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• Tosustainitseconomicandsocialdevelopment,Bangladeshrequiresasoundholisticdevelopmentapproachtodrivesustainableandinclusivegrowthacrossregions.
• Thedevelopmentofeconomiccorridorsisaneffectivepolicyinstrumentintegratingindustry,infrastructure,urbanservices,andinstitutionalandregulatoryframework.
• TheenvisagedSouthwestBangladeshEconomicCorridor(SWBEC)isalignedwiththegovernment’sSeventhFive-YearPlanandisexpectedtobringhugeeconomicgains.
• TheSWBECwillinvolveprojectsacrossmultiplesectorsaimedatprovidingarobustinfrastructureframework.
• Asoundinstitutionalframeworkwillprovideinter-agencycoordinationinplanning,prioritizing,anddevelopingeconomiccorridorprojects.
• Inadoptingeconomiccorridorsasadevelopmentstrategy,itisvitalthatthegovernmentshowstrongpoliticalwilltoensurethetimelyimplementationofcorridorprojects.
ADBBRIEFSNO. 104
DECEMBER 2018
KEY POINTS Realizing the Potential of Bangladesh through Economic Corridor Development
ISBN978-92-9261-422-5(print)ISBN978-92-9261-423-2(electronic)ISSN2071-7202(print)ISSN2218-2675(electronic)PublicationStockNo.BRF189712-2DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/BRF189712-2
ECONOmIC CORRIDOR DEvElOPmENT: A POlICY FOR INTEGRATED GROWTH Havingsurpassedthelowermiddle-incomethresholdinJuly2015,Bangladeshseekstobuildontheeconomicgainsithasreapedoverthepastdecadestoachievesustainablegrowthandattainuppermiddle-incomestatus.Therefore,itispertinentforBangladeshtofocusoninfrastructure,logistics,researchanddevelopment,andindustrialdiversificationtoremaincompetitiveinachangingeconomiclandscape.Thecountryneedstoimplementpolicyreformstoimprovethebusinessenvironment,reducethecostofdoingbusiness,anddiversifyitsindustrialbase.Exploitingthefullpotentialofthecountry’svariousregionsandfindingnewsourcesofgrowthwillbecriticalforBangladeshtoembarkonandsustainahighergrowthtrajectory.
Thus,Bangladeshneedsaholisticdevelopmentstrategysuchaseconomiccorridordevelopmenttodrivestructuraltransformationandregionallybalanceddevelopment.Economiccorridordevelopmentisanappropriateintegrativestrategyforthecountryasitisproventobeaneffectivetooltoenableindustrialproliferation,createjobs,upgradeinfrastructure,aligninfrastructuredevelopmentwithurbanandsocialagglomerations,unifydomesticmarkets,andlinkproductioncenterswithglobalvaluechains.EconomiccorridorswoulddecentralizedevelopmentawayfromDhakaandChattogram,createjobs,andcreatemarketsinregionslaggingbehind.
Thedevelopmentagendaunderlyingthecurrentdevelopmentplans,includingtheSeventhFive-YearPlanandPerspectivePlan,isconsistentwiththeeconomiccorridordevelopmentapproach—rapideconomicgrowthandpovertyreduction,employmentgeneration,broad-basedstrategyofinclusivenessandasustainabledevelopmentpathwaywithappropriatemeasuresforprotectionoftheenvironment.
Soon Chan HongSeniorEconomistSouthAsiaDepartmentAsianDevelopmentBank
ADBBRIEFSNO.104
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INDuSTRIAlIzING THE SOuTHWEST REGION THROuGH ECONOmIC CORRIDOR DEvElOPmENT
TheeffectsofeconomicdevelopmentneedtoencompasstheentirelengthandbreadthofBangladesh.ThesouthwestregionofBangladesh,forexample,lagsbehindthecountry’sotherregions,buthasmuchpotentialfordevelopment.Khulna,thethird-largestcityinBangladesh,aswellasseveraltradegatewaysarelocatedinthesouthwestregion.Khulnaholdsgreatpotentialforattractinginvestmentsandtheregionisseenasanewgrowthcenter.Economiczoneswereestablishedintheregionandseveralmoreareplannedtoattractnewinvestmentsandrevitalizetheindustries.
Withadequateinvestmentininfrastructureandhumancapital,andsupportivepoliciesandinstitutions,thesouthwestregionwillnotonlycatchupwiththerestofthecountry,butcanalsocontributesignificantlytothecountry’soveralldevelopment.Torealizetheregion’spotential,ananalyticworkforthedevelopmentofSouthwestBangladeshEconomicCorridor(SWBEC)wasundertaken,asthefirstphaseofBangladeshEconomicCorridordevelopment.TheSWBECisenvisagedfromJashoreinthesouthwestregiontothecapitalcityofDhaka,andwillextendtoseveralkeygateways.
Theenvisagedeconomiccorridorcanhelpdiversifytheexportbasketbyfacilitatingparticipationinexistingandprospectiveindustries’valuechains.Thesuccessofready-madegarments(RMG)nowneedstobeexpandedtootherindustries.TheSWBECComprehensiveDevelopmentPlan(CDP)recommends14majorindustriesforpromotion:foodprocessing(fishandcrustaceans),foodprocessing(agro-based),RMG,bicycles,automobiles,shipbuilding,pharmaceuticals,footwear,leather-basedproducts,furniture,ceramics,glass,plasticproducts,andtireindustries.Gradually,toincreasetheoverallvaluegenerationwithinthecountry,Bangladeshwillhavetolooktowardincreasingtheshareofdomesticvalueaddition,byexpandingalongthevaluechainofthese14industriestowardthemorelucrativepartsofthevaluechain,i.e.,designingandmarketing,throughbackwardandforwardintegration.
HOW WIll BANGlADESH BENEFIT FROm ECONOmIC CORRIDOR DEvElOPmENT?
TheCDPhighlightsthatwithawell-coordinatedimplementationoftheproposedcorridorunderthebusiness-inducedscenario,totaloutputforthesouthwestregionby2050isestimatedtoreach$148 billion(Figure1).Thisis3.3timeshigherthantheestimateunderthebusiness-as-usualscenario.Employmentintheregionisseentoincreaseto35millionby2050,orthreetimestheestimateunderthebusiness-as-usualscenario(Figure2).Ofthis,around25millionofadditionalemploymentisprojectedtobegeneratedfromcorridor-inducedactivities.Theboosttohumancapital,technologicallevels,infrastructure,andbackwardlinkageswillenablethecountrytodiversifyintohigher-valueproductsandretainitsoverallcompetitivenessinthecurrentexportbasket.
Figure 1: Corridor Industrial Output, Business-As-usual vs. Business-Induced Scenarios
160140120100
80604020
-
$ bi
llion
2017 2022 2025 2030 2040 2050
BAU BIS
BAU=business-as-usual,BIS=business-inducedscenario.
Note:Theoutputpresentedonlyrepresentsoutputofthe14primaryindustriesselectedforpromotionintheeconomiccorridor.Thestudyemphasizesthatnon-inclusionofotherpotentialsectorsintheshortlistdoesnotinanywayreflectableakfuturefortheminBangladesh.Thepurposebehindtheshortlistingistofocusandconcentratethelimitedresourcesavailableonfewersectors.
Source:ADB. Southwest Bangladesh Economic Corridor Comprehensive Development Plan.Unpublished.
Figure 2: Total Employment Generation from the Corridor Region, Business-As-usual vs.
Business-Induced Scenarios
40353025201510
50
mill
ion
peop
le
2017 2022
3 3 6 6 7 8 811
21
11
35
9
2025 2030 2040 2050
BAU BIS
BAU=business-as-usual,BIS=business-inducedscenario.
Source:ADB.Southwest Bangladesh Economic Corridor Comprehensive Development Plan.Unpublished.
RealizingthePotentialofBangladeshthroughEconomicCorridorDevelopment
3
SOuTHWEST BANGlADESH ECONOmIC CORRIDOR’S ROlE IN ADvANCING REGIONAl INTEGRATION
Economiccorridorsareviewedasmajordeterminantsofeconomicintegration.TheeconomiccorridorwillnotonlyimprovetransportgatewaysandconnectivitywithinBangladesh,butalsohasthepotentialtoenhancethecountry’sroleaslandbridgebetweenSouthAsiaviaIndiaandSoutheastAsiaviaMyanmar.Themaintransporttrunk,withextensionstokeygatewayssuchasMonglaPort,PayraPort,andBenapoleLandPort,willformagridnetworkthatwilldrivedevelopmentinthesouthwestsectionofBangladeshandinfluenceneighboringregions.PayraPortcanserveastheregionalgatewaytoMyanmar,whileMonglaPortcanserveasthegatewayforthelandlockedstatesofBhutanandNepal,andeasternstatesofIndia.
ThiswillensureintegrationwithinternationalcorridorsastheSWBECisco-alignedwithinternationaltransportcorridorprojectsundertheSouthAsiaSubregionalEconomicCooperation,theBayofBengalInitiativeforMulti-SectoralTechnicalandEconomicCooperation,andtheSouthAsianAssociationforRegionalCooperation.
Therefore,theSWBECisseentoserveasablueprintforenhancedconnectivityandincreasedcompetitivenessinSouthAsia.Itwillnotonlyincreaseintraregionaltradeandinvestment,butalsoplayapivotalroleinintegratingeconomiesacrosstheregion.
ECONOmIC CORRIDOR DEvElOPmENT AND INTEGRATED INFRASTRuCTuRE DEvElOPmENT STRATEGY
Torealizesuchexpansion,thedevelopmentofindustrialagglomerationneedstobesupportedbyanintegratedstrategytodeveloprobustinfrastructure,whichwillbenefitnotonlythesouthwestregion,butalsotheentirecountry.Thefinalobjectiveistohavewell-functioningindustrialclusterssupportedbyurbanagglomerationswithadequatesocialandphysicalinfrastructure,whichinturnwillbeconnectedtohighlyefficienttradegatewaysandmarketsbymeansofanefficientmultimodaltransportnetwork.
TheCDPrecommendsawidevarietyofprojectsspreadacrossvarioussectors(Figure3)andaimstoaddresstheneedsoftheeconomiccorridorcomponents—theindustrialsector,urbanagglomeration,andtradeandtransportcorridor.Anefficienttransportandlogisticsinfrastructure,consideredasabackboneforsupportingindustrialagglomeration,hastobedevelopedinthecorridorregiontoattractcentersofproductionandconsumption,andfacilitategreateraccesstomarkets.TheCDPestimatesthatinvestmentsintransformationalinfrastructurecoveringthesevarioussectorsamountingtoapproximately$140billioninthenext30yearshavetoberealized.
Figure 3: Sectors with Economic Corridor Projects
Source:ADB.Southwest Bangladesh Economic Corridor Comprehensive Development Plan.Unpublished.
Airports landports Power sector
Water supply
Solid waste management
Education infrastructure
Technical institutions
Healthcare infrastructureDrainage
Roads
Railways
Waterways (sea and inland)
ADBBRIEFSNO.104
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INSTITuTIONAl mECHANISm FOR SuCCESSFul ECONOmIC CORRIDOR DEvElOPmENT
Thedevelopmentofeconomiccorridorsandrelatedinfrastructurewillinvolverigorouspolicycoordinationamongvariousministriesandmeticulousimplementationofvariousprojectsatthecentralandlocaladministrativelevels.Thus,asoundinstitutionalandgovernanceframeworkisnecessarytoensureintegratedplanning,development,andmanagementoftheeconomiccorridorwith(i)physicalandindustrialinfrastructure,(ii)urbanandsocialamenitiesforattractingaskilledworkforce,and(iii)aninvestmentpromotionandfacilitationmechanism.Asavitalaspectofeconomiccorridordevelopment,aninstitutionalandregulatoryframeworkwilladdresskeysoftelementsofaneffectivecorridordevelopment(Figure4).
Typically,multiplegovernmentagenciesdischargethesefunctionsand,intheabsenceofanappropriateinstitutionalmechanismforcoordination,canresultinissuespertainingtoplanning,coordination,prioritization,andfinancing.Forinstance,limitedsynergiesbetweenregionaldevelopmentplansandcorridordevelopmentplanswouldimpactlandacquisitionandconsolidation,aswellasplanningofurbancentersandamenitiesinthevicinityofindustrialhubs.
Thedevelopmentandmanagementofeconomiccorridorsrequiresefficientcoordinationandatime-boundaddressingofoutstandingissues.Globalexperiencesincorridordevelopmentunderscoretheestablishmentofadedicatedinstitutionorinstitutionsatthecorridorand/ornodelevelforplanning,conceptualization,development,andmonitoringofcorridorandnodeprojects.Asidefromestablishingacorridormanagementauthority,integratedplanninganddevelopmentof“industrialtownships”withurban,social,andindustrialamenitiesrequiresamultitierinstitutionalframeworkinvolvingallconcernedgovernmentagencies,withoversightbyahigh-rankingauthorityatthecentralandregionallevels.
lEARNING FROm OTHERS: DEvElOPING ECONOmIC CORRIDORS IN INDIA
Indiaadoptedeconomiccorridordevelopmentasakeystrategytoboostthemanufacturingsector.Higherproductivityanddynamisminthecountry’smanufacturingsectorisexpectedtofast-trackinclusiveandsustainableeconomicgrowth.ThegovernmentlaunchedtheMakeinIndiainitiativeasanintegratedgrowthstrategyanchoredonthecreationofeconomiccorridorsacrossvariousregionsinthecountrythatwillserveasthebackboneofagloballycompetitivemanufacturingsector.Thesecorridorsincludethe(i)Delhi–MumbaiIndustrialCorridor,(ii)Bengaluru–MumbaiEconomicCorridor,(iii)Chennai–BengaluruIndustrialCorridor,(iv)EastCoastEconomicCorridor,and(v)Amritsar–KolkataIndustrialCorridor.
InIndia,thedevelopmentoftheindustrialcorridorsfallsundertheaegisoftheNationalIndustrialCorridorDevelopmentandImplementationTrust(NICDIT),anapexbodyundertheadministrativecontroloftheDepartmentofIndustrialPolicyandPromotion. TheNICDITistaskedtocoordinate,monitor,andunifydevelopmentoftheindustrialcorridors.TheformationoftheNICDITisexpectedtoenablethedevelopmentandimplementationofindustrialcorridorprojectsacrossIndiabybringinginaholisticplanninganddevelopmentapproach.
TheNICDIT’sboardoftrusteesischairedbythesecretaryoftheDepartmentofIndustrialPolicyandPromotion.Theboardalsoincludessecretariesofthedepartmentsofexpenditure,economicaffairs,roadtransportandhighways,andshipping,apartfromthechairmanoftheRailwayBoardandthechiefexecutiveoftheNationalInstitutionforTransforming Indiaasmembers.
WhiletheNICDITistaskedwithoversightresponsibilityindevelopingthecountry’sindustrialcorridors,anodalagencyisalsohighlyessentialtocoordinatethemasterplanpreparationandinfrastructuredevelopmentintheindustrialnodes.Inthisregard,theLegislative
Figure 4: Key Functions Associated with Economic Corridor Development
Source:ADB.Southwest Bangladesh Economic Corridor Comprehensive Development Plan.Unpublished.
• Marketing of the corridor to potential investors and processing of registrations or licenses for investors
Developing master plans
Developing trunk infrastructure
Developing urban infrastructure
Developing industrial infrastructure
Acquiring land
Investment Promotion and Facilitation
• Focus on land zoning and specification of land end-use to ensure planned industrial and urban development
• Acquisition or pooling of land to support development of requisite industrial and urban infrastructure
• Development of supporting and connectivity infrastructure outside the identified zones
• Development of urban infrastructure in the urban centers
• Development of industrial infrastructure in the identified zones
RealizingthePotentialofBangladeshthroughEconomicCorridorDevelopment
5
AssemblyofIndiapassedtheAndhraPradeshIndustrialCorridorDevelopmentBill(LABillNo.27of2017)tohelptheDepartmentofIndustriestoexpeditethetransformationoftheindustrialnodes inthestate.
TheAndhraPradeshIndustrialCorridorDevelopmentAuthority(APICDA)shallprovidefortheestablishment,planning,development,operation,maintenance,management,andregulationofallindustrialcorridorsinthestateofAndhraPradesh.OntopoftheAPICDA’sagendaisthepreparationofamasterplanforeachnodeandtheirperipheries,promotionofprivatesectorparticipation,andraisingoffundsfromthemarkets.Othercriticalfunctionsoftheauthorityinclude:
• acquiring,procuring,holding,andallottinglandwithinthenodeandperipheries;
• developingprojectsandcoordinatingwithconcerneddepartmentsforthefasterexecutionofvariousprojects;
• ensuringprovisionofsufficientamenities,infrastructurefacilities,publicandcivicfacilities,andmakingsustainablearrangementsforadequatemaintenancethereofwithinthenode,peripheralareas,andinter-nodeareasandinfrastructurefacilities,whichwillincluderoads,watersupply,power,commonfacilitycenters,andeffluenttreatmentfacilities,andothers;
• providingmunicipalservicesandurbantransportfacilitieswithinthenodes;
• ensuringglobalstandardsofeaseofdoingbusiness;and• marketingtheindustrialcorridorsintheglobalarena.
Theauthorityshallconsistoftheboard,anexecutivecommittee,andthecommissioner.ThechiefministerofAndhraPradeshshallbethechairpersonoftheboard,andthesecretaryoftheIndustriesandCommerceDepartmentshallbemember-secretary.
Theapprovedbillalsospecifiesthefollowing:
• powersofthegovernmentwithregardtothedeclaration,delineation,andjurisdictionofindustrialcorridorsandnodes;
• establishmentoftheauthority,theboard,andtheexecutivecommittee,includingthecomposition,powers,obligations,andfunctionsthereof;
• controlandregulationinindustrialcorridors;• offensesandprosecution(incasesofunauthorizedschemesor
projects);• usercharges,fees,andrecoveryofdues;and• stategovernment’ssupportanddelegationofpowers.
TheestablishmentoftheAPICDAisexpectedtogiveimpetustofast-trackthedevelopmentoftheinfrastructureintheindustrialnodeswithintheVisakhapatnam–ChennaiandChennai–Bengaluruindustrialcorridors.
RECOmmENDATIONS FOR INSTITuTIONAl FRAmEWORK FOR THE BANGlADESH ECONOmIC CORRIDOR
Developingeconomiccorridorsinvolvestheexecutionofconcretestrategiesandactionplans.Prioritizingandcoordinatingimplementationofthenecessaryphysical,urban,andindustrialinfrastructurealongthecorridorrequireintegratedindustrial–urbanagglomerationdevelopment.Asidefrominfrastructuredevelopment,thecoordinationofrelateddevelopmentinitiativesalonganeconomiccorridorbecomesmorediffcultasmoreareasgetinvolved,asthereisawiderangeofinstitutionalfactorstoconsider.
Bangladeshisalreadyrampingupthedevelopmentofeconomiczoneswithintheproposedcorridor.Asacomplementarydevelopmentstrategy,economiccorridordevelopmentwillprovidetheinstitutionalandlegalframeworkforplanning,developing,andmanagingindustrialareas.However,inBangladesh,themandateforfunctionsinvolvingplanninganddevelopmentforurbanandindustrialinfrastructureandfacilitiesrestswithdifferentministriesanddepartments,acommonsituationinmostdevelopingcountries(Figure5).
TheSWBECCDPunderscorestheimportanceofasoundinstitutionalandgovernanceframework,whichisnecessarytofacilitateeffectivepolicycoordinationandprojectimplementationandcreatearegulatoryenvironmentthatwillpromoteeaseofdoingbusiness.Consideringthevariousagenciesinvolvedinawiderangeoffunctionsindevelopingeconomiccorridors,functionalinstitutionalarrangementsandsoundregulatoryprovisionswillempowerappropriateentitiestodevelopintegratedplansforcoordinatedindustrialandurbandevelopmentintheidentifiednodesandforessentialtrunkinfrastructure.AswiththeNICDITandtheAPICDAinIndia,aninstitutionalsetupappropriatefortheconditionsinBangladeshwouldhavetobeestablishedforthedevelopmentoftheSWBEC.
TheSWBECCDPrecommendsaninstitutionalframeworkthatwillprovidethevitalcoordinationinplanning,prioritizing,anddevelopingcorridorinfrastructureprojectsamonggovernmentministriesandagenciestoensureoptimumdeploymentofavailableresourcesandharmonizationinprojectcommissioning.Acentral-levelagencymustbedulyempoweredandtaskedwiththeoveralldevelopmentandmanagementofthecorridoranditsindustrialnodes.Thiscentralcorridorplanninganddevelopmentagencyischargedwithawiderangeoffunctions,includingmasterplanningoftheentirecorridorinfluencearea(synergizingurbanandindustrialplanningwhiletakingcognizanceofexistingmasterplans);monitoringofallinfrastructuredevelopment;andinvestmentpromotionforthecorridoramongpotentialinvestors,alongwithinvestmentfacilitationthroughoperationalizingeaseofdoingbusinessinitiatives.
ADBBRIEFSNO.104
6
Thisinstitutionalframeworkalsohastobecomplementedbyregulatoryreformsthatwillfosteraconduciveinvestmentclimateensuringtimely,objective,andtransparentapprovals;andconsistencyinpoliciesandimplementation.
STRONG POlITICAl COmmITmENT
Arobustinstitutionalframeworkthatwillfacilitatemultisectoralcoordinationneedstobeunderpinnedbystrongpoliticalcommitmentandownershipoftheeconomiccorridorprogram.Thesuccessorfailureofaneconomiccorridordevelopmentstrategyislargelyinfluencedbypoliticalwillandparticipationoftheprivatesector.AfocusedvisionandsustainedpoliticalwillfromleadersinboththepublicandprivatesectorarekeytoachievingthefullbenefitsoftheSWBEC.
ItisimportantthattheGovernmentofBangladeshdemonstrateitscommitmenttoundertakeeconomiccorridordevelopment.ThedevelopmentofeconomiccorridorsinBangladeshneedstobeidentifiedasadevelopmentstrategyinthegovernment’supcomingnationaldevelopmentplans,i.e.,EighthFive-YearPlan,PerspectivePlan2041,povertyreductionstrategy,urbanandregionaldevelopmentplans,andothers.Thiswillensureproperandtimelyimplementationofplannedandrecommendedprogramsandprojectstoimproveefficiencyandproductivityofthedifferentsectorsoftheeconomy.
Giventhisvisionandpoliticalwill,Bangladeshcanuseeconomiccorridorstoovercomedevelopmentchallengesandtapthehugeopportunities.Theimplementationofeconomiccorridorprojectswillsynergizeanddirectthecollectiveenergiesofthevarioussectorstowardtheattainmentofnationalgoalsofanindustrializedanddiversifiedeconomy,leadingtoinclusiveandsustainablegrowth.
Figure 5: Key Stakeholders for Corridor Development in Bangladesh
Source:ADB.Southwest Bangladesh Economic Corridor Comprehensive Development Plan.Unpublished.
Developing master plans
Developing trunk infrastructure
Developing urban infrastructure
Developing industrial infrastructure
Acquiring land
Private Sector: Infrastructure development and/or management (public–private partnerships, special purpose vehicles, and others)
1. Ministry of Housing and Public Works
2. Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development, and Cooperatives
3. Bangladesh Economic Zone Authority
1. Central Government2. Bangladesh Economic
Zone Authority
1. Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development, and Cooperatives
2. Ministry of Power, Energy, and Mineral Resources
3. Ministry of Rural Transport and Bridges
4. Ministry of Railways5. Ministry of Shipping6. Ministry of Civil
Aviation and Tourism
1. Ministry of Housing and Public Works
2. Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development, and Cooperatives
3. Ministry of Power, Energy, and Mineral Resources
4. Ministry of Road Transport and Bridges
5. Bangladesh Economic Zone Authority, Bangladesh Export Processing Zone Authority, and Bangladesh Investment Development Authority
1. Ministry of Power, Energy, and Mineral Resources
2. Ministry of Road Transport and Bridges
3. Bangladesh Economic Zone Authority, Bangladesh Export Processing Zone Authority, and Bangladesh Investment Development Authority
RealizingthePotentialofBangladeshthroughEconomicCorridorDevelopment
7
REFERENCES:AsianDevelopmentBank.Southwest Bangladesh Economic Corridor
Comprehensive Development Plan.Unpublished.
GovernmentofIndia.2017.LABillNo.27of2017.The Andhra Pradesh GazetteNo.27.21November.
GovernmentofIndia,DepartmentofIndustrialPolicyandPromotion.2016.EstablishmentofNationalIndustrialCorridorDevelopmentandImplementationTrust.F.No.11/1/2016I-C(Order).22December.
S.Mitraetal.2016. Scaling New Heights: Vizag–Chennai Industrial Corridor, India’s First Coastal Corridor.Manila:AsianDevelopmentBank.
R.Vickerman.2002.RestructuringofTransportationNetworks.InG.AtalikandM.M.Fischer,eds.Regional Development Reconsidered.Berlin:Springer.
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