmaintenance.

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3.9 Legacyofmodernhand‐pumps–Sustainingaruralwatersupplyculture

In1981,theWorldBank,facedwithalowsuccessrateofcompletedandon‐goingprojects,initiatedtheRuralWater Supply Handpumps Project aimed at identifying suitably reliable village‐level operation andmaintenance (VLOM) hand‐pumps (Box 6). Carried out by the UK Consumers Association, the testingworklargelyfocusedontherobustnessandmechanicalefficiencyofthepumpheadsdesignedtoliftgroundwaterupto60m(WorldBank,1984).By themid‐1980s, internal reviews of donor and lending agency rural water supply programmes began tohighlightaseriesofsustainabilityproblemsthatrequiredamajorre‐thinkof theirprojectapproach.Amongthemainproblemswasdespiteintensivetesting,mosthandpumpsinstalleddidnotmeettheVLOMconcept.WhilethehighprofileroleofUNICEFinpromotinglocalmanufactureofvariationsoftheIndiaMk2andMk3hand‐pumps in Africa6 is well documented, the skill levels required for 100percent successful installationswerenotalwaysavailable(HarveyandSkinner,2002).Box6:TheHand‐pumpConundrumDuring the late 1970s, the UNICEF rural water supply programme in India adopted, and helped with thedevelopmentoftheIndiaMk2hand‐pump(Mudgal,1997).By1980,ahugelocaldemandforthehand‐pumpsandcompetitionbetweenmanufacturesbroughtthepriceoftheIndiaMk2with50mofrisingmaindowntoUSD200.ItwasalsoclaimedthatthepumpsatisfiedVLOMstatus.The lowunitpriceandreadyavailabilitymadethe IndiaMk2firstchoice formanyofearly IDWSSDprojectsoutsideIndia.However,removedfromthemechanicalsupportinfrastructureavailableinIndia,theMk2pumpproveddifficulttoinstallfaultlesslyandtosubsequentlymaintain.Therewereinherentqualityproblemswiththerisingmainssuppliedandwithotheraspectsof the IndiaMk2pumpsexportedbysomemanufacturers,despitethecontrolsand inspectionsdevelopedbetweenUNICEFandthe IndianStandards Institute, initially,and later with the British Standards Institution and SGS – Société Générale de Surveillance (Jones, 1990,Baumann,2000,MichaelandGray,2005).However,thechainlinkconnectorbetweenthepumparmquadrantand the pump rods is a constant cause of failure, particularly when the pumps are set at a shallow depth(Michael andGray, 2005). Used in shallowwells, theweight of the rods is insufficient to push the plungerquicklydownthecylinderasthehandle is lifted:thiscausesthechain linktobuckle.Thesituation isfurtheraggravatedbyusersdevelopingahabitofusingshortquickstrokes.Thecostofmobilizingatechniciantodothe repairwasmany times the price of the spare part.When correctly installed deeper, the IndiaMk2 (>4pumprods)cangiveoverfiveyearsofheavy,trouble‐free,performanceascanthesolid‐linkIndiaMk2variantwhentheuseoflessthanfourpumprodsisneeded.Bythelate1970s,internalreviewsofdonorandlending‐agencyruralwatersupplyprogrammesfoundthattherepairofbrokendownhand‐pumpswasbeyondthecapabilitiesofmostruralcommunities.Themainproblemwasthatdespite intensivepromotion,thehand‐pumpsdidnotmeettheVLOMconcept. In1981,theWorldBankfrustratedbythislowsustainabilityofcompletedandon‐goingprojects,initiatedtheRuralWaterSupplyHandpumpsProjectaimedat identifyingsuitably reliablepumps.Manyhad inherentdesignweaknesses liketheuseofplasticcrownwheelandretainingsetscrewsthatworkedlooseunderuseinsomeversionsoftheMonoprogressivecavitypump(Jones,1990).Therotorwasalsoliabletobecomejammedinthestatorifsiltcollectedinthepump.TheresultsofthetestsandsubsequentWaterAidanalysis(WaterAid,2007)areshownonTableB6‐1.Name Type LiftRangem. Discharge

l/minVLOM Origin

6UNICEFcontinuestofundsome20percentofthe35000and55000IndiaMk2andMk3hand‐pumpsshippedannuallytoAfricabetween2005and2009(UNICEF,2010).

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Afridev Deepwell 7 25 45 22 15 Yes Kenya,etc.Afridev Directaction 7 15 26 22 Yes Kenya,etc.Bucketpump

Improvedbucketandrope 6 15 5 10 Yes Zimbabwe

Consallen Deepwell 7 25 45 14 14 14 UKIndiaMK2 Deepwell 7 25 14 12 12 12 No India,etc.IndiaMK3 Deepwell 7 25 45 50%ofMk2 India,etc.Monolift Deepwellprogressing

cavity25 45 60 16 16 9 No UK,South

AfricaNiraAF76 Deepwell 7 25 25 26 No FinlandNiraAF84 Deepwell 7 25 45 23 22 21 No FinlandNiraAF85 Directaction 7 15 26 24 Yes FinlandNewNo.6 Suctionpump 7 36 BangladeshTara Directaction 7 15 24 23 Yes BangladeshVergnet Deepwelldiaphragm 7 45 24 25 No France… WindlassandBucket 0 45 5 15 Universal

TableB6‐1:Selectedhand‐pumpperformanceandVLOMcharacteristics(fromWaterAid,2007).Promoters’ annual reports of IDWSSDhand‐pumpprojects, however,werequick to announce their successclustersalongthelinesof: inthepastyearourprojectsprovidedsafedrinkingwatertosomanyhundredsofthousand people. Towhich,many fieldworkers could reply: yes, but for how long? Figure B6‐1 provides apartialreply.Itshowsthesituationwithbrokendownhand‐pumpsacrossanumberofsub‐Saharancountries.The results from elsewhere are likely to mirror these results: McJwikin, 1977, for example, highlights theweaknessesofmanyofthecommerciallymanufacturedhand‐pumpsthenavailable.Looking at themechanical reasons for the breakdowns (Figure B6‐2) recorded by Reynolds (1992) shows aclose correlationwith theearlierexperience in theoperationandmaintenanceof ruralhandpumps. In the1960s and 1970s, most problems affected, in order of frequency, plunger washers, foot valves and pumpcylinders.Thepumpheadswerethenlargelyoftheheavy‐castironleverorrotarytype.

Lightblue‐down‐holecomponentsDarkblue–risingmaincomponentsGreen–headworkcomponents

FigureB6‐1:Percentageofbrokendownhand‐pumpsinselectedSub‐Saharancountries(fromRWSN,2010).

FigureB6‐2:Maincausesofhand‐pumpbreakdowns(fromReynolds,1992).

The high frequency of down‐hole component failures suggests two possible causes. The pump seals andcylindersmayhavereachedtheendoftheirservicelifeortheyareprematurelywornoutduetotheinflowofabrasivesiltorsandintothepumpbody.Thisinflowwouldalsoaccountforjammingofthefootvalve.Theuseof manmade materials rather than traditional leather for the pump seal or cup has not proved entirelysatisfactory in terms of working life or efficiency. The self‐healing nature of wet leather allows stray sandgrainstoembedintothesealratherthantobetrappedonthesurfacewhereitcanabradethecylinderwalls.Theuseofashortcylinderlengthasacost‐cuttingmeasurehasdownsideimpacts.Itmakesthealignmentofthepistonstokewithincylinderverycriticalandremovestheopportunityofrelocatingthepistonmovement

26

toanunwornpartofthecylinder:thisisfrequentlydonebyturningthecylinderupsidedown.The difficulties of replacing the down‐hole components was recognized and addressed with a number ofpumpshavingfootvalvesandpumpplungersretrievablewithoutremovingthewholepumpandrisingmain.This is a featureof theAfridevpump that can alsobe suppliedwith unplasticizedpolyvinyl chloride (uPVC)plasticrisingmain.Theproblemswiththerisingmainandrodscanusuallybetracedtopoorassemblyduringinstallationorpoorquality materials: corrosion of badly galvanized pipes and fittings is a particularly problem. The lowerpercentage of breakdowns associate with the pump head suggests that accessible components are morereadilyrepaired(Mbamali,1998).Thecriteriaforjudginghand‐pumpsperformanceusedbytheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)/UNICEFJointMonitoringProgramme–JMP(WHO/UNICEF‐JMP,2000)classifiesapumpasfunctioning if itworksformorethan70percentofthetimeanditisrepairedwithintwoweeksofbreakingdown.Evenwithinthesegenerouscriteria, the JMP reports thatonly70percentof ruralwater supply systemswere functioningbetween1990and2000inAfricaand83percentinAsia.Irrespectiveofthecauseofhand‐pumpfailures,theyresultinendlessinconvenienceandaddedhealthriskstotheruralcommunitiesunlessaworkablemaintenancesolutionisinplace.ThelackofthisinterfacelaybehindthepoorperformanceofmanyearlyIDWSSDhand‐pumpprojectsandexposedtheinherentweaknessofthesupply‐sidedrivenprojects.

3.10 Theascendencyofelectricsubmersiblepumps

Asproblemswithhand‐pumpswereemerging,progress inelectric submersibleboreholepumpshad rapidlyevolvedfromthelate1940swhenthefirst250to600mmdiameterpumpsweredevelopedforurbanwatersupplies and mine dewatering. The focal design problem with the submersible pumps was creating awaterproof seal around the rotatingmotor shaft.Mercury‐filled sealswereusedon the firstmotors but astechnologyadvanced,closer‐machinedmechanicalsealsweredeveloped,andfinallyoil‐filledmotorsprovidedarobustsolutiontothesealingchallenge.By1960,manufacturersbegantomarketawiderangeofefficientsmall‐diameterpumps.Commercialirrigationfarmers,however,werehesitanttoreplacetheirknownentitieswithuntestedpumpsthatrequiredaccesstospecialistrepairfacilities.Inthe1970selectricsubmersiblepumpscoupledwithdieselgeneratorswerebeingincreasinglyusedforruralwatersupplypurposesinAfricaandAsiawithvariableresults.ExceptionallyatDubtiinEthiopia,in1988onesuchpumping sethadbeen indailyuse forover14yearswith theminimummaintenanceandnooverhaul(Jones,1990). Thenormal lifespan for similarpumping setswas less than5years. From themid1970s, theexpansionofruralelectrificationnetworkssawevengreateruseofsubmersiblepumps(Box7).Advanceswerealsomadewiththeintroductionofprecise,morerobustanduser‐friendly,electronic‐pumpmotorstarterandprotectionswitchestohandlepumpoverloads.Submersible pumps opened up the opportunity for solar powered photoelectric pumping with the firstcommercial sets being marketed in the early 1980s. Initially photovoltaic cells were expensive with a lowefficiencyataround2percent:thisishasbeenimprovedto9percent.MatchedwitheitherDCorACelectricsubmersible pumps, solar power can produce up to 250m3/day against heads of 200m. In areaswith lessdependable solar radiation, shaft driven positive‐displacement, progressive cavity pumps are preferable tosubmersibleturbinepumpsastheywillpumpwaterworkacrossawiderrangeofshaftrotationspeeds.Box7:RuralElectrification–OpportunitiesMissedandOpenIn1988,132kVelectricpowerlines,commissionedinthemid1980stosupplytheKombolchaTextileMillandDese,follow150kmoftheEthiopianHighwayE1betweenShewaRobitandDese.Theypassedoverastringoflocal rural market towns and administrative centres with populations of several thousands but, withsubstations widely spaced, 33 kV supplies reached very few communities. This limited the number of

27

communitiesthatcouldbenefitfrommainselectrificationundertheDfIDWeloWellRehabilitationProjectandappearedamissedopportunity.

TableB7‐1(above):Progress2001‐2007onruralelectrification–Ghana.(AdaptedfromAbavana,2008)FigureB7‐1(left):RuralelectrificationdistributioninsubSahelAfrica(fromSzab´oetal.,2011)

Thedesignof a EuropeanUnion(EU)water supply and sanitationproject implemented in40 small towns inGhana specifically aimed to take advantage of the first phase of the rural electrification programme in theCentral and Western Regions. The project followed the Western consultancy pattern with pre‐feasibility,feasibility and implementation phases tailored to conform to the client’s practical design, operation andmaintenanceguidelines.Theprojectranfrom2000to2012.Preparationtook24months,prefeasibilitystudyandfeasibilitystudiesrequired33monthsandimplementationlasted54months.Thetotalcostwasca.17MEuro. The extended implementation period led to community discontent: the communities had to raise5percent of construction costs up front to qualify for inclusion in scheme. This was demanded during thefeasibilityphaseandhandledbycommunitywatercommitteeswhowereembarrassedbythe4or5yearsofinactionbetweenrevenuecollectionandthearrivaloftheconstructionconsultantsandcontractors.This typeof development is questionedbyVaa (1993)whobelieves suchprojects should follow the 1970’sWorld Bank Technology Advisory Group model, based on the recommendations of Sounders andWarford(1976). This model initially only aims at substantive improvement of existing supplies as opposed to fully‐fledged and engineered schemes. In the EU project, each town had several existing boreholes constructedunder a 1988‐89 German‐aid project that constructed 3000 boreholes fitted with VLOM hand‐pumps. Inseveralcasesthesewellsweresuitableforequippingwithanappropriatesubmersiblepumpfortheplannedurban piped‐water supply but, if a lesser level of service had been agreed for the EU project,many of thefrequently broke hand‐pumps could have been replaced with single phase 98‐mm‐diameter electricsubmersiblepumpsproducing2to6m3/hourandfeedingtoasmallstoragecontainer.Asthepumpingheadisunlikelytoexceed50m,thepowerconsumptionof0,37to0,75kWmotorsislow.Amaintenance‐freepumpoperatinglifeinexcessof5yearsplusthesmalldiameterrisingmain(optimal40mm),areusablepowercableandthepossibilityofusingapre‐payelectricitymetering(potentiallyincludingabuilt‐insupplementarychargetocoverfuturemaintenanceandreplacementcosts)negatemanyoftheoperationalproblemsencounteredatcommunity level. Other advantages include rapid, low up‐front, implementation costs, relatively simpletechnologyinvolvedwiththestarterswitchandverylittledelaybetweencommunityconsultationandpumpinstallation.Thetechnologyalsoallowsthecommunitiestoconsidersolarandwindpoweralternativesandtoinstalltheirownwaterdistributionpipelinesifinclined.Finally,withappropriatemonitoringofthepumpsandcommunitymanagementwillprovideconcretefeasibilitydataforsubsequentexpansiontoafullpipesupply.The past and planned expansion of rural electrification in Ghana (Table B7‐1), coupled with the newlycompleted comprehensive groundwater inventories for many regions and a manageable level of funding,should allow a rapid replacement of the difficult tomaintain, broken hand‐pumpswith submersible pumpinstallationsasanintermediatesteptowardstheimplementationoffullyengineeredpiped‐watersupplies.Italso preserves the value of the past borehole drilling programmes. The simplicity of the scheme places itwithin the capabilities of communitywatermanagement committees and certainlywithin the scope of thelocal supply chain. The adoption of similar pumps for rural irrigation in India shows the practicality of themodel. Figure B7‐1 shows the scope for similar schemes to follow on the heels of all rural electrification

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programmesacrossAfricaandelsewhere.

3.11 Dieselpoweredshaft‐drivenpumps–Adyingculture

With obvious efficiency and installation advantages over shaft driven pumps, by the mid1980s electricsubmersiblepumpswerereplacingline‐shaftpumpsforurbanwatersupplies.Attheendofthe20thcentury,covering a very wide range of yields and heads, submersible pumps had achieved market dominance.Relativelyinexpensive,easytoinstallandwithamaintenance‐freelife‐spanof10+years,theusewasfurtheradvancedbythespreadofruralelectrification.The 1980s saw the economic assessment of groundwater production shift to whole‐life costing (HydraulicInstitute, Europump and US Department of Energy, 2000). This shows the energy costs to far outstrip thecapitalcostoftheboreholepumps.Electricsubmersiblepumpsbenefitfrombeingvirtuallymaintenance‐freecomparedtodirect‐drivedieselorliquidpetroleum(LP)gasenginesthatrequireregularservicingandhaveashorter working life. The 1980s, therefore, saw a rapid worldwide take‐up of submersible pumps forgroundwaterirrigation.Coupledwithcentrepivotslarge‐scalefarmerswereabletoimprovecropyieldsonallcontinents. In Nebraska, between 1972 and 1986, the number of centre‐pivots in use rose from 2700irrigating 151200ha to 26208 irrigating 1360000ha (Kepfield, 1993). In Libya, submersible pumps werecentraltothedevelopmentofthegroundwaterresourcesofNubianAquiferSystemthathadbeenidentifiedinthe1960s.Toalargepart,submersiblepumpscoupledwithruralelectrificationconsiderablyaddedtotheproductivityofIndia’s1970sGreenRevolution.Atthecloseofthe20thcenturyinIndia,ChinaandtheUSA,thenumberofirrigationwellsinusecontinuedtorise. Table 2 provides a snapshot of the expansion and transitions in the irrigation pattern and costs inNebraska.Thegrowthindiesel‐poweredpumpsindicatesthecontinuinguseofline‐shaftpumpsasnewlandisopenedupfor irrigation inresponsetoan increase inagriculturalpricesubsidiesandapushtosoya‐andmaize‐basedbiodieselproduction.

Electricity Diesel Gasoline Naturalgas LPGasYear

NumberofPumps

Cost/ha

hairrigated

Cost/ha

hairrigated

Cost/ha

hairrigated

Cost/ha

hairrigated

Cost/ha

hairrigated

1998 47643 55,00 841250 45,20 54497 27,55 3454 48,7 390805 39,33 3400

2003 69583 70,00 1168830 74,23 920974 113,63 551 97 483058 73,93 214924

Table2: Nebraskagroundwater irrigationstatisticsandsourcesofenergyabstracted fromtheUSCensusofAgriculture,FarmandIrrigationSurveysof1998and2003

3.12 Powersupplyandtheelectro‐submersible

In India, subsidieswere directed at farm inputs,mainly fertilizer and electricity. From the early 1980s, thisresulted in an expansion in groundwater irrigation into areas previously limited to rain‐fed or small‐scalesurface‐water irrigation farming. Initially, electric‐powered centrifugal suction pumps installed in hand‐dugwells were sufficient to supply irrigation water for most farms. By the mid 1980s, farmers responded todeclining groundwater levels by drilling boreholes in the bottom of hand‐dugwells and setting the pumpslower in the well. As in the USA, further declining groundwater levels required a shift to shaft‐driven orsubmersiblepumpsandthefarmers in Indiawerefacedwiththe increasingcostsofnewequipment,higherlifting heads and longer pumping hours per day. By the late 1990s, the serious doubts voiced by thegroundwaterspecialistsaboutthesustainabilityofthegroundwaterabstractionwerelargelydivertedbylocalpoliticianswhoreliedonthegoodwilloftheirfarmingelectorate.IntheneighbouringcountriesofBangladeshandSriLanka,farmerswereencouragedtotakeupgroundwaterirrigationbysubsidiseddiesel‐pumppurchaseschemes.

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Estimates by the end of the 20thcentury suggest asmuch as 20percent of energy worldwide was used bypumpsofvarioustypes(HydraulicInstitute,EuropumpandUSDepartmentofEnergy,2004).Thishighenergyusebroughtintofocustheneedtoimprovetheefficiencyofboththepumpsandpumpmotors.Whilethereisnobreakdownofwhatpercentagewasusedtopumpgroundwater, it ispossible that itwas1or2percent,and almost certain that at least 75percent of this usage was for pumping groundwater for irrigation. Theremainingbeingsplitbetweenurbanandruralwatersupplies,landdrainage,mineandconstructionworksde‐wateringandasmallpercentageforairconditioningandheating.

3.13 Lowheadsuctionpumps–Lowintensityscavengingofshallowgroundwater

By2000,variouspumpingtechnologieshadbeendevelopedtoskimeithergoodqualitygroundwaterfromthetop of saline groundwater bodies or hydrocarbon or other pollutants from contaminated aquifers. Theskimming technology has close affinities to construction industry dewatering requirements that involvecontrolled loweringofgroundwater levels.However, limiteduse ismadeoutside thesmall islandcontextofwell points and suction pumps to abstract groundwater from the shoestring river alluvial tracts for pipeddomesticwatersupplies(Svubureetal.,2011).Inthe1970s,wellpointswereusedrelativelyextensivelyalongtheZambezifloodplaininWesternProvinceofZambia,andthetownofMonguinZambiawasprovidedwithsuchasystem.Toquotethe1974AnnualReportoftheZambianDepartmentofWaterAffairs(DWA):

Under the co‐operative and village water supplies programme well‐point sinking and theinstallation of Uganda hand‐pumps continued and in all 135 well‐points were completedsuccessfully, 24more than in the previous year. Therewere fewer abandonedwell‐points as itwaspossibletousethesmallpercussionrigtodrilldeepenoughtoreachthewatertablewherethejettingmethodhadfailed.However,thisisslowerthanjettingandexpensiveonlabour.

Mostgroundwaterdecontaminationsystemsdependedonthesteadylow‐yieldcontinuous‐abstractionpumpcharacteristicsofgear,peristalticandbladderpumps.Compressed‐air‐poweredpumpsarecommonlyusedforhydrocarbon recovery but continuous porous fibre belt recovery pumps that soak up pollutantsmirror thelongestablishedruralwatersupplyropepumpmechanism.

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4. TechnologyBaselineandAssociatedCulturesofUseinthe21stCentury

4.1 Regulationandconsolidationofpumpmanufacture

Established in 1960 by European pump manufacturers, the Europump Association now monitors industrycompliance with the EU directives covering machinery efficiency that have been issued since 1989. Theexpansioninglobalizationandconsolidationoftheinternationalpumpindustryduringthefirstdecadeofthe21stcenturyhasseenEuropumpworkinpartnershipwithothermanufacturingorganizationsincludingnotablytheUnitedStatesHydraulicInstitute.Evolvingimprovementscoverhydraulicdesign,motorsandcomputerizedcontrolsaimedatimprovingefficiency.Inmanypartsoftheworld,arangeofconstraintsforcesuserstorelyonthecheapestavailablepumpsthattendtobeinefficientandhaveashortworkinglife.Huang,RozelleandHu (2007) describe the growth in response to a worldwide demand of an irrigation‐pump manufacturingclusterinDaxi,China.The 21stcentury sees emphasis placed on the sustainability for all forms of development coupled to risingconcernswith resourcemanagement and climate change. The push to develop integratedwater resourcesmanagementplanshas tobeseenagainst the limited informationon the resourcebaseandcurrent lackofunderstandingofthehydrologicalprocessesinmanypartsoftheworld.

4.2 Improvedpumpsandgroundwaterover‐development,inevitableself‐perpetuatingtrends?

Thepotentialforexpandingagriculturalproductionisbeingexploredagainstabackgroundofalmostuniversalgroundwater level decline in existing areasof groundwater irrigation. In somedevelopments, this hasbeenplanned for – e.g. the exploitation of theNubian Sandstone in Libya –but inmost, there has been no pre‐planningandtheimpactofoverabstractionhashadmajorsocialandeconomicconsequences.ThisproblembecomesmorepressingwhereuncontrolledgroundwaterabstractionencroachesonurbanwatersuppliesasseeninSana’a,Yemen(Charalambous,1982,WorldBankGroup,2010).The International Water Management Institute (IWMI, 2007a) classification of groundwater irrigationeconomies identifies the main indicators and economic attributes to the developments, but it does notprovide a guide to themanagement of the resource. In addition, traditional pastoralists’ livestock‐wateringneeds have always been closer to rural domestic water supply than irrigation unless there is a heavydependencyonirrigatedfodderproduction.AcrossPeninsular Indiaandelsewhere inSoutheastAsia, thegreen‐revolution‐basedgroundwater irrigation,has received, and continues to receive, a high national priority. The virtually unrestrained groundwaterabstractionhasemergedasunsustainableinresourcetermsinmanyofthemaingroundwaterirrigationareas(Figure2).Seekingtocontrolthegroundwaterirrigationabstractionhastorecognizethatthefarmers’choiceofcrops,irrigationpracticesandneedforwaterarestronglyorientatedbysubsidiesandtaxbreaks.

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Figure 2: Area under groundwater irrigation bycountry: 1993‐2002 with subjective view ofirrigation withdrawal‐recharge balance. Areasexploited under the rule of capture considered asbeingeffectivelyuncontrolleddevelopments (basedonIWMI,2007aandFAOAquastat,2005data).

4.3 TheUSHighPlainsAquiferwilfuloverexploitation

Since2000,groundwaterabstractionfromtheUSHighPlainsAquiferhascontinuedtogrowandgroundwaterlevels continue todecline (Figure3) under a regimeof strong, technically‐basedandenforced groundwaterrightslegislationthat, inmostStates,embracescontrolledover‐abstractionasanacceptedpolicy.Thehighlymotivated commercial farmers ensure high pumpefficiencies and use diesel‐powered line‐shaft turbines toopenupnewareasforgroundwaterirrigation.As the farmers in the Northern High Plains States continue to optimize the quantity ofwater available forirrigation,themunicipalwatersupplycompaniesareacutelyconcernedwiththewaterquality.Theimpactofagriculturalactivitiesonbothsurfaceandgroundwaterqualityhassteadilyincreasedsincehomesteadfarmingbecameagribusiness.Theconsequencesoffurtherexpansioninbiofuelfeedstockproductionmaywellundoanyoftheotherenvironmentalbenefitsachieved.Greateruseoflimitedanddeficitirrigationpracticescouldlead to economies in water usage and enable an expansion in the irrigated area, but the impact of theadditional agro‐chemicals needed,will stretch in to the future.Howmuchdamage to the environmentwilltake place before the “cleanest production pathways” and the lowest production carbon footprint areachievedremainstobeseen(Roberts,MaleandToombs,2007).The situation under the rule‐of‐capture water rights legislation in the Texan High Plains has seen somegroundwater irrigation areas retired due to uneconomic pumping costs or deteriorating water quality. TheTexanGroundwaterConservationDistricts(GCDs)mainapproachtoresourceconservationappliessomeformof depletion formula based on retaining a percentage (usually 50percent) of the existing groundwater instorage at a certain date in the future (typically2050). In 2002, following legal and technical processes, theMesaWaterGroupobtainedpermitsin2002tosell39,5Mm3/yearofgroundwatertometropolitanareasinTexas under the established (Texas) Panhandle Groundwater Conservation District regulations (Freese andNichols,Inc.,2006).Theconditionsofthepermitwereasfollows:

1. Pumpingmustbelimitedtoone‐acrefootperyearpersurfaceacre(3005m3/year).2. Fiftypercentofthe1998aquifervolumemustremaininplacein2048(“50%Rule”).3. WatermaybesoldonlyformunicipalusewithinTexas.4. Wellsmustbespacedandlocatedtominimizeimpactonneighbours.

ThisrepresentsthecurrentlimittothecontrolofgroundwaterpumpingintheStateofTexasand,toalargeextent,worldwidewheretheruleofcaptureappliesinlieuofotherlegislationinforce.Thedepthofscientificstudy involved in thequantificationof the large‐scalegroundwaterabstraction in theUSAishuge,buttheultimateverificationofthesuccessofmanagementplansdependsonawell‐fundedandassiduous long‐term monitoring programme. Whatever impact on‐going biofuel feedstock production mayhave on the surface and groundwater resources, the US Geological Survey’s National Water‐QualityAssessmentProgram(USGS–NAWQA,2007)andthelocalGroundwaterManagementDistricts(GMDs)willbeengaged inmonitoring quantity and quality parameters. The speed atwhich groundwater levels decline or

32

recover across the High Plains will show if the GMDs depletion assessments and rules are appropriate. Itseemscertainfarmerswillmaximizetheirabstractionrightsandirrigationefficiency.Italsoseemscertainthatdiffusecontaminationlevels insurfacewaterandgroundwaterbodieswillcontinuetospreadwhilemanyoftheknown‐pointcontaminationsourcesandplumeswillbecontainedandcleanedup.

Figure 3: Groundwater Hydrographs from the High PlainsAquifer in Nebraska (left scale in feet) and Gujarat (abovescale in metres) from 1976 to 2008 showing the impact ofoverabstractionongroundwaterlevels.ThelowerNebraskanexampleshowstherapidimpactasnewareasarebroughtundergroundwaterirrigation.NebraskagraphsfromUSGS:http://groundwaterwatch.usgs.gov/StateMaps/NE.htmandGujaratgraphfrom:http://water.columbia.edu/?id=India&navid=Gujarat

To achieve future equitable groundwater management, the existing water legislation in the 8 High PlainsStateswill continue to evolve. The options available, however, are limited andwill bemetwith objectionsfromspecial interestgroupsandpoliticians.Thegeneral consensus is thatgroundwater levelsandbaseflowwillcontinuetodeclineevenifsubstantialcutsaremadetogroundwaterirrigation(USBureauofReclamation,2007).Thesubstantiveoptionsavailableare:

• retirementofsurfacewaterirrigatedlands;• retirementofgroundwaterirrigatedlands;• retirementofgroundwaterirrigatedlandswithlaggeddepletions;• introductionofinterruptiblewaterdiversionrights.

Alltheseoptionswillinvolvesomeformofmonetarycompensationforsurrenderedwaterrights.Finally, although the High Plains Aquifer provides valuable technical, legal and economic water resourcedevelopmentandmanagementmodelsthatcouldbeappliedelsewhere,theregionalpopulationdensityhasremained very lowat 3,5per km2 since1960.Also thedifferences in the climatic setting andhydrogeologymustbetakenintoaccount.TheNubianSandstoneAquiferofNorthAfricaandlargeoutwashtractsinCentralAsiaandSouthAmericaareamongthefewpotentiallycomparablegroundwateroccurrences.

4.4 Powersupplyandtheelectro­submersible–Progressive‘privatization’ofsupply

4.4.1 Sustainableorunsustainable,uncontrolledgroundwaterdevelopmentinSoutheastAsiaIn1960,around100000centrifugalsuctionandlowliftpumpswereusedforgroundwaterirrigationinIndia.With virtually no legal restrictionson groundwater abstraction, by 2000 thenumberof pumpshad risen toover 19 million, and by 2007 over 25 million pumps were in use. The associated growth in groundwaterabstraction, irrigation area and electricity usage (Box 8) has been instrumental for the steady decline ingroundwater levels shown on Figure3. No distinction is made between electric pump types in published

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references:Manyinthemajorriverbasinstheyareeithersuctioncentrifugalorshaft‐driventurbinepumps.The number of electric submersible pumps is not recorded but theirwidespread used since 1980 is largelyresponsibleforthedeclineingroundwaterlevelsinmanyIndianPeninsularStates.Beyond the impact of the Indian pump subsidies on groundwater levels, is the question of over‐irrigation.Althoughstatistics fortheareaundergroundwater irrigationarereadilyavailable,similarabstractiondata iselusive: theCentralGroundwaterBoardof India (CGWB),however,quotescountrywide totalsof115km3 in1995and231km3in2004(ofwhich213km3isassignedtoirrigationuse).Theseequatetoanannualirrigationapplicationof398mmin1995and564mmin2004.Hidden behind these statistics are problematic facts facing the irrigators and the Indian Central and StateGovernments:

• Accesstopumpsandenergysupplies;• Thewiderangeoffarmsizesandsocialstandingofthefarmers;• Thereliabilityoftheelectricitysupply;• Theenergyefficiencylevelsofthepumps,motorsandancillarypipework;• Theroleofsubsidiesintheagriculturalsector;• The extension of groundwater irrigation into the crystalline Basement and extrusive igneous rock

areasofPeninsula.

4.4.2 AccesstopumpsandenergysuppliesIn rural India, the early, bottom‐up demand created by individual investment in wells and pumps forgroundwaterirrigationwasinvigoratedundertheimpetusofthe“GreenRevolution”.Thisledtoarapidriseinwidely disperse rural agricultural energy consumption that overloaded the low tension (LT) distributionnetworkcapacity.This imbalancewasentrenchedby the introductionof flat rateelectricity tariffs to lessencost of metering that accounted for some 40% of the generating boards’ outgoings (Shah, Giordano andMukherji,2012).Starvedofinvestment,thegenerationboardsintheeasternIndianStatesfoundupkeepoftheLTdistributionimpossibleandmuchofthesystemwasabandonedleadingtothe1985‐98ruralde‐electrification(Box8).After this rural de‐electrification in the high rainfall eastern States of India diesel‐pump‐based irrigationbecamedominant(Box8).Subsidiesaimedatthepoorestfarmingcommunitiesforwelldrillingandirrigationpump purchases were introduced (Shah, 2001). When implemented, the subsidy schemes in someparticipating eastern States were initially hampered by bureaucratic inefficiencies, and the poorer farmerspreferred to purchase their own diesel pumps. After reviewing the scheme, the states adopted a systemwhere thepumpdealersbecame the lynchpinof theoperation,handling thepaperworkandorganizing thedrillingcontractors.Latercommercialbanksbecameinvolvedandarrangedloanstothefarmerswith3to5yearrepaymentterms.The success of the scheme can be seen in the prevalence of diesel pumps shown on Figure B8‐1. InWestBengalforexample,theratioofdieseltoelectricpumpsis9to1.Almostallthenewelectricpumpsinstalledsince1991belongtothewealthierlandownerswhocouldaffordthehighconnectioncostsandconsumptiontariffschargedbytheGeneratingBoards(Figure4).Theyalsofrequentlyprofitbysellingirrigationwatertothepoorerlocalsmallerlandowners(Figure5).Box8:GroundwaterIrrigationinIndiaCountrywide in 2007, 25percent of the farmers in India had tubewells, and an additional 50percent bulkpurchasedgroundwaterforirrigation(Shah,2007a).Fifty‐sevenpercentofthepumpsinusewereelectricallypoweredand43percentwerediesel‐powered.FigureB8‐1showsthedistributionofthesepumpsinrelationtothemotivepower.Thisdistributionreflectspastphasedchangesintheruralelectrificationnetwork:

• PhaseI:1935‐1965,strugglefordemandcreation;• PhaseII:1965‐1975,earlyexpansioninelectrictubewells;

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• PhaseIII:1975‐2004,take‐offinGWirrigationunderflattariff;• PhaseIV:1985‐1998,de‐electrificationofruraleasternIndia;• PhaseV:2002‐todate,reversalunderenergydemandreductionscheme.

In areas with robust rural electric supplies, groundwater pumping accounts for around 40percent of theenergyconsumed.Inareaswithloworpoorelectricalsuppliesthepumpingaccountedforaround10percentin1998(CMIE,2003).Tomaintainagriculturalproduction,subsidizeddiesel‐pumppurchasewasprovided inthe areas under the de‐electrification phase. The rise in pumpnumbers led to increased in the area underirrigation(FigureB8‐3),groundwaterabstraction(FigureB8‐2)andelectricityusage.

Figure B8‐1: Percentage distribution of electricpumps in India (fromShah,GiordanoandMukherji,2012).

FigureB8‐2:Groundwaterdevelopment levels (fromCGWB‐MoWR(GoI),2006).

Cutstotherisingcostofcontinuingtheinputsubsidiesinherenttothegreenrevolutionhavetobebalancedagainst theneed tomaintainsocial stability in the ruralareas. In2011, subsidiescovering the irrigationandelectricity costs reached 75 to 90percent of the wholesale market value (Figure B8‐4). Reducing theGovernmentcostofsubsidizingmaintenanceandexpansionofgroundwaterirrigationisbeingaddressedbyavarietyofinitiativescarriedoutatboththeStateandCentrallevel.Thenecessaryadjustments,however,facestronglocalcommunityandpoliticalresistance.

Figure B8‐3: India area under irrigation and watersources(GovernmentofIndia,2003).

Figure B8‐4: India Agricultural Input subsidies inUSD and percentage of agricultural output value(GrossmanandCarlson,2011).

Facedwithdieselpricerises,manylessaffluentfarmers inAssamareeffectivelywithdrawingfromirrigationand selling their irrigation pumps to newly‐formed, minority, start‐up farming groups. Growing social andpolitical recognitionof theneed to redress thedisparitybetween subsidizedelectricityanddiesel costswillinevitably lead to further rethinking of the various State subsidy practices. Irrigators in eastern India arepressingforadieselrationorasubsidizedpriceregime.

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Figure 4: East Bengal new electric pump connections 1979 – 2004 (adapted from Mukherji, 2007).

Figure 5: Uttar Pradeshdiesel and irrigation water price rises (adapted from Shah, 2007b).

Theresultsfromthe1998NationalSampleSurveyOrganization(NSSO)showthegroundwateravailabilityandelectricitysupplyacrossWesternandPeninsularIndiaundersignificantpressure(Figure6).Thenegativeviewofthesupplysituationappearstobelargelyunconnectedtotheunitcostoftheagriculturalelectricitysupply.Thesubsidizedelectricitypricesbelowaround30paise/kWh(ca.USD0,007at2012rates)areclearlythemainreason for a wastage of resources (Shah, Giordano andMukherji, 2012 who quote an average generatingboardbasicunitproductionanddeliverycostsofUSD0,04.

Figure 6: Farmers reporting inadequate access to groundwater and electricity in 1998. The Indian States are ranked by their agricultural electricity tariff (redrawn from Birner, Surupa and Neeru Sharma, 2011).

4.4.3 WiderangeoffarmsizesandsocialstandingofthefarmersFigure 7 is based on the 2003‐2004 NSSO land and livestock data and shows that these farming groups inGujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka represent more than 70percent of the farminghouseholds and that they own less than 15percent of the land. The figures for the marginal farmers areconsiderablyworse:theyrepresentaround50percentofthehouseholdsandownlessthan5percentoftheland.Theiraccesstogroundwaterislargelydictatedbythegeomorphologicalsettingoftheindividualfarms.Thoseclosetothewaterdivideandalongtheupperinterfluvesshouldreceivereasonableseasonalrechargeand support low yielding hand dug wells and shallow boreholes. Lands with better developed and thickerweatheredregolithaquifersacrossthelowerinterfluvesandonthevalleyfloorsarelikelytobethetargetforcompetitivegroundwaterabstractionbytheownersoflargerfarms.Marginalandsmallfarmerswithlimitedlandinthesesettingsareunlikelytoaffordthedeeperboreholesandthehighercostofpumping,unlesstheyassociatewithneighbouringfarmerstoequitablysharetheavailableresource.ThelandownershippatternandsizeoffarmsintheGangesBasinStatesisshownonFigure8.AsseenacrossPeninsular India, the land redistribution programmes inWest Bengal, Jharkhand and Bihar, and to a lesserextent inUttarPradesh,havebenefittedthemarginal, smallandmediumfarmholdings.ThiscontrastswiththepositioninPunjabandHaryanawherelessthan10percentofthemedium‐andlarge‐scalefarmerscontrolover50percentoftheland.

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Figure7:PeninsularIndianStates–percentagedistributionfamilyfarmsizesandpercentageareasownedby marginal farmers (>0.4ha), small farmers (0.4‐1ha), medium farmers (2‐5ha) and large farmers(>5ha) (data from Rawal, 2008). The marked difference between the Kerala and Tamil Nadu familyholdingsreflectstheStatepost‐coloniallandredistributionandtheeffectoftheland‐holdingsizecap.

Theruralde‐electrificationoftheeasternstatesoftheGangesBasinandtheintroductionofsubsidizeddieselpumpsand tube‐wellprogrammescoupledwith favourablehydrogeologicalconditionshasbeencoveredbyShah (2001 and 2007b) andMukherji (2007). The shared consensus is that groundwater irrigation remainsviablewithoutexcessiveelectricitysubsidies.Althoughtheseanalysesacceptaroleforagroundwatermarket,experiencefromPunjabsuggeststhiscouldbesociallyandpoliticallyunacceptableinthelongrunasindicatedbySarkar(2011)whostates:

Theconsequencesofnegativegroundwaterdrafthavemostlybeenviewedasanecologicaldisaster,but theexternalitiesof groundwaterdepletionpose greater concern for socio‐economic equity inthe access to this resource. This empirical analysis signifies the concerns for the livelihoods offarmers,when the cost of depletion is disproportionately borne by the resource‐poor farmers asthey are unable to invest in capital and technology and are hence denied the benefits ofgroundwaterirrigationthatissubsidisedbyfreeelectricity.Thissituationisperpetuatedwithfurtherscarcity leading tounequal economic returns and, finally, takes themost exploitative formwherethe“largelandlords”alsoemergeas“waterlords”throughsurplusaccumulation,forcingthesmallandmarginallandholderstobecomelandlessagriculturallabourers.

Figure 8: Indian Ganges Basin States – percentage distribution family farm sizes and percentage areasownedbymarginalfarmers(>0.4ha),smallfarmers(0.4‐1ha),mediumfarmers(2‐5ha)andlargefarmers(>5ha)(datafromRawal,2008).

Table3presentsthebasisforthisbleakbutsubstantiatedviewofthesituationinthePunjabState.ThedataisfromthreevillageswithinthealluvialfloodplainoftheGangesRiversystemwherethedepthtogroundwaterranges from12mbelowground level (bgl) at TohlKalan to18mbgl atGharindaand46mbgl atBallab‐e‐Darya.ItisconsideredthatthisanalysismaywellproveasvalidasthatforthedomesticwatersuppliesinEastAfricaasdescribedbyWhite,BradleyandWhite(1972).

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Sarkar(2011)concludesthatlandownerswithouttheirownsecuresourceofirrigationwaterareconsiderablydisadvantaged.Heobservesthat landownersorfarmers leasing in land,andwhoaredependentofthe localwatermarket, have consistently lower crop yields than the self‐sufficient landowners. This is considered tounderminetheargumentsthatwatermarketsworkwellandarelargelyself‐regulating.Asalreadyindicated,waterbuyersareunlikelytohavesecurityofsupplyorguaranteetoanequitableprice(Figure5).Singh(2007)identifiesasimilarpotential insecurityattachedtothewatermarketavailabletothemarginallandholdersinRajasthan. Marginal

farmerSmallfarmer

Mediumfarmer

Largefarmer

Mixedirrigationvillage(TohlKalan)Numberoffarmers 18 26 38 18Averagenumberofoperationaltubewells% 0,72 0,96 1 1Averagedepthoftubewellm 45 58 70 98Waterpurchasedno. 4 5 9 2Watersoldno. 2 7 6 6Landleasedoutno. 11 23 13 50Landleasedinno. 6 0 0 0Returnsoninvestmentcost% 2,33 2,48 2,87 2,94Tubewellirrigationvillage(Gharinda)Numberoffarmers 4 6 32 58Averagenumberofoperationaltubewells% 1 1 1,06 1,34Averagedepthoftubewellm 37 56 74 96Waterpurchasedno. 4 6 1 0Watersoldno. 0 0 0 6Landleasedoutno. 0 0 9 17Landleasedinno. 0 0 0 2Returnsoninvestmentcost% 3,06 3,10 3,70 3,82Tubewellirrigationvillagewithdepletionproblems(Ballab‐e‐Darya)Numberoffarmers 32 15 32 20Averagenumberofoperationaltubewells% 0,41 1 0,91 1,8Averagedepthoftubewellm 46 58 67 109Waterpurchasedno. 18 2 12 1Watersoldno. 1 1 11 12Landleasedoutno. 0 0 13 20Landleasedinno. 28 7 0 0Returnsoninvestmentcost% 1,09 1,99 2,00 2,94Table3:Subjectiveassessmentofbasictechnicaland economic factors influencing groundwaterirrigation farming in 3 village communities inPunjab,India(datafromSarkar,2011).

Key

Economicimpact Negative Neutral PositiveLow Moderate High

PathstoresolvingthegroundwaterirrigationequalitiesinwesternGangesBasinmayincludereorganizingtheland holdings through land reform and/or bringing the groundwater market under an effective equitableregime.AmodifiedWestBengaltube‐wellandpumpsubsidizedschemecouldbeadoptedtoenablegroupsofmarginal and smaller farmers to independently develop appropriately specified tubewells for groundwaterabstractionon their consolidated landholdings. Ideally,over thedurationof thebank loan, theconstructionand operation of the tube wells could be undertaken by private contractors, and the farmer groupwouldcontinuetoreceiveelectricitysubsidiesatasteadilydecliningrateuntiltheloanisrepaid.Ultimately,thiswill

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meanthelossofthefreeelectricitycalculatedtobewortharoundUSD800perhectare(Narulaetal.,2011),buttheinvestmentreturnsshownonTable3suggestthatsuchapproachcouldbeviable.

4.5 Elasticityofdemand–Theenergyequationandalternativeenergysources

Many Indian State electricity boards are responsible for providing heavily subsidized electricity to theagriculturalsector.Thesubsidizedtariffscanbeaflatratebasedonpumpcapacityormeteredand,insomeStates,waivedcompletely.Runningataloss,thelackofcapitalavailabletotheStateelectricityboardsmeansthegeneratingcapacityanddistributiongridsareoverloaded.Attemptsby thegeneratingboards to restricttheelectricityused for irrigationpumpingby severely curtailing thenumberofhoursof three‐phase supplywhile maintaining the single‐ and two‐phase supplies were met by widespread consumer use of phaseconverterstoreinstatequasi‐three‐phasesuppliesfortheirpumps(Shahetal.,2008).Thissubstantiallyaddedto surges and dips and to frequent interruptions to the supply. These deficiencies have impacted on thefarmers in their selectionofpumpingequipmentandabstraction routines. Inpractice,oversizedpumpsareusedtomaximizeabstractionduringtheperiodswhenelectricityisavailableandtominimizemotorburnoutduetosupplyfluctuations(PadmanabanandSarkar,2005).A7,5kVapumpwithinefficientthickwiremotorwindingsisseenaspreferabletoanirrigatorinsteadofamoreefficientbutlessrobust3,5kVamotor.Despite these precautions, electric motor and transformer burnouts due to supply deficiencies are stillcommon. Irrespective of the type of pump installed, burnout electric motor rewinds seldom match theperformanceofthenewmotor(Mukherji,2007).Afrequentlyquotedreasonforoverapplicationofirrigationwater is that farmers leave the pumps switched on all the time to ensure they pumpwaterwhenever theirregularelectricitysupplyisworking.Toevadetheelectricitysupplyproblems, in2003theStateofGujarat launchedthe Jyotirgramschemethatessentiallyseparatestheelectricitysupplylinestotheirrigationpumpsfromthosetootherusers.Thescheme,initiatedbyanIWMIstudy,hasenabledtheStatetokeepirrigationsupplysubsidiesinplacewhilecontrollingpump sizes and new connections. The advantages to the irrigators are amore stable scheduled electricitysupply during the 30 to 50 days of peak irrigation demand. They pay a flat‐rate tariff based on pump size,which is subject toperiodicescalation.Outside thepeak irrigationperiod,only4 to5hoursofelectricity issupplied to the pump power lines. The scheme has achieved a substantial reduction in the cost of Statesubsidies (Figure9),andtheremovedpoweroutageshavedefusedcomplaints fromthe irrigatorsovercroplosses. However, the on‐going decline in groundwater levels is pushing up the energy required to lift theirrigationwatertothefields(Figure10).

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Figure 9: Decline in groundwater pumpingsubsidies cost to the State of Gujarat postimplementationofJyotirgramscheme(TushaarShah,2007).

Figure10:Gujarat–historicandprojectedcostperhectareof lifting 600mm of groundwater of irrigation (fromGrossmanandCarlson,2011).

4.6 Greaterenergyefficiency

Althoughtheurbanwater‐supplysectoriscurrentlythemainbeneficiaryoftheDistribution,Reform,Upgradesand Management (DRUM) project – funded by the United States Agency for International Development(USAID)–thatissupportingtheelectricitygeneratingboards,theproblemsfacingirrigationfarmingaredrivenbyahighconsumerdemandforasecuresupplyatatariff thatcoversa fractionofthecostsneededbythesuppliertogenerate,maintainandfeedarobustdistributionnetwork.Most pumps are purchased from the farmers’ own resources and, given the high cost of borrowing, themajorityofsmall‐andmedium‐scaleirrigatorsinIndiaareveryprice‐sensitive.Life‐cyclecostsarenotseenasarationalconcernwhenpurchasingelectricalpumpingequipment.Thishasopenedupthemarketforcheapunbranded and locallymanufactured pump‐sets. These often comewith the penalty of poor efficiency anddurability(Reidhead,2001;Tongia,2007).Withhighlysubsidizedtariffs,theirrigatorsseelittleneedtousetheelectricityefficiently.Thisproblemoflowirrigation‐pumpefficiencycametotheforeinIndiaduringtheearly1990s (Sant and Dixit, 1996) and remains high on the agenda. It is compounded by the use of undersizedpipesandfittingsthataddstohydraulicinefficiencies.Thepotentialforimprovingtheestimated27percentefficiencyofelectricalirrigation‐pumpsystemshasbeenestimatedtobe7percent,basedonanumberofretrofitmeasures(AhluwaliaandGoyal,2003).Theareasforimprovement include better foot valves, replacement of high‐friction loss pipework with low‐friction uPVCpipes, replacing undersized pipes and fittings, using more efficient and correctly‐sized pumps, motors anddrivemechanisms.Theimpactofpipelossesisfrequentlyoverlookedbysmall‐scaleirrigatorsbutcanquicklyaddtotheavoidableinefficienciesoftheirdeliverysystems.Thesavingsareexpectedtobeintherangeof30to 35percent and could cut pump average annual energy consumption of 4500 kWh by 277 to 310 kWh,However,experiencefromtheUSA(Hanson,1988)suggeststhattheefficiencysavingswillbenotregisteredby the electricity supplier unless there are cuts in thepumping time thatmatch the efficiency savings: thisparticularlyappliesunderflat‐ratetariffs.

4.7 Suctionpumps–Low‐liftagrariansocieties

Thehydrogeologicalconditionsthatsupportthewidespreaduseofcentrifugalsuction(rotodynamic)pumpsintheshallowgroundwaterareasofthelowerGangesBasin(Figure11)arefoundacrossAsiaoutsideBangladeshand elsewhere worldwide. Although they are being seen as route to spreading small‐scale irrigationdevelopments across hydrogeologically suitable environments in Africa, suction pumps and internal

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combustionenginepower losses (Table4)have to be taken into account over thehighlandsofCentralandSouthernAfrica.Figure 11: Distribution of staticgroundwater levels across Bangladesh(fromShamsudduhaetal.,2011).Extractfromoriginaltitle:“Mapshowsthemaximum depth (mbgl) to the recent(2002–2007) staticwater table inaquifersin Bangladesh. This map highlights theareas where currently available pumpingtechnologies for drinking water andirrigation water supplies are (un?) usableduringthedryseason.HTWhandtubewell,STW shallow tubewell, DSSTW deep setshallow tubewell,MSTWmini‐submersibleshallow tubewell, DTW deep tubewell,VDSSTW very deep‐set shallow tubewell,VTverticalturbinepump,SMPsubmersiblepump,TaraTarapump,SPTarasuperTarapump.”

Asthegroundwaterlevelsdroppedbelowtherangeofsuctionpumps,userscanmountthewholepumpsetdownmosthand‐dugwells.However,anumberofproblemsarise, includingpoorventilationandcoolingofpumpmotors,increasedheadlossesandbackpressuresonthepumpseals,vibrationanddifficultyinsecuringthepumpsetandfinallyfloodingrisksduringhighrainfallorrun‐offevents.Thehistoricalbalancedirrigationareas of Yemen have seen steadily increasing groundwater use and level declines. This has led to thereplacement of the suction pumps by shaft turbine and electrical submersible pumps. Large‐scale bi‐lateralandinternationalaidandloanprojectssincethe1970shaveaddedtothistrend.

Altitudeaslm. NPSHm. Flowreduction% Dischargeheadreduction%

0 7,6 100 100600 6,7 97 961200 5,9 93 911800 5,3 93 872400 4,7 91 83Table4:Effectsofaltitudeabovesealevel(asl)ontheNetPositiveSuctionHead(NPSH)andthereductioninefficiencyduetotheinternalcombustionenginepowerlosses.

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Attheotherendofthescale,NGOsdevelopinggroundwaterforruraldomesticandirrigationsuppliesemploya variety ofman‐poweredpumpsbasedon long standingdesigns,with the exceptionof the treadle pump.Basedonachainorropepumps,treadlepumpsaresuitableforsmall‐scalegroundwaterirrigation.Producingup to 1l/sec they are promoted for small‐holder irrigation in areas with shallow groundwater (Kay andBrabben,2000;InternationalDevelopmentEnterprisesandWinrockInternational,2002;Karekezietal.,2005;Mangisoni,2006).

4.8 Alternativesources:solarandwindturbines

Introducedinthelate1970s(WardandDunford,1984),solarvoltaicpumpswereinitiallyheldbackbythecostof the solar panels. From the early 1980s, NGOs and bi‐lateral aid grant programmes are promoting solarphotovoltaic pumps (SPV pumps) and windmills as either pilot demonstration or localized developmentprojects.Theseareoftencarriedoutincollaborationwithspecialistmanufacturers.InWestAfrica,theSahelregion stretching from Mauritania to Niger has been the focus of a 15‐year EU‐supported regional solarprogramme– Comité permanent Inter‐Etats de Luttecontre la Sécheresse dans le Sahel (CILSS) – that hasimplemented over 1000 borehole‐based rural schemes supplying between of 5 and120M3/day (Figure12).Malihasbeenthemainbeneficiarycountrywitharound50percentofthesmallpipedschemesbeingsolarpowered(GiaandFugelsnes,2010).

Figure 12: Energy sources for small pipedwater supplies surveyed in Africa (redrawnfromGiaandFugelsnes,2010).

The first solar‐poweredwaterpumpingsystems in Indiawere initiatedunder theGovernmentpromotionofnon‐conventionalenergysourcesprogrammein1993‐1994withaninstallationtargetof50000unitsinplacewithin5years.Bytheendof2004,however,only6780SPVpumpswereinstalled(PurohitandMichaelowa,2005).Ascheaperandmoreefficientpanelsbecomeavailable,solar‐poweredpumpingisprovidingdomesticandirrigationwatersuppliesinmanycountries(ITPowerIndia,2006).Typicalofthemanypilotschemesisthecombination of solar‐panel and wind‐turbine power generation for small‐scale agriculture in Mali (Traore,2010).Thisindirectuseofwindpowersupplementstheexistingsuccessfulwindmillspoweringdirect‐drivepositive‐displacementpumps in abroad spectrumof geographical settings.Anumberofmanufacturers continue tosupply theseclassic tripodtowerwindmillpumps.Freed for future fuelcostsanddespite therelativelyhighpurchaseandinstallationcosts,theyareusedfordomesticwatersupplies,livestockwateringandsmall‐scaleirrigation. However, this trend can be expected to decline as wind‐powered generators producing a moreflexibleelectricalsupplytakeover.InNorthAmerica, theUSDepartmentofAgriculture2003census lists82solarpowerpumpedgroundwaterwellsinusetoirrigate1640ha.Thespreadandriseofwind‐generatedelectricpowerfrom2472MWin1999to43635MWin2011areshownonFigure13.Inthisregard,Vick(2010)describesananalysisofhybridwind‐andsolar‐poweredcentre‐pivotgroundwaterirrigationthatshowsitcouldbeeconomicallyviableintheHighPlainsofnorthernTexasifusedtoirrigatetwocropsayear.Earlieranalyses in the1970sand1980shadshowntheuseofwind‐generatedpowerwasuneconomic forasingleannualcropbutwaseconomicforyearround irrigationof fruitorchards.Renewedstudies inthe late1990sandearly2000sshowedirrigationofasingleannualcropremaineduneconomic,asthelocalelectricity‐generatingcompanieswereunwilling tobuy the farmers surplusoutof seasonelectricityata commerciallyviablerate.Basedonanenergyrequirementof62kWhtopump100m3,thetotalinstalledcapacityneededtoirrigating51haofawinterwheatandsummercorncroparecalculatedtobe196kWfromafixedsolararray,

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146kWforasingleaxispanningarrayoratotalof150kWwind‐turbine‐generatedpower.(Atwoaxispanningandtitlingsolararraywasfoundnottosignificantlyaddtotheenergyoutput).However,annualvariationsinthewindandsolarenergy inputs innorthernTexasshowsolarenergytobeamoreandmoreconstantandconsistentsourceofenergy.Furthercalculationsshowedthatcombiningtheoutputsfroma90kWsingleaxistracking solar array and a 50kWwind turbinewould provide sufficient energy and improve the reliable ofirrigationsystem.Forthecalculationstheheightofthewindturbinehubwassetat25m.Forthesystemstobefullycommercial,thereisaneedtoprovidealternativeconventionalbackuppowerandideallygeneratedsurplusestobeusedeitheronthefarms,forgreenhouseheatingforexampleorsoldintothelocalgrid.

Figure13:Growthininstalledwind‐poweredgeneratingcapacity1999‐2011.(AdaptedfromUSNationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory,2011).

4.9 Reinvigoratingruralwatersupplyprogrammes

The2000UNMillenniumSummitandthefollow‐up2002WorldSummitonSustainableDevelopmentsetnewdevelopment goals to be achieved by 2015. These included rural water supplies and sanitation as a mainMillenniumDevelopmentGoal(MDG).By 1984, UNICEF, many NGOs and other agencies had moved from insular supply‐side water projects tointegrated health education‐orientated projects involving community participation in the design,implementation,operationandmaintenanceofthewaterandsanitationelements(Bayer,1987).Theextentthis could be put into practice byUNICEF and other donor agencies depended on counterpart inputs fromreceivinggovernment’sexecutiveorganizations.Inmanycases,theseinputswerefoundtobeweakorabsentunless funded by the donors.When donor fundsweremade available, their withdrawal at the end of theproject often left the client organization with well‐trained staff but without recurrent funding to ensurecontinuingfuturefieldoperations.Thisseverelyimpactedonthesustainabilityoftheproject.

4.10 Improvedsustainability–Communitydemand,managementandparticipationkeys

Bythemid1990s,mainlyonNGOfeedback,theviewsandinvolvementofthecommunitydemandsideontheprojectshadbecomethefocusofattention(Carter,TyrrelandHowsam,1996).Communityparticipationwasidentifiedasthekeytosustainability, typically includingtheelectionorselectionofawatercommitteewithclearlydefinedresponsibilities,suchasmanagingthemoneycollectedfromthesaleofwaterandorganizingtheoperationandmaintenanceofthewatersupplysystem.Inthefield,theeffectivenessofmostwatercommitteesisfoundtobeunderminedbythelackofmechanicalskills,toolsandaccesstoarobustsupplychain.Underdecentralizationreforms,toolsandskillsareplannedtobemadeavailableatthedistrictlevel,butthishasyettobewidelyachieved.Theproblemsfacedbythewatercommitteescanbeseenwiththeoperationandmaintenanceofinstalledhand‐pumps.Withtheexceptionofropepumps,itiswidelyacceptedthatmosthand‐pumpshavenotmettheVLOMcriteria.

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Forasuccessfulcommunity‐anddistrict‐level‐basedmaintenanceprogramme,thefirstdecisiontobemadeisabout who and how to train. Regarding who to train, many field workers advocate for the selection andtrainingofwomenastheyhaveprovedcompetentandconscientiousmechanicsandhavethegreatestvestedinterest in maintaining their community water supplies (van Wijk‐Sijbesma, 1998; UNDESA, 2004). Thequestionofhowtotrainbringsinaroleofthepumpmanufacturersandsuppliersthathasonlybeenpartiallyexplored(HarveyandSkinner,2002)butfurtheronustotrainmechanicsshouldformanintegralpartofthesupplychain.Typically,uptothreelevelsortierstothetrainingprogrammeareneeded.Firsttiertrainingisusuallygiventoa responsible communitymember or committee. Once trained, they should be able to undertaken regularinspectionofthepumpstodetermineifpreventativemaintenanceisrequired.Althoughthisdoesnotrequiretools, itwould be appropriate that the tools needed to repair the pumpare held by the communitywatercommittee.Thesecondtrainingtierusuallycoversallthemaintenanceandrepairstothehand‐pumpfittings.The third tier training covers all aspects of installing and removing the hand‐pump from the hand‐dug ordrilledwell.While ensuring the availability of spareparts shouldbe consideredby all donors,workon the supply‐chainaspectsshowsanumberofoptionsavailablefromafree‐marketsolutiontoafullysubsidizedfree‐supplyformof distribution network. In practice the free‐market solution has been found toworkwhere the density ofhand‐pumpsissufficienttocreateasufficientdemandforspareparts.Wherethisconditiondoesnotexist,ithasbeenfoundthatsomeformofcontinuedsubsidizedsystemisneed.Reviewsofcommunity‐basedhand‐pump projects, while showing range of problems, they also show numerous positive adaptive solutions tomaintenance.(HarveyandSkinner,2002;HarveyandKayaga,2003;Harvey,2003).

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Part2:DiagnosticFromaround1985,manyofthecasehistoriesconsideredintheprecedingsectionswerebasedonsubstantialdiagnostic reviews of existing and developing situations as typified by Bayer’s 1987 analysis of UNICEFprogrammes,Black’s1998reviewofWorldBank‐fundedprojects,theTrantor International’s2007reviewofNORAD’sAssistancetoWaterSupplyandSanitationinTanzaniaandKenyaduringthe70’s,80’sand90’s,andthe Giordano and Vilholth 2007 groundwater irrigation compilation. The following sections, therefore, areusedtoattachgovernanceissuestothediagnosticappraisals.

5. Constraints

5.1 Institutionalbarrierstotechnologyaccessanduptake

Obviousbarrierstowell‐regulatedgroundwaterabstractioninclude:

• insufficientmonitoringandknowledgeofthegroundwaterresourcebeingdeveloped;• anentrenchedpriorpatternofuncontrolledgroundwaterabstractionandusage;• delayedrecognitionofadverseimpactsofpriorandon‐goingabstraction.

Aspumpingtechnology improvedfromthemid19thcenturyonwards, thispatternofbarriersdevelopedandtriggeredvarious,butoftenbelated,governancemeasures.Theimpactofthesemeasuresonthegroundwaterusersfrequentlygaverisetovaryingdegreesofsocialandpoliticalbacklash.The prime governance concerns have largely crystallized around the uncontrolled use of groundwater forirrigation.Institutionally,twobasicapproachestothebarrierissueshavebeenadopted.Thefirstisthehands‐off approach where the uncontrolled development continues until abstraction becomes unviable dueeconomics,soilsalinizationorwaterqualitydeterioration.Thesecondapproach istheorderlyapplicationoftechnicallywell‐founded,nationalandlocalwaterrightlegislationthatmaybesupplementedwithlessformalinstitutionaltoolsthatcanprovideeffectivelocalresourcemanagementsteps(Theesfeld,2008),includingthefollowing:

• improvingirrigationefficiency;• definingwellspacing;• imposingamoratoriuminnewboreholeconstruction;• restrictingorbanningtheplantingofhighwaterdemandcrops,notablysugarcane;• placingtemporallimitstothegroundwaterirrigationcycle.

Singularly,orinconjunction,eachofthesemeasureshasbeendemonstratedtomoderategroundwaterleveldecline(IWMI,2007b)byanumberofIndianexamplesandbytheMexicanAquiferManagementCommitteeprogramme (Garduño and Foster, 2010). To a certain extent, thesemirror the TexanGMDapproach in theUSA.However,wheretheseinitiativesarefarmingcommunity‐based,theyarefrequentlyfoundtobefragilearrangementsthatbreakdownwithtimeascommunityprioritieschangeorconflictingexternaldevelopmentsprovidealternativesourcesofirrigationwater(Shah2001).AnumberofprojectreviewsinCentralAmericaandSouthAsia,pointouthowthebenefitsofmanydonorandcentralgovernmentgroundwater‐dependentruralwater‐supplyprogrammesfail toreachthepoorest inthetarget communities, unless founded on strong community participation and transparency throughout theprojectformulationandexecution(SaraandKatz,1998).

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5.2 Institutionalbarrierstoefficientuseofenergyingroundwaterpumping

Supporting the largest areas under groundwater irrigation, theUSA “BigDeal” of the 1930s and the Indianrural electrification programmes of 1965‐2002 had basically same objective to improve rural livelihoods byincreasingagriculturalproduction.However, therewere threemajordifferences: (i)thevery lowpopulationdensityintheareasservedintheUSAcomparedtoIndia;(ii)theUScostrecoverytariffstructurecomparedtothenon‐commercialflatrateIndiantariffs;and(iii)differencesinthenatureofthegroundwateroccurrences.Overthe70yearsofgroundwaterirrigationexpansionsupportedbylargestratiformaquifersintheUSA,thedevelopmentshavebeenaccompaniedbyon‐goinghydrogeologicalappraisalsandmonitoringcoupledwithevolvinglegislationandmanagementplanning.In Peninsular India, the take up of groundwater irrigation lagged behind that in the eastern States. Againdrivenbyindividualinvestmentandsubsidizedelectricity,theirrigationfarmers’energydemandsincreasinglyoutstripped thecapacityof thegeneratinganddistributionsystems. Inaddition, themore limitednatureofthegroundwateroccurrencesresultedinsharplydeclininggroundwaterlevelsthatfurtherpushedupenergydemands.By2002,theagriculturesectorreportedlyusedanaverageof30percentoftheelectricitygeneratedin India to pump water7. Groundwater irrigation abstraction accounted for the majority of this usage.However, across Peninsular India, agricultural electricity usage approached 45percent of the distributedpower.In hindsight, earlier andmore effective coordination between the energy and agricultural planning sectorscould have been desirable but given the scale of the development, this would probably have delayed thepenetration of the benefits of the Green Revolution into the rural irrigation areas. Hadmonitoring of thedevelopmentsbeenmoreintegrated,partoftheenergysubsidiescouldhavebeendivertedtoadrivefortheintroductionofefficientirrigationmethodsand,asaseparateissue,acombinedtariffcouldhavebeendevisedlinkingtheelectricityandwaterusage.However, to resolve the contemporary groundwater irrigation situation, a number of schemes have beenimplemented.From2004,theUSAID‐fundedDRUMandWater‐EnergyNexus‐Activity(WENEXA)projectshaveundertaken pilot schemes under the auspices of the Bangalore Electricity Supply Company (BESCOM), theMaharashtraStateElectricityDistributionCompany,Ltd.(MSEDCL)andtheMadhyaGujaratVijCompany,Ltd.(MGVCL)intheGujaratStatewithinputsfromtheUSDepartmentofAgriculture’sRuralUtilityService(RUS).One of the findings of the 2011DRUM‐WENEXA project appraisal (Warr et al., 2011) highlights the insularproject approach, with little or no consultation or inputs sought from the local, state or central agenciesresponsibleforgroundwatermanagementoragriculturaldevelopment.This omission sits awkwardly with the specific objectives of the WENEXA project that are (Warr et al.,2011):“to improve co‐management of energy andwater resources in the agricultural, urban and industrialsectorsthroughenhancedpowerdistributionandend‐useefficiency,coupledwithsoundwatermanagementpractices”.However,theresultsfromaBESCOMpilotprojectaimedatimprovingtheruralgroundwaterirrigationenergydemandsideinDoddaballapurTaluk(District)nearBangaloreprovideconcreteevidencetocontinuewiththisapproach.Asurveyofinstalledpumpsshowedover90percentofthefunctioningpumpssetswerelessthan30percentefficient.Thevoltagedeliveryofthefeederelectricitylineswasgenerallylessthanthatrequiredtopower the pumps. Fifteen farmers received correctly‐sized efficient replacement pumps in return toconvertingatleast0,4haoffloodirrigatedfieldstodripirrigation.Mostofthereplacedpumpswereonlytwoyears old and all were found to be oversized.Most were repaired at least once a year due to the severevoltagefluctuations.Thepowerofnewmoreefficientpumpswasgenerally1,5kWlessthanthepumpsthey7DRUMtrainingprogramme,2005.Annex1:BackgroundnoteDistributionReform,UpgradesandManagement(DRUM)Project.

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replaced. The average installed depth was 152m and before‐and‐after tests showed the combined powerdemandofthenewpumpstobe55300wattsaftersixmonthsusage.Thiscompareswiththe72000wattsconsumedby theoldpumpswith thewaterpumped inboth cases remainingapproximately the same.Thereportedoverallefficiency improvementswere70percent in termsofenergyanda60percent reduction inwaterusage.However,with6ofthenewpumpmotorsburntoutwithin9monthsduetothefrequentvoltagefluctuations,itwasclearthatasimultaneousupgradingoftheelectricitydistributionsystemwasneededandthattheefficiencysavingwouldmakeforaneteconomicgain(Mercados,2010).FutureWENEXAwork involves developing a financially viable, sustainable and replicable pilot schemewithBESCOMintheBangaloreareawiththefollowingguidelines(Mercados,2010):

• A high quality power distribution system is required, but thismay not be financially viable for thedistributionutilityinthecurrentscenarioof“free”agriculturalsupply.

• Thepotentialelectricityconservationishighlylocation‐specific(dependingontheexistingequipmentin the area) and time‐specific (midnight savings are worth much less than peaking power), sogeneralizationisnotpossible.

• Accuratemeteringandregulardatacollectionareessential8.• Farmers’co‐operationandtheparticipationofallstakeholders.

TheWENEXA results are in linewith thoseof Lalletal. (2011)who calculatedapotential 30percentwatersavingbyusingsimilarlyefficientlower‐poweredpumpsincombinationwithsprinkleranddripirrigation.Thesister DRUM project is undertaking a straightforward upgrading of parts of the BESCOM rural distributionfeedernetwork(Warretal.,2011),aswellasfurtherenergyauditsoninstalledpumps.However,couplingtheWENEXA approach with the secure power line upgrade delivered under the Gujarat Jyotirgram scheme(Shahet al., 2008 ) should prolong the pump motor life and enable the concept of life‐cycle costs to beintroducefortheeconomicanalysisoftheruralfarmers’financialviability.Thisapproachcouldalsoenableatighttimecaptobeplacedonthenumberofhoursofgroundwaterpumpingand attached to a flat‐rate tariff. The hours of irrigation needed could be readily calculated from availableobjective statistics andvaried tomeetdrought conditions.Anyadditionalhoursofpumping couldbemadesubjecttoasurcharge.Althoughsuchanapproachwouldprobablyslowtherateofgroundwaterleveldecline,reversingthetrendwillrequireamoredrasticcutbackinabstractionandintheareairrigated.Thecurrentlyreported farming practice is that individual irrigators evaluate the irrigationwater available for the comingseasonfrompre‐seasonwater levelmeasurements intheirwellsandthendecideontheareatobeplanted(Lalletal.,2011).Asimilardecisioncouldbemadeiftheywereawareofanelectricitycap.IntheotherIndianStates,variabletariffsaresuggestedtoreduceirrigationpumpingdemands.Theirrigationfarmers in the eastern States do not receive subsidized electricity but pay close to cost price. All States,however,canimplementthegeneratingboards’DRUM‐projectrecommendationstoimprovetheefficiencyofthepumps’electricmotorsandarepair‐shopcertificationschemetoensurethequalityofmotorrewinds.

5.3 Economiclimitstopumping

Considered as a commodity,water has amarket value based on its use, its production costs, the potentialfinancialreturnsanditsscarcity.Inarid,semi‐aridandsub‐humidclimaticzoneswheresurfacewaterisscarceorhasa limitedseasonalavailability,groundwaterassumesahigheconomicvalue. Insub‐humidandhumidzones,groundwaterstillhasdominanteconomicadvantages inthegeomorphologicallydefinedwaterdivideandinterfluveareasremotefromtheperennialwateroccurrences.Attaching a role in governance to pumps requires consideration of the hierarchy of users. This has beenframedunderthepragmaticWyomingsurfaceandgroundwaterlawsthatarefoundedonadeclaredpriority,which assigns the highest priority to drinking water for humans and animals, followed bymunicipal water8The accuracy and precision of the measurement of results achieved will vary in direct proportion to the quality andextensiveness of metering. The ideal would be the installation of reliable meters at the consumer level, but that is acontroversialissue.

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supplies,thenenergygeneration,transportation,domesticservices,coolingandheatingandfinallyindustrialuses (Jacobs, Tyrrell and Brosz, 1995;BLM 2001). All other uses including irrigation are defined as non‐preferreduses.Thispriorityreflectsthewidelyheldhighestsocialandeconomicvaluationofsecuredrinkingwaterandurbanwatersupplies.Ingeneral,ifthehighpriceoftankeredwatersuppliesintheurbanandperi‐urbansettingisanindicator,thelimitstopumpingcostshaveyettobesetaswillbeseeninthefutureurbandevelopments that will be needed to resolving the water supply problems of Sana’a in Yemen where theintroduction of electric submersible pumps has seen uncontrolled irrigation almost completely deplete theaquifersusedforthecurrentcitywatersupply.Given the lowest priority use and under most conditions, groundwater‐based irrigation has highimplementation and operational costs in relation to the potential profits from cropping. Groundwaterirrigation is, therefore, very sensitive to thepumpingcosts thataredirectly linked toenergypricesand thepumpinghead.Worldwide, the vast majority of large‐scale groundwater irrigation is only economically viable due to thesupportofsignificantsubsidies.Theenergycostsforgroundwater irrigationinNebraska,USA,areshownonTable2above.The2003NebraskanpumpingcostsofUSD70‐75perhectareareunsubsidizedandreflectthelowpriceofelectricity, thehighefficiency irrigationsystemsandarelatively lowaveragepumpinghead(ca.40m).Evenwiththisdegreeofefficiency,groundwaterirrigationwasuneconomicduringthe1980sand1990sduetolowcommoditypricesandreducedsubsidyregimes.Fieldreports(Narulaetal.,2011)fromNorthGujaratinPeninsularIndia(Figure10)estimatethatin2006,theenergyprovidedforgroundwater irrigationwasaround10000kWhperhectare(unsubsidizedequivalenttoUSD750perhectare).However,itisunclearwhetherthe10000kWhismeasuredatthepointofgenerationordeterminedatthepointofdelivery.Inthelattercase,thetechnicaltransmissionlossesofsome30percentandillegalconnectionlossesat30to40percentpointtoanevengreaterdemandonthegeneratingcapacity.Theaveragepowerofapumptoirrigateonehectareis7,5kW.Thissuggeststhatthepumpsareoperatedfortheequivalentof55dayscontinuousoperation.Ifsimilarenergyconsumptionlevelsaresubstantiatedacrossthe rest of Peninsular India – and indications suggest that this is the case, then the economic limits ofgroundwaterpumpingmayhavealreadybeenreached.IntheGangesBasin,ScottandSharma(2009)providefurtherenergydataforthelowerheadirrigationareasthatshowsannualpumpingcoststorangefromUSD150sto250perhectare.Despitethelowercosts,therearenocompletelydepletedaquifers,andneitherhaslandbeenlosttosoilsalinizationnorhassalineintrusionoccurred.Elsewhere, propelled largely by subsidies, the planned or unplanned expansion of groundwater irrigationunderpinnedfirstlyby lowcostsuctionpumpsand,then,bydeepwell turbinesandsubmersiblepumpshasseenalarmingdeclines in groundwater levels inmany countries.Where theenergy supply for groundwaterirrigationisunsubsidized,thecropvalueultimatelydictatestheviabilityofthefarming.InpartsofTexas,USA,irrigatedlandsarebeingdeclaredasuneconomicduetopumpingcosts.Morefrequentlyencounteredreasonsfor abandoning groundwater irrigation are salinization of the land and the intrusion of salinewater. Largetractsofirrigationlandhavebeenabandonedduetothesecauses.Nodevelopmentsectorshowstheflexibilityoftheeconomiclimitstopumpingmoreclearlythaninthedeepminingofmetallicminerals.AnemphaticriseincopperpriceshasenabledtheKonkolacoppermineinZambiato remain viable. Some 350000m3/d of groundwater is pumped from >1500m below ground level todewatertheworkingsinoneofthewettestdeepminesintheworld(EngineeringandMiningJournal,2011).

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6. ScopeforSecuringSocialandEnvironmentalBenefitsthroughGovernance

6.1 Accesstowellinformedtechnologyoptions

The social and environmental benefits associated with the rural and urban water supply sectors are wellestablished but remain to be maximized by parallel developments in the public health and sanitationprogrammes.Frequently,theresponsibilityforwatersupplyandsanitationdevelopmentrestswithseparateministriesoragencies.Theproblemsthiscausesareunderstoodandarebeingaddressedat thecommunitylevelbutarebeinglesswelladdressedatthefundinglevel.With access to the internet, it has to be assumed that the operators of large urban water supplies andpumpingequipmentagentsandimportersarefullyinformedoftheimprovedpumpperformancesderivedforresearchintohydraulicdesign,materialsandcontrols.Withthecurrenthighpower,rotationspeedsandvanetip velocities, pumping heads of 850m are being achieved by the latest single stage centrifugal impellerpumps.ComputerizeddesignstudiesusingComputationalFluidDynamicssoftware(CFD)suggestanultimatesinglestage1000mheadlimitwithinthecurrentleveloftechnicalknowledge.Developmentofmaterialsincludeslowfrictioninternalpumpcoatingsandtheuseofceramics,tungstenandsiliconcarbidestoreducewearratesandtoimprovetheperformanceofshaftseals.Thebenefitsofwideruseof variable speed controls to control pumping volumes include optimization of energy use and can reducepump wear. Computerized condition monitoring provides a useful tool for programming preventativemaintenance.Thereisalsocontinuousassessmentofimprovedelectricmotordesignsincludingtheuseofthebrushlessinductiveaxlefluxdrives.Thecost‐benefitfromthisresearch,however,isrelativelylowandmaynotmeritfollowupunlessdrivenbynationalandinternationalenergyefficiencylegislation.The situationwith hand‐pump research is largely static as the problemswith reciprocating cylinder pumpsseemtechnicallyintractable.AchievingtheVLOMconceptremainsunlikelyuntiltheskilllevelsavailablewithinortoruralcommunitiesaresufficienttoundertakeexpedientrepairstobrokendownpumps.Thewideruseofthetreadlepump,however,highlightstheeffectivenessoftherope(orchain)pumpthathasbeenwidelyusedfor ruralcommunitywatersupplies inCentralAmericaandChina.Alsoknownas thePaternosterPumpandthe Liberation Wheel (pump) in China, the efficiency of rope pumps ranges between 50 and 70percent(Fraenkel and Thake, 2006). This is comparable to the reciprocating cylinder pumps. With the additionalbenefitsoflowcost,simpletechnologyandeasymaintenance,theropepumpdemandsfurtherconsideration.Although best suited for hand‐dugwells there is scope for developing slim line rope pumps to fit 150 and200mmdiameter boreholes. The ropepumpalso lends itself to retro‐fittingof electric or dieselmotorizedpower.A further motorized pumping technology that shares the simplicity advantages of the rope pump is thecombinationofasurfacemountedcentrifugalpumpandadown‐holejetorejectorpump.Withnodown‐holemoving parts, jet pumps are more efficient than airlift devices. They are most suited to domestic watersupplies where efficiency is not a paramount consideration. They also provide an interim solution tomaintainingwatersuppliesinareaswherewaterlevelsaredroppingbelowtherangeofsuction‐liftcentrifugalpumpsinlinewiththesteppeddevelopmentmodelrecommendedbySoundersandWarford(1976).The technologicaloptionsavailable to improvegroundwater irrigation cover theabstractionandapplicationefficiencies, and the crops and cropping pattern (Golden, Peterson andO’Brien, 2008). The contribution ofimproved pump design and construction in terms of efficiency, lowmaintenance costs and working life isequallyavailabletoirrigationfarmersiftheyhavethecapitaltoupgradetheirabstraction.AlthoughthisisthecaseinthecommercialirrigationfarmingareasofNorth,CentralandSouthAmerica,EuropeandpartsofAsiaandAustralia,thesmallruralirrigatorswithholdingsoflessthanonehectarelackthenecessarycapitaland,ifdependentonelectricityforpumping,facetwofurtherproblems:theyusuallyarecompetingwithneighboursforwaterfromacommonsourceaquiferandforelectricitysuppliesfromatenuousdistributionsystem.

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Inpractice,theseruralirrigationfarmershavelittleincentiveinacquiringefficientpumpsinsteadoftheirmorerobustoversizedpumps.Thisbecomesevenmorejustifiedwheretheypayalowflattariffsornotariffatallfortheelectricitysupply.However,theydohaveoptionstoimprovetheirirrigationapplicationefficiency,togrow crops with lower water demands and to modify their cropping pattern. Where farmers previouslyattemptedtocropthreetimesayear,whentheyadoptedthefirsttwooptionstheyfrequentlycutcroppingtotwiceayear.Ultimately,declininggroundwaterlevelsduetoirrigationabstractioncanbecontrolledorresolvedby:

• introducing an equitable water rights scheme that positively discriminates in favour of the smalllandholderabstraction;

• placing limits to allowable borehole pump sizes compatible with the scale of the groundwateroccurrencebeingexploited;or

• waitinguntilpumpingofgroundwaterbecomestotallyuneconomicevenwithfreeelectricity.Giventhelastoutcomeisincompatiblewiththeneedtoamelioraterurallivelihoods,theshorttermsolutionremains in improving the reliability of the energy supplies, pump efficiency and introducing an appropriatequantitybasedlimitstoabstractionandareairrigated.

6.2 Energyefficiencyprogrammesandgroundwaterpumping

Thevastmajorityofmodernpumpsdesigned toabstractgroundwaterarepoweredby internal combustionenginesorelectricmotors.Currentdieselenergyefficienciespeakataround45percentwhileindustrialtestingsuggests average efficiency clusters around 25percent. Improvements to internal combustion engineefficiency will stem from their widespread use in transportation, and peak diesel engine efficiencies arepredictedtoimproveto55percentintheforeseeablefuture.Irrespectiveoftheseimprovements,thevariableefficiencyofnon‐brandeddiesel‐poweredpumpsrequiresscrutinyandregulationtoensuretheyapproachtheperformanceofthemostefficientequivalentpumpsonthemarket.Aselectricmotorsuseabout70percentofthegeneralindustrydemand,theyarethefocusofEuropeanUnionandotherregulatorybody’sefficiencydirectives.TheefficiencyofinductionelectricmotorsisdirectlyrelatedtotheirratedpoweroutputasshownonTable5.ItalsovarieswiththeloadasshownonFigure14.Thepricepremium of the most efficient motors is between 10 and 30percent9. The market penetration of lower‐poweredmotors(>3kW)meetingthesestandardsintheUKis lessthan10percent.Whilethehydraulicandmechanical efficiency and durability improvements are shared by both electric and internal combustionpoweredpumps,theoverallenergyefficiencyrangesfrom40to75percentdependingonthepumpsizeandnumberofstages.TheapplicationofVariableSpeedDrives (VSDs) to fluidpumping in theEuropeanUnion is identifiedas themotor system technology having the highest significant energy savings potential as shown in Table 6.ThecurrentapplicationsofVSDstogroundwaterpumpingfromboreholesarelimitedtohighlyengineeredurbanand industrialwater supplieswhere PulseWidthModulation (PWM) control technology (Figure 16) can beusedtoproduceaconstantflowrate,pressure,pumpingheadortemperature10.

9BNM02:MinimumEfficiencyPerformanceStandards(MEPS)forelectricmotors.UKDefrav3,2007.<efficient‐products.defra.gov.uk/spm/download/document/id/653>10See2008GrundfosSPEngineeringManual,availableonlinefromhttp://www.grundfos.com/content/dam/Global%20Site/Industries%20%26%20solutions/waterutility/pdf/engineering‐manual.pdf.

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PowerkW Efficiency0,75–3,0 78,83,75–6,75 84,07,5–14,25 85,515,0–36,75 90,237,5–100 91,7

Table 5 (above): Nominal relationship between electricmotorpowerandefficiency

Figure 14 (right): Relationship between a MinimumEfficiency Performance Standard (MEPS) 7,5 kW electricmotorworkingloadandefficiency.

Unaddressed,inIndiaasawholeunrestrainedgroundwaterpumpingcoupledwithirregularelectricitysuppliesispossiblycausingsome80millionkm3/yearofexcessabstractionforirrigation.Thisisbasedontheestimatedgroundwaterabstractionof150km3in2003reportedbySharma(2007)comparedwiththeCGWB’sreported231 km3 for 2004 (CGWB‐MoWR, 2006). More recent estimates of the total groundwater abstraction forirrigationhoveraround200km3(Aguilar,2011citingAnanda,2009).Thisstillleavesareportedin‐balanceoverthe CGWB’s 231km3 that is in the order of one fifth of the mean annual flow of the Nile into theMediterraneanbeforetheconstructionoftheAswamHighDam.VSDs AverageSavings% Applicability% AlreadyApplied% TechnicalPotential%Pumps 35 60 9 51

Table6:AssessmentofpotentialforenergysavingsbyapplyingVSDspumpsintheEuropeanUnionVSDsPumps(fromDeAlmeidaetal.,2000).Irrespectiveoftheavailabilityofabsoluteabstractionfigures,mostfieldstudiespointto inefficientandoverapplicationof irrigationwater in the rural areas linked to the electrical distributionnetworks. In PeninsularIndia, the largest area of unsustainable groundwater abstraction, the situation has reached crisis point.Groundwaterlevelsarefastdroppingbeyondthereachofmanyofthesmallfarmers’wellsandpumpswhilethelarger landownersdrilldeeperandinstallmorepowerfulpumpstocontinuewiththeexploitationoftheresource.Inaddition,asthegroundwateroccurrencesapproachdepletion,contaminationofthegroundwaterisoccurringduetocoastalsalineintrusionorbecausepoor‐qualityvirtuallyconnategroundwateristapped.However, the problems in Peninsular India are being addressed by the on‐going DRUM and WENEXAprogrammesandtheJyotirgramschemeinGujarat.ThesealongwiththeUniversityofColumbiaWaterCenterinitiative (Narula et al., 2011) show the need for more coordination between the energy and agriculturalsectors, if secure energy supplies and improved irrigation practices are to stabilize or modulate thegroundwaterleveltrendsandimprovefarmers’realincomes.Equallysignificantisthedemonstratedpotential30 to 70percent reduction in the energy demand if the electricity supplies can be stabilized and secured(AhluwaliaandGoyal,2003;PadmanabanandSarkar,2005;Shah,2007a;Shah,Bhatt,ShahandTalati,2008).

6.3 Reducingemissions

Otherestimatesoftheenergysavingsachievablebyagriculturedemand‐sidemanagementrangefrom40to45percent (Warretal.,2011). Ifachieved,giventhehighagriculturalelectricityuse, thesesavingswillhavesignificant impact on the ongoing emissions output of the Indian thermal generating capacity shown onTable7.Althoughwaterutilityandindustrialpumpinggreenhousegas(GHG)emissionassessmentsarethesubjectofnational and international directives, GHG emission assessments for groundwater irrigation are still largely

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unexplored.However, carbon taxes could be applied to thepumping equipment but they are surely betterrolledupwithenergypriceespeciallyasthelargerpumpsareconsiderablymoreefficientthansmallerpumps(Table5).

ThermalMW&(%)

Coal Gas Diesel Total

Nuclear(MW)

Hydro(MW)

Renewable(MW)

Total(MW)

AllIndia89,778(47%)

17,625(17%)

1200(1%)

108,603(65%)

4,560(3%)

37,328(22%)

16,787(10%)

167,278

Table7:Indiainstalledgeneratingcapacity,October2010(Warretal.,2011).

6.4 Institutionalenvironmentsthatcanwork–economicandenvironmentalregulation

Haltingor reversing thedecliningwater levelsacrossPeninsular Indiaalso requiresemphaticpoliticalactionincludingaddressingexistingpropertyrightslawtoensureequitabledistributionofthegroundwaterresourcestoall landowners (Aguilar,2011).Theelectricity suppliersareentitled tocontrol connections toprotect theintegrityoftheirsupplyandtosettariffsinlinewithnationaldevelopmentobjectives.Inparallelwithscientificassessmentstoquantifyanappropriateannualrateofgroundwaterabstraction,considerationofthestatusofpriorappropriationrightsinlandsclassifiedasundertribalcontrolmayyieldabasisforassigningwaterrights.Existing Indian environment priority legislation could possibly be applied to set limits to the size andperformanceof installedpumpstogetherwithsettingaminimumdistancebetweenduganddrilledwells. Inthecaseoffarmerswithverysmalllandholdings,theycouldbeencouragedtoconsolidatetheirresourcestoqualify and share an irrigationpump. Theuseof this legislationwouldbe in linewith the2000MillenniumDeclaration concerning theprotectionof theenvironment. Thepolitical solution to theobjectionsmadebymedium‐ and large‐scale farmers facing a large reduction in their current abstraction may lie with theintroductionofsubsidizedagriculturalprocessingplantsanddistributionnetworksthatwillencourageashiftintohigheradded‐valuehorticultureproducegrownonreducedirrigationareas.Although thepost2002expansionofgroundwater irrigation in theStateofNebraska,USA, forbiofuel cropproduction is regulated by the State groundwater legislation, the farmers and cooperatives are furtherprotectedbytheInitiative300legislation11thatisspecificallydesignedtopreventthespreadofmajorout‐of‐state agro‐industrial corporations into the State. Initiative 300 was decreed in 1982 with the objectives ofprotectingthelandfromtheenvironmentaldamagecausedbycorporatefarmingobservedinotherStatesinthe USA. In particular, Initiative 300 was designed to forestall corporate skirting of their liabilities for thedamage caused by their farming activities. This was prompted by an earlier phase of groundwater fodderirrigationforranchingdevelopmentsundertakenbyout‐of‐statecorporate‐drivenspeculationintheextensiveSandhillsregionofNebraska:theirrigationfieldswerecreatedbybulldozingthetopsoffthewind‐blownsanddunes into the depressions. These developments started in the late 1960s and relied on centre‐pivotgroundwater irrigation.Many of the agro‐industrial corporations were bankrupted by the 1980s decline infarmproduce and cattle prices, and the abandoned farms, strippedof vegetation cover, suffered extensivewinderosion (Kepfield, 1993;DecisionAnalyst, Inc., 2003).Currently, Initiative300 isbeing challengedbyanewwaveofagro‐industrialcorporations.Although small‐scale groundwater irrigation is being widely promoted across Africa, the take‐up is limited.There is a strong possibility that uncontrolled development could rapidly reproduce the negative impactsobserved across Peninsular India. To a very large extent in sub‐Saharan Africa, the possibilities forgroundwaterirrigation‐basedindustrial‐agriculturalsystemsarelimitedincomparisontotheverylargescopefor small‐scale farm irrigation in the humid and sub‐humid zones. Given the nature of many of thegroundwateroccurrencesinthesezones,aprudentblanketpermitsanabstractionlimitof1,5l/secperkm2tobeapplieduntiltheresourcesarefullymonitoredandevaluated.Whilethiswillenabletheuseoftwo‐phaseelectric motors or small low‐powered diesel pumps, larger developments should be only considered as a

11SeeCenterforRuralAffairswebsiteformoreinformationonInitiative300(http://www.cfra.org/I300/factsheet).

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secondphasedevelopment,tobestartedafterseveralyearsofgroundwater‐leveldatahasbeencollectedandassessed.Equallytheuseofsolar‐andwind‐poweredpumpsmeritswiderconsideration.Policiesshouldaimatefficientuseofthewaterbysubsidizingtheintroductionofdry‐seasondripirrigationofaround2haandsupplementarywet‐seasonirrigationof5haratherthanpermittingtheuseofbiggerpumpsandinefficientbasinorfurrowirrigation.Withthedemandforcheappumpslikelytocontinuetogrowamongthe agricultural and livestock‐based rural communities, national governments and funding agencies shouldseektodefineandimposeefficiencystandardsforimportedandlocallymanufacturedpumpsandpowerunits.Whereruralelectrificationisinplace,thenetworkoperatorsshouldcollaboratebyproducinglistsofapprovedandcertifiedpumpingequipment.

6.4.1 Ruralwatersupplies,securingsustainabilityGiventhehighMDGpriority,providingsustainabledrinkingwatersuppliestoruralcommunitieshasprovedfarfromstraightforward,withthehand‐pumpatthecentreofmanyofthesustainabilityproblems.Historically,hand‐drawnwaterabstractionhashad little impacton the resourcebase.Themaindevelopmentproblemshave been locating the groundwater and protecting it from contamination. In the humid and sub‐humidtropics, most rural communities are sited along the local water divides where typically the groundwatersaturated zone is thin and borehole yields correspondingly low or negligible. This even applies in the riverbasinsoftheLakeVictoriaBasininKenyawheretheannualrainfallisover1500mmandacrossthegranitesoftheCentralRegionofGhana.At the beginning of the IWSSD, some donor projectsmoved into communities, constructing boreholes andwells equipped with hand‐pumps with the minimum of consultation, and in the worst‐case scenario noprovision was made for repair or maintenance of the pumps, nor was the ownership clearly defined.Frequently this projectmodelworkedon the assumption that eachhand‐pumpwould servepopulationsofaround300andthatlargervillagescouldbesuppliedwithseveralpumps.Withamatterofoneortwoyears,at least30percentwerebrokendownwithfailuresoftentraceabletopoororiginal installation(Jones1990;MichaelandGray,2005).

6.5 Institutionalenvironment–Settingdevelopmentstandards

Bythe1990s,manygovernmentsoutsideEuropeandNorthAmericathroughnationalwateracts,organizedand empoweredpublic andprivate agencies to develop urban and ruralwater supplies. They also imposeddesignandservicestandards.Coupled with the World Bank push for decentralization, the Ghanaian Community Water and SanitationAgency (CWSA) responded by preparing a series of design and construction standard guidelines, aswell asoperationandmanagementmanuals(CWSA,2004).Onesetcoverstheprovisionofwatersuppliesforsmallcommunitiesandthesecondset,smalltownpiped‐watersupplies.Althoughfullyjustifiedinseekingtoensurewell‐engineered systems and compatible service levels across the country, certain derogations have beenfoundnecessarytooptimizethesupplysystems.ThefinalobjectiveofthesectorreformisthatDistrict levelofficeswillassumefullresponsibilityforthedesignandconstructionofallcommunitywatersupplies.The small communitywater supplies are generally based on drilledwells and hand‐pumps and thework ismostoftenexecutedbylocalcommunitygroups,NGOsorunderbilateralgrantprojects.Thesmall‐townwatersupply projects are usually part of larger bilateral or multilateral loan or grant programmes employingqualified consultants and contractors to design and construct the electromechanical, transmission, storageanddistributionworks.Thereareonlya fewNGOsbridgingprojects that followasequential seriesof smallimprovementsasidentifiedinBox7.Theseintermediateschemesareusuallybasedoninnovativemini‐hydro,windgeneratorsandsolarpower.An early step in both sets of the CWSA guidelines is the establishment of a community water committee(board) thatwill take over fullmanagement after the commissioning of theworks. Notionally, theywill besupported at district level bywater supply teams once the immediate shortages of trainedmanpower are

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overcome.However,givencommunityproblemsinmaintaininghand‐pumps,futuregreaterproblemscanbeforeseen in themaintenance of borehole pumps and electromechanical equipment, unless the local supplychainissoundlyestablished.Theguidelinesforsmall‐townwatersuppliesrequiretheequipmentsupplierstohave localagentscapableofprovidingafter‐salesservicesandrelevant trainingsupport to thecommunitiesandtowatersectorprofessionals.Inpractice,thisdoesnotyetappeartohavehappenedonalargescale.Thisraisesseriousconcernsoverthefuturesustainabilityofthesystemsunlessthelocalsupplychainisimprovedandthereismoreintensivetrainingoftechniciansandengineers.AnotherweaklinkintheCWSAguidelinesisalsofoundworldwide.Thisisthechronicnon‐paymentofwatercharges by state and parastatal institutions: schools, clinics and advisory offices are almost universally indefault.ThisisbeingaddressedinKenyawhere,in2011,regionalofficesoftheWaterResourcesManagementAuthorityareenforcingpaymentofwaterrightchargestotheextentthatschool,industrialandurbanwatersupplyboreholeshavebeenshutdown.

6.5.1 Institutionaldecentralization,maximisingthesuccessOther development models stemming from the World Bank decentralization initiative involve the Public‐PrivatePartnership(PPP)programmesreviewedbyGiaandFugelsnes(2010)andlistedonTable8.Country PPP

initiatedAssetholder Regulating

authorityWaterproviderprofile

NumberofoperationalPPPs2009

Performancemonitoringsystem

Benin 2006 LocalGovernment

Ministry PSP 130 TBI

BurkinaFaso 2009 LocalGovernment

Ministry PSP 125 TBI

Mali 2006 LocalGovernment

Ministry/Region PSP 20 STEFI

Mauritania 1994 Centralgovernment

Region PSP:ANEPA 350 CMSP

Niger 1990 LocalGovernment

Ministry PSP 298 BCC

Rwanda 2004 LocalGovernment

Region PSP 230 TBI

Senegal 2000 Centralgovernment

Ministry CBO 183 MANOBI

Table8:PPPwatersupplyprogrammes–stakeholderprofiles(adaptedfromGiaandFugelsnes,2010).Key:Providers:PSP‐privatesectorparticipation,ANEPA(Mauritania)‐monopolynon‐profitassociation,CBO‐communitybasedorganisation.Performancemonitoring–thesebroadlyaredesignedtoensurebusinessbasedcostcontrolandrecovery.Thescaleofthesedevelopmentsbridgesthesmall‐communityandsmall‐townpiped‐watersuppliesasshownonTable9.

Type Characteristics Population served

Network length

Storage capacity

Production capacity

Single public water point

Nodistributionnetwork,groundorlowlevelstorage

500‐1000 <0,1km 0‐10m3 5‐10m3/day

Multiple water points

Limitedgravitydistributionnetwork,limitedlowlevelstorage

200‐2000 <2km 10‐50m3 5‐40m3/day

Multiple water points,

Extendedpipedgravity 2000‐ 2‐10km 10‐50m3 20‐300m3/day

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institutional and household connections

distribution.Highlevelstorage

10000

Multi village schemes

Largepipedschemewithlongtransmissionlinesbetweenvillages

5000‐200000

10‐250km 10‐50m3 100‐2000m3/day

Table9:Watersupplyschemeprofiles(adaptedfromGiaandFugelsnes,2010).The rationale for establishing the PPP model was similar to that behind the Ghanaian CWSA guidelines.However, inthesevencountriesreviewed,thecommunitywatercommitteeshadno legalstandingandhadnot received sufficient guidanceor expertise toundertake the community‐level operationandmaintenancetasksand,evenwiththePPPschemes inplace,theyhavebeenfoundtosufferfromthesameresourceandexpertiseproblemsasthosefoundincountrieswithstrongcommunitymanagementprogrammesinplace.Inaddition, thePPPschemesareheavilyreliantonarobustandcompetitivecontractingandservice‐operatingsector.Bothapproachesshare thesamegovernancedifficultiesandwithout the trainednationalmanpowerandlocalsupportfunding,theyareonlypartiallydeliveringimmediatebenefitstotheruralpopulations.Major urban water utilities tend to have strong technical departments and work closely with pumpmanufacturersandsupplierstooptimizetheenergyconsumption.Fortheirgroundwaterabstractiontheyrelyon their own specialized engineers or qualified sub‐contractors to operate and maintain the pumpingequipment. The reliability andefficiencydemandsof theurbanwateroperators andgroundwater irrigatorsensureacompetitivemarketamongborehole‐pumpmanufactures.Theseoperatorsfocusheavilyonlifetimecostanalysis.Whenweighingthebalancebetweenthemaincostcomponents–energyusage,maintenanceandrepair,lossofproduction,purchaseandinstallation,operation,decontaminationandremoval–commercialgroundwaterirrigatorshavealwaysfocusedonthepotentiallossofproductioncostsintermsoflossofcrops.Astheyareselling their output on an open market, the commercial irrigators can pass on rising energy and otherproductioncosts.Thesituation isdifferentwith theregulatedurbanwater‐supplycompanies,as thesehaveappropriatebackupsystemstoensurecontinuoussupplyandhavelimitedopportunitytoimmediatelypassonrisingenergycosts.

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7. ARationaleforManagingDemand

7.1 Absorbingactualcostsatthepointofsupply–Spreadingrisks

Alegacyoftherapidgrowthinpipedurban‐watersuppliessince1850istheneedtogenerateoperationalandinvestment capital to develop new raw‐water sources, to continuously maintain, upgrade and extend thetreatment and distribution systems and to provide surface and waste water sewerage disposal systems.Historically,themajorwatercompaniesadoptedoneoftwochargingstrategies:eitheraflatratechargeoracharged based metered water usage. In the groundwater‐stressed areas of southern England, flat‐ratecharging is being replaced by a sliding‐scalemetered usage rate.Most countries enforcewater quality andpricinglegislationinrecognitionofitsimportancetothecommongood.Wheresmalltownwatersuppliesareimplementedunderthedecentralizedsustainablemodelsasseenwiththe Ghanaian CWSA programmes, the water charges are planned to meet the running costs, systemmaintenance and future expansion. Numerous willingness‐to‐pay surveys provide consistent evidence thatruralandperi‐urbancommunitiesareabletocoverthebasicwater‐supplyoperationandmaintenancecost.However, analysis of a limited number of post completion project reviews shows considerable disparitiesbetweentheperformanceofthecommunitywaterboardswithregardstofinancialandtechnicalmanagementof the resources needed to expand the commissionedwater supplies: this situation is likely to improve asdistrict‐andcommunity‐levelexpertisedevelops.Under the rule‐of‐capture doctrine, urban‐ and rural‐supply operators can secure groundwater abstractionrightsbyappropriatelandpurchase:inareasofcompetitivegroundwaterusage,thelandareaneededcanbelarge. This can be seen across the High Plains aquifer in the States of Texas andNewMexico, USA (Figure15).Underotherwater‐rightdoctrines, theurbanand ruralgroundwater suppliesaregrantedandprotectedfromcompetitiveusersbynationalorstatelegislation:theprotectionfromwelloff‐settingreducestheareaoflandneededtobeownedbytheoperators.Despiteobviousdifferences,theirrigationfarmersintheStateofNebraska,USA,andinPeninsularIndiahaveinvestedindevelopinggroundwatersourcesandrelyontheproductivityoftheirlands.TheNebraskanfarmerinvestment and income is geared to prevailing commodity prices and shifting market conditions: pastdownturnsincommoditypricehaveseenfarmerretrenchmentandagro‐industrialcorporateabandonmentofspeculativeirrigationlands.

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Figure 15: Texas and NewMexico southern High Plainsaquifer, urban groundwatersupplysources.(CanadianRiverMunicipal Water Authority(CRMWA) cities underlined inred). (Adapted from Blandfordetal.,2003.)

Across the less favourable hydrogeological terrains of Peninsular India, a large number of farmers haveindependently and competitively exploited the common‐pool groundwater resources (Strand, 2010). Withunrestrained abstraction rights based on the rule‐of‐capture doctrine, the farmers have little or noconservation incentiveswhenconfrontedbyexcessivedrawdownscausedbyoverlappingconesof influencefornearbypumpingwellsandboreholes.Without legislationmodifyingtheruleofcapturethatremovestheconceptofprivateownershipofthegroundwater,there isnoscopeforchargingforthegroundwatereitherdirectlyorprobablyindirectly.Asalreadyoutlined,awidelyacceptedsolutiontotheoverabstractionisupgradingtheelectricitydistributionnetworkstothewellheads,replacingtheflat‐ratetariffswithfullycommercialratesandanappropriatesupplyrationingschedulestogetherwiththeintroductionofefficientpumps.Inpractice,manymarginal(landholdinglessthan0,4ha)andsmallfarminghouseholds(0,4to1ha)areunlikelytobenefitfromthesedevelopmentsunlessencouragedtopooltheirresources.

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Part3:Prospects

8. ProjectedEvolutionofPumpingTechnologyandCulturesofUseThe current groundwater‐pumpmarket ranges from ruralwater supply hand‐pumps, through low‐poweredmechanizedpumpsforsmall‐scaleruralandurbanwatersupplies,topowerfulelectricsubmersiblepumpsforurban,irrigation,industrialanddewateringpurposes.Competition for natural resources is reflected by rising energy costs disproportionately outstripping mostcommodity and consumer prices. This is expected push energy efficiency higher when considering pumpselectioncriteria.Allendusersexpect theirpumps tobeefficient,durableandeasy toserviceandoperate,withminimal downtime. Amongstmost informed users, the purchase price is ofmuch lesser considerationthanmeetingtheserequirements.Lookingatthetrendsintheuptakeoflargelyunregulatedgroundwater‐basedirrigationpointssuggeststhesetechnological developments are going to be tempered by increasing energy costs so that indirect factors amorelikelytoplayaroleinaffectingregulationofgroundwaterabstraction.

8.1 Ruralwatersupplies,meetingthesustainabilitytargets

Atwhatcanbeconsideredthebottom‐endof themarket, thehand‐pumpcontinuestoproveanexception.Sustainabilityanddowntimearethekeyselectionaspects.Evenwithfullinvolvementofcommunitiesthroughwatercommittees,manyinstalledhand‐pumpscontinuetoremainoutofserviceformanyweeksormonth.Insome cases,working parts have come to the end of the service life butmore frequently there has been apremature failure of a vital part due to a manufacturing or design fault or poor pump installation. Theseinherent defects have been widely documented and although they should have been remedied by qualitycontrolsandinspections,inpracticetheseareseldomenforced.Thesituationisaggravatedbythehands‐offprocurementpoliciesadoptedbymostdonoragencies.Numerouspublished and unpublished reports recommend donors should use their purchasing power to demand fullcompliancetomanufacturingstandardsandtofollowuptheprovisionoftrainingandaftersalesservices.Itisalso widely recommended that the donors should provide longer term funding to establish a sustainablemaintenancesystem.Thisfundingshouldextendtocoveringallassociatedcostsincludingtransportandfieldallowances.Intoomanyprojectssuchfundingendsimmediatelyaftercommissioningofworks.Onthedesignside,re‐engineeringoftheIndiaMk2andMk3pumpschainlinkagebetweenthepumprodsandthequadrantcanbeconsidered.Theuseofalongerpumpcylinderforexamplehasthefollowingadvantagesasitincreasesthepistonsetting‐depthtoleranceandiftheinitialsettingistowardsthebottomofthecylinder,thiswould enable the pump rod at the quadrant end to be cut and re‐threaded. A secondmodification toeliminatetheinherentdifficultiesofcuttingthreadsinthefieldcouldbeovercomebysupplyingeitherafullythreadedpumprodorsupplyingaselectionofpre‐cutandthreadedrodsofdifferentlengthssothepistoncanproperlylocatedinalongercylinder.Theimplementationoftheruralandperi‐urbansmall‐pipedandsmall‐townwatersupplyschemeslagsbehindtheMDGwatertarget.TheWHO/UNICEF,2011thematicreportondrinkingwater2011concludesthat:“atthecurrent rate of progress, this still will leave 672million people without access to improved drinkingwatersources in 2015,and possibly many hundreds of millions more without sustainable access to safe drinkingwater”.

8.2 Improvinglow‐liftirrigationlivelihoods

Alsoat,orclosetothebottomendofthemarket,theprofusionoflow‐powered,motorizedpumpsavailablefortheruraldomesticandfarmerwatersupplieshaveamixedrecordfordurabilityandefficiency.Althoughgiventime,brandleadersintermsofcustomersatisfactionwillemerge,inthenearandmid‐term,theinterest

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of the low‐income rural consumers should be protected by a certification system. Indeed, a formalinternationally recognized testing and certification scheme is desirable for all groundwater and irrigationpumpingequipmentmanufacturedforsaleundersubsidizedschemesorontheopenmarket.When groundwater levels drop below the range of suction pumping, small‐scale subsistence irrigators thathaveexperiencewithandown,orhire,centrifugalpumpscanturntodeep‐wellejectorpumpsthatprovidemuchcheaperalternativetothemoreexpensiveanddifficultmaintainline‐shaftturbinepumps.Althoughthe20 to30percentpumpingefficiency isdownon the line shaftpumps, thebenefitsofhavingall themovingparts on the surfacemakes for easymaintenance. Also, if flexible hose is used, the ejectors can be readilyremovedfromthewellortubewellforservicingorreplacement.Withlandholdingsoflessthan0,4ha,themainbuyersorhirersofsmallmotorizedpumpsforirrigationcannotaffordagapintheirwaterapplicationsduringthegrowingseason.Ifabreakdownoccurs,theycanbeforcedto purchase water from surrounding irrigators or water suppliers unless they have an alternative manualpumps installed. If theywereusingmotorizedropepumps, theycould revert toa treadlemechanismto liftwater to their fields. As with ejector pumps, the simplicity and ease of maintenance are the obviousadvantages.Afurtherstepavailableto improvebothlow‐liftandhigh‐liftsmall‐scalegroundwater irrigationistheuseofmini‐centre pivot systems by marginal and medium scale farmers in Asia and elsewhere. Currently USAmanufacturers12 are producing 27‐30m radius systems that cover around 0,25‐0,4ha. The motorized armrotationcanbesolarorbattery‐powered.Giventheeconomiesoflarge‐scalemanufacture,thewiderangeofsprinklerapplicationratesavailableandupto1,8mclearance,thesesystemscouldbeconsideredinsteadoffixedsprinklersystemsbeingproposedforcerealcropping.Combiningmini‐centreswiththeresearchintotheuse of tensiometers in flood irrigated rice fields in the Punjab State, India, (Polycarpou, 2010) shoulddemonstrateverysignificantwatersavings.

8.3 Easingthecommunitytechnologyload

Groundwaterdevelopmentsforsmall‐townsuppliesareafocalpointforthemanyMDGprojects.Usingsmall‐town water supply is shorthand to describe piped distribution schemes designed to deliver 20litres perpersons/dayviacommunalstandpipesand60litresperperson/daytohouseconnectionsforcommunitieswithpopulationsbetween2000and50000.Mostnewschemeswillfollowtheestablisheddevelopmentmodelofemploying engineering consultants for the design and supervision and using qualified contractors forconstruction.

While the schemes are frequently devised and negotiated by central or regional government, underdecentralization, commissioning and supervision of thework are undertaken at the district and communitylevel. Analysis of this approach suggests that donors could adopt a hybrid projectmodel as a possiblewayforward.Thisenvisagesadonor‐fundedtechnicalassistanceteamdesigningandsupervisingtheconstructionofthemoretechnicallydemandingsystemcomponents,theboreholedrillingcontract,theelectro‐mechanicalpumpingequipment,thetransmissionmainsandthestoragetank,andleavethecommunityandthedistrictofficestodesignandconstructionofthedistributionsystemfromthestoragetank.Regardingtheavailabilityofsparepartsandtechnicalskills,theadvantagesofequipmentstandardizationarewidelyrecognized(UNICEF,1999).Establishingasparesexchangesystemwherebrokenpartsareexchangedforguaranteedrefurbishedpartscanbeconsidered.Thisshouldreducethetimepumpsareoutofservice.

12SeeLindsayManufacturingwebsite(http://www.lindsaymanufacturing.com/green_center_pvt.asp).

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9. ProspectsforManagingGroundwaterDemandatthePointofAbstractionSeveral post‐commissioning, management models have been adopted for the operation and maintenancepublic borehole supplies. Under full decentralization, community water boards are established with fullresponsibility for revenue collection and handling of funds used to cover future scheme operation,maintenanceandexpansion.Thecommunitywaterboardshavetheoptiontoundertakethisworkdirectlyorusing private companies under contract. Other models include local government management throughregionalwatersupplyagenciesormorecentralizedgovernmentwatersupplyoperatorsresponsibleforallthesmalltownsinthecountry.Inaddition,moreeffortneedstobedirectedtocollectionoflong‐termgroundwaterleveldata.Itisinthecommunitywaterboards’interestthatlong‐termgroundwatermonitoringshouldbestartedassoonaspossibleinorderthatthelocalaquiferresponsetoabstractionisadequatelyrecorded.Suchinformationwillbeinvaluableshouldthetownabstractionexceedthesustainableyieldoftheaquifer.ItwillrevealanylongtermdeclinesinthegroundwaterlevelandfirmlyestablishwhetheritistheaquiferortheboreholethatisfailingasdiscussedbyRobins,DaviesandFarr(2012)whenconsideringMalawidata. Aweaklinkinallthesmalltownwatersupplymanagementandsustainabilityisthechronicnon‐paymentofwaterchargesbystateandparastatialinstitutions:Schools,clinicsandadvisoryofficesarealmostuniversallyin default. This is being addressed in Kenya, where in 2011 regional offices of the Water ResourcesManagementAuthorityareenforcingpaymentofwaterrightchargestotheextentthatschool,industrialandurbanwatersupplyboreholehavebeenshutdown.Ensuring the sustainability of small‐town water supplies where the schemes have only one abstractionboreholeraisestheissuecoveringpumpbreakdowns.Ifaninterimreplacementofexistinghand‐pumpswithsmallsubmersiblepumpshadbeenundertaken,theywouldprovidesomeformofsystembackup(Box7).Allmanagement models rely on sufficient trained staffing and funds plus a robust supply chain. To avoidcontinuing weakness in all these areas, pumping equipment suppliers should be encouraged to offeralternativelong‐termleasingagreements,coveringmaintenanceandreplacementoftheboreholepumpsandcontrolequipment.

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10. ProspectsforRegulatingEnergyEfficiencyandSmarter‘Skimming’inThinAquifersFor the large urban, industrial and irrigation users, themajormanufacturerswill continue to developmoreefficientpumpsandcontrolsystems.Themainareasfortechnicalimprovementfocusonoptimizingpumpingefficiencybybalancingthedischargepressureandyieldtomatchtherequiredoperatingperformance.Withinstalledpumpsusuallyover‐specifiedintermsofbothpumpingheadcapacityanddischarge,throttlingbacktheyieldhasbeenachievedbypartiallyclosingacontrolvalvetochokeofftheflow.Withrotodynamicpumps,this increases the system hydraulic losses and decreases the pumping efficiency.While thismethod is stillwidelyused,amoreefficient reductionof yield is achievedby fittingabypass valve thatallowspartof thepumpedflowtobereturneddowntheborehole.Thisachievesthedesireddropinyieldwithoutincreasingthehydrauliclosses.Bothmethodshavebeenwidelyusedtocontrolgroundwaterirrigationpumping.

Figure 16: Variable speed drive (VSD)options and generic electric motors(redrawn from Hydraulic Institute,Europump and US Department of Energy,2004).PWM = Pulse widthmodulation (modifiesAC frequency wave form by rapid on‐offswitching: also known as pulsed durationmodulation)PAM=Pulseamplitudemodulation

The introduction ofmechanical and electronic variable speed devices provides amore efficientmethod tocontrolboththeheadandyieldperformanceofdieselandelectricallypoweredrotodynamicpumps.Theyalsocanbeusedforpositive‐displacementpumpsasshownonFigure16.Theuseofshaft‐drivenprogress‐cavityVSDpumpscoupledtopressuretransducerscouldprovidethenecessarysteady‐statedrawdownconditionstocontrolthemovementofsalineinterfacesandfortheskimmingofthinaquifers.Trailscombiningthetwomainformsofrenewableenergy,windgeneratorsandsolarpowerwithVSDpumpsshouldenhancethecapacityandperformanceofthesesystems.Itisenvisagedthattheadvancesderivedfromthemanufacturers’researchanddevelopmentswillbeadaptedby the globalization of the pumpmanufacture to benefit the lower end of themarket. This should lead topumpsincorporatingsmartspeedcontrols,andwearmonitoringsensorswillbecomewidelyavailable.Apartfrom offering considerable energy savings, VSD motor technology should encourage continuous steadyoperationof submersiblepumps for both small townwater supplies and small‐scale low‐pressure irrigationapplications.Withthesubmersiblepumpsoperatingatcontrolledandreducedloadswillalsoextendthelifeofthepumpandmotorbearings.Thiswillalsoreducetheadditionalstart‐upandstoppingloadsthatcanshortenmotorlife.MosteconomicanalysesshowtheVSDtechnologytobecosteffective.

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The furtherefficiencygains fromcontinuousgroundwaterpumpingata reduced rateare: lowerwell lossesassociated with the lower entrance velocity; lower pumping heads; and a decrease in the flow‐backdisturbanceatthenaturalorartificialgravelpackwellscreen‐aquiferinterface.

11. TowardConvergenceofTechnology,SustainableUseandEmissionsReductionWhetherthescope,formsandsettingsforgovernanceexistatthepointofgroundwaterabstractionhastobeexaminedfromthepointofviewofthemainstakeholders–regulators,usersandsuppliers.Butregulationofgroundwaterabstractionisusuallyconfoundedbybeingaskedtoencourageaccessandvolumeononehand,while also judging when use becomes ‘unsustainable’. For instance the universally adopted MillenniumDeclaration to protect the common environment specifically charges regulators: “to stop the unsustainableexploitationofwaterresourcesbydevelopingwatermanagementstrategiesattheregional,nationalandlocallevels,whichpromotebothequitableaccessandadequatesupplies”.However, under inherited colonial legislation or deliberate policies, the regulators have been left with theintractablecommon‐law‐basedruleofcapturethatstillgivesfullgroundwateruserightstolandowners.Thisdefactoprivateownershipanddevelopmentofgroundwaterwillcontinuetoattractstate‐of‐the‐artdrillingandpumpingtechnologywiththenarrowobjectiveofprivateprofitwithoutreferencetothecommongoodobjectivesofmodernresourcedgovernance.

11.1 Re‐writingordelegatingthelegislativeframework

Establishingtheappropriatelevelfordefiningandenforcingalegislativeframeworkappearstoshowthatthestrongestandmosteffectivegovernanceregimesarebasedoncommunitymanagementgroups. InthedrierStatesofTexasandNewMexico,USA,theruleofcaptureremainsinforcebuttheresponsibilitiestoavirtualfulladherencetotheMillenniumDeclarationareforcedontotheGMDs.LookingattheresponsibilitiesplacedonGMDs in Texas,USA shows that the role of governanceon groundwater abstraction for irrigation is thesamewhetherdeclaredattheState,nationalordistrictlevelandcannotbeconvincinglyseparated.However,itappearslogicaltoassumethatthemorelocalthegovernancedecisionsaremadethemorereadilytheyareenforceable and revised as circumstances demand. For example, while the Texas State Legislature canmaintaintheyareadheringtothedeclarationofpropertyrightsundertheUSAConstitution,inpracticetheyaredelegatingthederogationoftheserightsdowntotheGMDlevel. Inmanycases,theseGMDsgofurthertheneighbouringstatesusingthepriorappropriationdoctrinetowaterrightsand,basedonthe“50%rule”,canincludetheTexanGMDsdictatingthesizeofpumpsthatalandownercaninstallandrevisinggroundwaterrights downwards to curb over‐abstraction. It is noteworthy that Texan landowners are not automaticallypermittedtoexportabstractedgroundwaterofftheirlands.ThiscontrastswithIndiawheretheruleofcaptureremainsanunchallenged,inalienablerightandlandownerscanprofitfromthesaleofgroundwater.Thishasgivenrisetoaprivatewatermarket.Further examples of users attempting to control groundwater usewithin their own sphere of influence aredescribedbyvanSteenbergenandShah(IWMI,2007b).Theseinitiativesarealmostalwayspromptedbyonethree factors–declininggroundwater levels,decliningyieldsor saline intrusion–orbyall three. Most self‐management examples are based on community or groundwater user committees that concentrate oncollective exploitationof the resource and apply restrictions on individual users andon the constructionofnewwells. Thisapproachcarries cost implicationsand,as farmingand landownershippatterns changeovertime, the communitymanagement systems are found to be unstable and break down. Inmany cases, theimpact of outside influences and developments such as a more centralized and subsidized provision ofirrigationwaterwillacceleratethedeclineinwhatwerepreviouslyworkablesolutions.InMexico,moreformalgroundwatercommitteeshavebeengivenresponsibilitiessimilartothosecoveredbytheGMDlegislationinTexas.Superficiallymanyoftheselocalinitiativesmirrorthetraditionalpracticesassetoutinthe“Alghani”.

11.2 Reappraisingthecultureofsubsidies

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Theregionalcontrasts intheapplicationofsubsidiesarealso instructive.AcrossAfrica,muchofthecolonialwaterresourcelegislationwasaimedatpromotingeconomicgrowth.Annualdevelopmentbudgetsincludedavariety of grants, rebates and subsidies for the borehole drilling for private individuals (e.g. ZambianDWIDReport of 1953). From the late 1960s, the Asian green revolution has seen amuchmore extensive use ofsubsidiesforgroundwaterirrigationtoachievefoodself‐sufficiencyandimproverurallivelihoods.Some subsidises are directly tied to groundwater abstraction and some indirectly impact on the pattern ofirrigation.Thedirectsubsidiescoverthedrillingoftubewells,provisionofpumpsandfixingenergycosts.Theindirectsubsidiescoverinputs–seedsandfertilizer–andoutputs–largelyguaranteedcropprices.Theyalsocan include tax breaks on capital investment and, more questionably, attempts to claim a groundwaterdepletionrebateinsomeStatesintheUSA.Often initially justifiable, subsidieshave frequentlybecomemultilayeredand indiscriminately applied to theextent that they canbecomecounterproductive from thepointof viewofboth theuser and resource. Theruralde‐electrificationacrosstheeasternIndianStatesrequiredtheintroductionofthedieselpumpsubsidiesandnowtheirrigatorsarepushingforsubsidizedfuelorafreeallowance.Thesteepworldwiderise ingrainpriceshasseensimplecultivationsubsidiesinNebraska,USA,ofsomeUSD500perhectarepurelyaddingtothealreadyhighprofitmarginsachievedduringthecurrentlyreactivatedspeculativegroundwaterirrigationsmarket.Essentially theuseofdirect subsidies togroundwater irrigation largelyundermines the legislators’ ability tocontroltheresourceusageunlesstheyarepreparedtotakethepotentiallypoliticallydamagingdecisionstorealign the systemata later stage. There isoften strong social resistance to the inevitable readjustmentorwithdrawalofanysubsidy.TheGujaratJyotirgramscheme,however,doesshowthatsuchadjustmentscanbemade if there arepositiveoutcomes for theusers.AcrossPeninsular India, on theotherhand, attempts toreplay the rural de‐electrification through neglect may prove politically difficult or more likely politicallyunacceptable.

11.3 Equitableredistributionandsharingoftheresource

AfurtherareathatrequireslegislativeoversightistheresourcegovernanceattachedtothelongtermleasingofStateorrequisitionedcommunity landsforagriculturaldevelopmenttoforeignsovereignor internationalspeculativefunds.Ifgroundwaterisacceptedasacommongood,suchrequisitionshavetobeassessedonauser‐motivebasisratherthansolelyonaprofitmotive. Inmanycases, investmentsare likelytoprovetobeshorttermandenvironmentallydamagingand, inthe longterm,are likelytohave lastingadverseeconomicimpacts on indigenous farmers or pastoralists. The Nebraskan Sandhills speculative developments (SeeSection6.4)suggestalikelygrowthinsocialresistance.Thecoreofgroundwaterscienceandlegislationevolvedfromconflictsthatarosefromthepracticeknownintheearlyoilfielddevelopmentsas“offsetting”whenalandownerdrilledasuccessfuloilwellnearhispropertyboundary,hisneighbourrespondedbydrillinganotheroilwellonhisownpropertyascloseaspossibletothesuccessfulwell.Asaresult,theeffectivedoublingoftheoilabstractionimpactedontheyieldofthefirstwell.IntheUSA,whereaproducingoilfieldwascontrolledbyseveraloilfieldcompaniesorlandowners,theoil‐welloperators rapidly became aware of the damage that well offsetting did to the reservoir and the resultingreductionintheircollectiveoilrecovery.Thiswaspredominatelycausedbytheup‐coningofsalineformationwaterfrombelowthatbrokeupthecontinuityoftheoil layer.Inresponsetothisproblemtheoiloperatorsadoptedacontrolmodelbasedontheconceptofresourceunitizationwhereeachoperatorreceivedaprioragreedquotaoftheoverallfieldproduction.ThepracticeofoffsettingwasrepeatedbygroundwaterirrigatorsandwasdealtwithinthefirstrevisionoftheNebraska groundwater legislation, passed in 1957. This was based on the view that groundwater was acommon‐pooled resource and the legislation included the registration of irrigation wells and placed aminimum 200m well spacing. The subtle difference between the unitization development model and thecommon‐pooled resource is that the unitization model is centred on managing the in‐situ pore fluids tomaximizetheirrecoveryforthebenefitofalldevelopers,whereasthecommon‐pooledmodelconcentrateson

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the distribution of groundwater abstraction rights. The basic features of the resource unitization modelcomparedtothecommon‐pooledresourcemodelareshownonTable10.Whiletherearenopublishedexamplesofunitizationbeingusedtoregulategroundwaterabstraction,Jarvis,2011, reports that theprinciplesarebeingapplied inUtah,USA,where landowners, facingaState‐enforcedreduction ingroundwaterabstraction,voluntarilypooled theirgroundwaterabstraction rightsand formeda“unit”– theEscalanteValleyWaterUsersAssociation– to share the reduction inavailablegroundwater. Asimilarschemewasalsoinitiatedintheover‐stressedgroundwaterbasinsoftheMilfordFlatareainwesternUtah.Inareaswheremany landholdingsare lessthanahectare, interferencebetweenwaterwells isunavoidable,andinmostcases,whenmoreefficientpumpsbecameavailable,manyproductivewellsdriedupastheconesof depression from the deeper wells dewatered the unconfined aquifers. While the prior appropriationdoctrinegoverningwaterrightsspecificallytargetedthisproblem,theadoptionofeffectivesolutionsrequiresagoodunderstandingof theresourcesavailable. Inareasofdeliberategroundwaterover‐abstraction, ithasbeenfoundthatwaterrightsassignedunderthepriorappropriationdoctrineneedtobeperiodicallyadjustedtomaintaintheequitableallocationoftheresource.In thenear future, therewillbe theneed toaddress thegovernanceof thepublicandprivategroundwatermarkets as they are very open to abuse. Closemonitoring and auditingwill be required to ensure that noentrenched monopolies develop and that profit margins are not exploitative. In the long run, however,groundwatermarketscouldprovesociallyunstableanddivisive,unlessanewgovernancemodelisdevelopedalongtheunitizationdevelopmentlines,assuggestedbyJarvis(2011),wherethebenefitsoftheresourcearejointlyshared.Principleorattribute Unitization Common‐poolresourcesConceptualdevelopment

1890–1930s 1960–90s

•Voluntaryunits•Compulsory/conservationunits•Geographicunits

Boundaries

•Geologicunits

Clearlydefineboundariesfortheuserpoolandtheresourcedomain

•Pre‐unitagreementsatappraisal•Unitizationagreementatpre‐development

Rules

•Redeterminationduringdevelopment

Appropriationrulesdevelopedforlocalconditionsandprovisionalrulesdevelopedforresourcemaintenance

•Collectivelybeneficial•Allowssharingofdevelopmentinfrastructure

Collectiveaction

•Avoidsunnecessarywellsandinfrastructureoccurringunderthecompetitiveruleofcapture

Collective‐choicearrangementsdevelopedbytheresourceusers

•Usespressuremaintenanceonthereservoir•Usesbesttechnicalorengineeringinformation

Monitoring

•Providesfoundationtocarryoutasecondaryrecoveryprogramme

Monitoringprogrammesdevelopedfortheresource

Sanctions •Givesallownersofrightsinthecommonreservoirafairshareoftheproduction

Graduatedsanctionsdevelopedfor“violators”oftherules

•Pre‐unitagreement•Industry‐standardagreements

Disputeresolution

•Redeterminationprocess

Conflict‐managementschemesdeveloped

Rightsofregimes •Canbedevelopedthroughvoluntaryorgovernment‐mandatedcompulsory

Rightsoforganizedenvironmentalregimesrespectedbyexternal

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action authorities

•VoluntarytocompulsoryAdministration•Otheralternatives(forexample,soledevelopment,partitioneddevelopment,fixedequity,buy‐out,orassetswaps)

Nestedenterprisesusedtoadministermanagement

Table10:Designattributesandprinciplesofunitizationversuscommon‐poolresources(fromJarvis,2011).Beyondequitable sharingof the resource,usersareentitled to relyon thedurabilityandefficiencyof theirpumpingequipment.This shouldbeprotectedbygovernmentaland industrial standards.Usersalso requiresecureaccesstoelectricitysuppliesorfuelandtosparepartsandrepairfacilities.Achievingtheseobjectivesrequires the attention of national regulatory bodies, as well as strong political will. The regulation andgovernanceofpumpmanufacturersandsuppliersisgenerallytieddirectlytoindustryorganizationsoperatingtoandwithingovernmentguidelines,asseenintheroleofEuropumpinadvisingitsmembersoncompliancewith theEUdirectives. Theseguidelines and regulations cover all aspectsofmanufacturedgoods, includingmaterials,construction,efficiencyandsafetyaspects.Thenuancesof localgovernance incommunally‐ownedor ‐managedgroundwaterabstractionsystemshavebeenwidelyanalysedandsolutionsadoptedastheresultofcollectivecommunitydecisionareseenassound.However, several minor problems occur, particularly where small diesel‐powered pumps are collectivelyshared amongst several users who tend to sidestep equipmentmaintenance.Wider adoption of equitablegroundwaterrightslegislationwillbecentraltorealigningtheroleofgroundwaterirrigationabstractionintothefuture.Maintainingsocialcohesionwilldrivethisneedandhighlighttheurgencyforaction.Where the distribution and quality of groundwater data and the level of understanding of the resource isweak,assigned‐prioritywaterrightslegislationasappliedinWyoming,USA,isanappropriatedefaultmodel.Applyingthisdoctrinetomotor‐poweredpumpingrightswillgivedrinkingwaterforhumansandanimalsthehighest priority followedbymunicipal supplies. It also categorizes irrigation as a non‐preferred use.Havingstoodthetestoftime,allhand‐andanimal‐drawnwatercanbeexemptfromcontrol.Thiswillencouragetheapplication of low technological solutions to rural water supplies and small‐scale irrigation and can beextended to all groundwater developments, irrespective of the uses, through the implementation of theincrementallysteppeddevelopmentmodel(Box7)developedbythe1970’sWorldBankTechnologyAdvisoryGroup(SoundersandWarford,1976).Ifdonorsandfundingagentsfollowthisapproach,thenewruralwatersupplieswillbemorewidelyandevenlyspread. This will remove one of the complaints about the selective nature of existing developmentprogrammes. It isalsomoresuitable for theexecutionunderthedecentralizationplanswith limitedtrainedmanpower, given that skills and training can evolve as the level of technology applied also advancesincrementally.

11.4 Futuretechnologicaldevelopments

Thetrendsintheadoptionofmorepreciseandenergy‐efficientpumpingtechnologiesindicatethattheglobalstock of groundwater pumpingmechanisms can be expected to expand but that the structure will remainconstant. Low‐lift and low‐input devices will still be needed and will service low‐intensity abstractions.However, the adoption of higher capacity and higher reliability technology for high‐value productive uses,includingmunicipalwatersupply,industryandagricultureislikelytofurtherconcentrateintensiveabstractioninaquifersthatarealreadyatrisk.Unlessrestrictedbyexternalcontrols,pastexperiencehasdemonstratedthatanyefficiencygainsachievedingroundwaterpumpingforirrigationareusuallytakenupbyanexpansionofthecultivatedareathatislikelytobecoupledwithnegativegroundwatertrends. Inaddition,whereexternally‐funded large‐scalegroundwaterirrigationprojectsareimplementedintraditionalgroundwaterirrigationcommunities,theycanoftenleadtoseasonal gluts of agricultural produce that depress the local prices unless steps are taken to widen themarketingareaortofeedalocalfood‐processingsector.

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Searchingforfuturetechnologicaladvancesinpumpingtechnologyshowsthepracticalusesoftwomaterialsare set to be the focus of long term electrical developments, usage and loss reduction: these aresuperconductorsandgraphene.At roomtemperature thenormalelectrical resistance lossesareat least20percent. Initially, superconductors required cooling metals to close to zero degrees Kelvin (‐273,150 C).Currently superconductors thatwork at around 700 Kelvin (‐203,150C) are available. This temperature is 70Kelvinlessthantheboilingpointofliquidnitrogen(770K).Samplesofsuperconductivematerialgenerateverystrongmagneticfields,soifcommercially‐producedsuperconductormaterialsaredeveloped,electricmotorswillbesmaller,moreefficientandmorepowerful13.Further approaches to superconductivity research include experiments with low‐resistance, graphenenanotubes, but the main graphene applications of immediate interest are grapheme photovoltaics thatpromisetoprovideamuchcheapersolutiontosolarpowergeneration.Otherdevelopmentsalreadyinusearethesupercapacitorstoreplacebatteriesforelectricalstorage.Currentlytheirstoragecapacityisonlyaround50percentofthatofbatteriesbuttheycanberechargedinamatterofminutesandhavearecyclingefficiencyofover95percent.Futuredevelopmentsinthisfieldarelikelytofindwideapplicationinthestorageofsolarandwindpower.ThesupercapacitorsarealreadyinpilotuseforelectrictrainsandtramsinChina.

12. ConclusionsWithin the remit, namely, “Social adoption of groundwater pumping technology and the development ofgroundwatercultures:governanceatthepointofabstraction”,aconsistentpatternisidentifiedwhereearlyinthedevelopmentcycle,therapidandunrestrainedtakeupofalladvancesinpumpingtechnologyhasleadtothe overexploitation of the resource base. This in turn required has prompted governments to introducelegislation to regulate groundwater abstraction. However, these initiatives have been constrained by animperfectunderstandingofthegroundwateroccurrences.Priortothemiddleofthe19thcentury,thelowintensityofgroundwaterabstractionhadmarginalimpactonthe groundwater resources and, as abstraction points were constructed and owned by individuals orcommunities,theirrightstothegroundwaterwerelargelyguaranteedbycommonlaw.However, advances in groundwater pumping technology from the mid 19th century that helped underpinworldwidepopulationandeconomicgrowthsoonbegantohaveunforeseenconsequences.By1900,declininggroundwaterlevelsweredrivinguppumpingcostsandreducingsurfacewaterstreamflows.Investigationoftheseproblemsformedthefocusofearlyhydrogeologicalstudieswhileparallelstudiesofthepotenthealthrisksfromgroundwatercontaminationresultedintheintroductionofthefirstgroundwaterlegislation.Withinthespectrumofgroundwateruses,technologyhasprovidedacontinuouslyimprovingchoiceofmorepowerfulandefficientpumpsandthedevelopmentofshaftturbineandsubmersiblepumpsthroughoutthe20thcentury supported the worldwide growth of groundwater‐based irrigation. Initially, and in places stillunregulated, this irrigation abstraction has beenmainly responsible for themost heavily depleted aquifers.Thenecessarylegislationtocontroloverdevelopmentoftheresourcehasarguablylaggedbehindtherateofdepletion.Therequirementsofabstractionwellownersarethesecurity,reliabilityandeconomicsoftheirgroundwatersupply:where security covers rights to abstract, the sustainability of the resource in termsof quantity and

13Theenhancedmagneticpropertiesof superconductors (theMeissnereffect)couldbeused toprovidehighlyefficientmagneticenergystorage.In2011,anumberofresearchersclaimedtohaveachievedsuperconductivityincomplexcoppercompoundsatroomtemperatureandifsuccessfulsuchenhancedelectro‐magneticpropertieswillenablepumpmotorstoruncoolerandlowertheinherentenergylossesassociatedwiththerotor‐statorgap.Higherrotationspeedswillalsobepossibleandenablehighervanetipvelocitiestobeachievedinsmallerdiameterimpellers.Thevanetipvelocitycontrolstheavailablepumpinghead.Currentlythemaximumheadforasingleimpellerrotodynamicpumpisaround1000m.

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quality;reliabilitycoverstherobustnessofthepumpingequipmentandpowersourceand;economicsincludesthecapitalinvestment,operationandmaintenancecosts.Meetingthesepumpowners’requirementsshowstheroleforgovernmentsistoestablishsoundwaterrightslegislationtoensurethesustainabilityofthegroundwatersupplyandtosetminimumefficiencyandqualitystandards for the pump manufacturers and to ensure ready access to appropriate energy supplies. Whilegovernmentshavealesserroleintheeconomicsofpumpingasthisshouldbedictatedbymarketforces,theyareseentobeconsiderablydistortedforpoliticalpurposesbyavarietyofsubsidises.Afurtherimportantroleforgovernmentsisencouragingresearchandinnovationnotjusttoregulatepatternsofintensiveabstractionforthecommongoodbutalsotoensureequalaccesstothetechnologyadvancestothebenefitallusers.Thisisparticularapplicabletoensuringmoreefficientwaterusageintheirrigationsector.Theresearchincludesnotonlyintomappingandquantifyingtheavailablegroundwaterresourcesbutequallyimportanttosoundgovernanceofgroundwaterabstractionistherequirementforconstantmonitoringofthegroundwaterabstraction,levelsandquality.On the legislative side, the unanimous adoption by the 193 UN member countries of 2000 MillenniumDeclaration on the environment has marked a turning point as both national and international attitudesrecognized the need for compliance and for realignment and enforcement of groundwater resourcesmanagement, which can only be achieved by the introduction of equitable water rights. However,implementationoflegislationcoveringgroundwaterabstractionforirrigationhasproven,andwillstillprove,particularly problematic as inmany countries thepolitical emphasis still remainson trying tomeet farmingcommunitydemandsforasecuresupplyofgroundwaterfromacontinuallydecliningresource.

AcronymsAD AnnoDomini

Asl Abovesealevel

BC BeforeChrist

BESCOM BangaloreElectricitySupplyCompany,India

Bgl Belowgroundlevel

BP BeforePresent

CFD ComputationalFluidDynamicssoftware

CILSS ComitépermanentInter‐EtatsdeLuttecontrelaSécheressedansleSahel

CGWB CentralGroundwaterBoardofIndia

CWSA GhanaianCommunityWaterandSanitationAgency

DEFRA DepartmentforEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairs

DfID UKDepartmentforInternationalDevelopment

DRUM USAIDDistributionReform,UpgradesandManagementproject

DWA ZambianDepartmentofWaterAffairs

DWID ZambianDepartmentofWaterandIrrigationDevelopment

EU EuropeanUnion

FAO FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUN

GCD GroundwaterConservationDistrict

GHG GreenhouseGasemissions

GMD GroundwaterManagementDistrict

IWMI InternationalWaterManagementInstitute

IDWSSD InternationalDrinking‐WaterSupplyandSanitationDecade

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JMP WHO/UNICEFJointMonitoringProgram

MDG MillenniumDevelopmentGoal

NGO Non‐GovernmentalOrganization

NORAD NorwegianAgencyforDevelopmentCooperation

NSSO NationalSampleSurveyOrganizationofIndia

PPP Public‐PrivatePartnership

PWM PulseWidthModulationtechnology

SGS SociétéGénéraledeSurveillance

SPV SolarPhotovoltaicwaterpumps

UK UnitedKingdom

UN UnitedNations

UNDESA UnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs

UNICEF UnitedNationsChildren'sFund

uPVC Unplasticizedpolyvinylchloride

USA UnitedStatesofAmerica

USAID USAgencyforInternationalDevelopment

USGS USGeologicalSurvey

VLOM Village‐LevelOperationandMaintenance

VSD VariableSpeedDrive

WENEXA USAIDWater‐EnergyNexusActivity

WHO WorldHealthOrganization

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