330 CHEMISTRY AND INDUSTRY Aprll 15,1027

At, the same time we cannot think that the average chernistiwe have writ much of the average chemist these latter days, but me hope we arc not overworking the term-would take Irinclly to a holiday “ with just eiiougli serious work thrown in to ltecp tlic timc from draggjng.” Hnve we, after d I , spolccn critically of tlie Aniericnn Institute of Chemistry 1 The teinpcrnineiit of the Anierican is quite different from that of liis English cousin, \vho could never bring liiinsclf happily to instal a dictaphone in liis bedroom, Lut t,lierc is inuch else behind our rcmnrlis. Chemical orgnnisations in this countq have much to learn from the American Chemical Society, which, representing nearly 20,000 chemists, speaks with nutliority in matters iiationnl. Our efforts for ninny years must he in the direction of bringing about consolidation \r-itliin the ranks of British chemists. American clieinists have the American Clieniical Society and may sinilc contentedly upon the new Institute. We have not yet got Chemistry IIonsc.

The Utility of the Electron Oiic evening recently an enterprising gentleman

walked into the editorial sanetnm--wIiy i t is called a sanctum, we do not how-and placed n polished cnsc upon tlic editorial table. Alter a fow words of esplnna- tion, tlie young gentleinnu proceeded to turn a few knobs and, behold, to our surprise, a voice issued from the case and iuiormed us that it was Daventry calling, to be replaced after a few minutes by the gutteral \vanling ‘ I tlclitiing,” evidently from Berlin, and, a little later, by a lhrisinn wlio told us what it was tlint we csnic froin hearing.” We lind previously conceived wirclcs reception as an operation usually cnrried on amidst a tangle of wires, but the Rees-Mace hIanufacturing Company, who were responsible for tlie deinonstration which Iiad charmed our ears, place everything that is required in a neat case which can be carried about with ease. thi inspection of tlie interior of tlie npparatur suggested t h t sonic nice problems lind been solved in the disposition of tlic components aiid rcniinded us that broadcasting OIVCS niorc to chemibiry tlinn i t has yet acknowledged. X’UW copper wires and other products of tlic metnllurgist, insulating inntorials such as ebonite, bnkclitc and SO 011, colloidal compositions of high electrica! resistance, special niagiietic materials, and, of course, the tlierniionic valve, all tliesc tire priuinrily due to the applications of chemistry. The themiionic valve or “ tube,” as i t is known in the United Stntcs, presselits iiitcrcstiiig possibilities for the ~iieasiireinent of the conductivity of electrolytes, for clcctronictric titmtions, tho analysis of gases and siinilar pliysico-chcmicniI npplicntions. We do not liliow if sucli applic:rtionfi of tlie valve are coiiiuioii practice ; iicrlinps one of our readers will write nud tell us about them. It, is a11 amazing tliing to be able, by incans of ii siuall bos without. external coniicxions of any kind, to licnr people spenking and pleasant music lrom great distonces. It has been described 11s unprofitable to gain the I V ~ I O ~ O

world niid lose 011~’s O\\W SOU^. But the oficr of acccss to u goodly part of Europe, siniply by cspciding tliirty- five guineas ou n Roes-itlace Bet, is a very strong temptation.

NITROCELLULOSE LACQUERS AND ENAMELS By HARVEY S. CARLICK

13~7 the treatmcnt of cellnlose-containiiig material with nitric acid in tlie prcmice of sulpliuric acid, n substance containing from 10 to 13‘,>; of nitrogen c;1n be obtained. That contnining from 11.2 to l?,.dl‘%, nitrogen is chiirac- tcriscd by high sohibility in nuinerous orgnnic soIvcIIts, and is hiown as pyroxylin. It fornis the basis for most

appearing on the market. Gun cotton is n nitroc.cllulose of from 12.4 to 13.On/, nitrogen coiiteiit, and is mr~cli less soluble. Nitrocellulove containing 10.2 t o 11 -2q/, nitrogen is also lcss soluble tlian pyrosylin, but is, however, soluble in anhydrous etliyl :ilcolrol.

A solution of nitrocellulose on ev:iporntion lctivcs n hard, transparent and lustrous film, which, Iio~~cvcr, is somewhat brittle, tlioiigli by the incorporation of certain “ plasticiscrs ” this diliiculty is overcome. Tlie film so obtained does not possess tlie liigli sliecn ol a spirit or oil varnish, but this defect may be reinedicd by dissolving in the nitrocclliilose fioliition one or more gums or rrsins. Such a solutiou yields a film whicli is cqunl i n finish to that obtained from the highest class of spirit or oil vnrnish, but is much Iiardcr rind more resistant to water and war. Clear transpnrent solutions of nitrocellulose are called lacquers. By tlie incorporatioii of finely- g o m ~ l pigtiicnts, opnque enamels are made \vliicli nrc now rivalling, and in inaiiy cases replaci~ig, the older paints nnd enamels made lip in an oil medium.

The foundations of this iiidustry ivcrc lniil in 1881, when Stevens int~roduccil nniyl ncetnte as II SGlVent for ilitrocelli~losc. Previous solvents, sucli as ether-alcoliol mistures aiid wood spirit, gave, OII evaporation, distorted and often cloudy films. By the iise of nniyl acetate these initial difficulties were overconip, but tlie rapid growth of the industry Iecl to a shortage of this solvent, and senrch was made €or .other and clieaper solvents. Further mention will be made ot these Inter.

Tho nitrocclliilose manufactured until it very short time ngo was such that only t i few ounces coiild be dissolved in a gallon of solvent if the solution was not to bc too viscous for use. Film from sucli solutioiis \yore very thin, nnd to obtain :L rensonabla protective coatiiig a considerable uunibrr of ripplications wus necessary. This led to tIieir use only as tiunish prcvcn- tatires on silvrr and br3e.q. Research 11ns Ictl, however, to the production, witbin the Insb few ycnra, of ‘‘ low- viRcosity cottons,” that ifi, of nitrocellulose w l h h will dissolve in largo quantitim and still give solutions fluid euough to apply.

The p a t ndvantagc possessed by the nitroccllulosc products is the rapidity with ivhicli they dry, roc11 coat t&iiig, on an nverage, about linlf an Iionr. Once tlic solvent has evnporatccl, n strible film reiiinius, as tliere is 110 cliemicnl rrctioii to set in ti1Icli ns occurs with the older p i n t s elnploying clvying oils nnil tiirpeiitiiie. Apart from tliis, it hiis bcen demonstratccl that fnr fewer applicntions nre necessary. A high-grade uuton~obile ifi reputed to Bo given sonic twenty or inore conts of ciiniiicl bJore reacliing a sutisfrrctory condition. A iiiasiiriuni of six conts of a ~iitrocclliilosc cnnincl would produce a

of the so-cidlcil “ ~ ~ I I U I O S C ” Incqiicrs a11d C I I ~ I I I ~ ~ S IIOIV

dprll15, 1925 CEEWSTRY AND INDUBTRY 337

finish tlio equal of the otlier in glos, and superior in resistnncc to weathering, scratching, or action of pchol. It. will also be foimd that washing and cleaning actually increase the lustre.

Nitrocellulose products arc bcing used 1)y the butomo- bile industry a d by furniture makers, both for wood and metal, whilst a third field is now bcing ciiltivatcd in interior dccorrttion niid home usc.

ISQItl~DIlGKTS

Nitrocelldose Cotton fibre, too short to use for spinning or other niill

wrtste, carefully cleancd, is the raw material for tlic production ol iiitrocellulose. This is treated with mixed nitric and sulplinric aci& under carefully controlled conditioiis, tlic propert.ics of tlie rcsultaut product bcing particnlnrly dependant on acid concentrathi and tlic tinie tiiid temperature of reaction.

Tlic nitrated cotton, stilt rescmbling tlie original niaterin! in appenr;ince, is thoroughly \vnslied till frec from all acid, puIpe(1, lightly centrilugcd or pressed, nnrl tlie remaining water removed by displiiccmcnt with nlcoliol. The iiit.rnccIlnlose is usiinlly ninrlrctcd cont,riiiiing 30y0 of alcohol, hut tlierc is a tendency for tlic nctnal lncqucr mnnufncturers to order tlieir mntcrial nlrcndy dissolved in a specificd solvnnt.

Until compnmtively recently tlic nitroccllulosc inanu- fiicturcd was t8Iint laioirn a s ” Iiiglt viscosity cotton ” ; that is to say, only a. siiinll amount could lie dissolved wit,lioiit producing n solution too viscous to nsc. llccent rcsc:irch lias slio~rii t,lint trcatmcnt with certain coin- poiitids or Iicnting under pressurc will rciiiovc this objection, ant1 solutions are now made contriining ns inncli :is 30 0%. of nitrocellulosc pcr giillon, as compared with a 1iiiixiinuni of f i oz. of tlic oltler type of product. This perinits lihiis of good thickiiess to be tlcpositxxl n t eu ch n ppli cnt,ion.

I t is usual t,o judge tlic solubility of nitroccllulosc by ibs viscosity i i i 81 specified solveat. Acctonh is the solvent, nsiinlly chosen iis standard, nltliough solutions in this liquid arc apt to give viscosities iiiucli lowcr tl ir ir i those obtriincd in coinnierciul prnctice.

8cvcr;il iiicnns of dcterinining viscosities tire nviiilable, but t.hc simplest niid most wiclcly used is the falling splicrc nictliotl. In this inctliod tlic viscosity is juilgcd by t.lic time t,rikeii for it stiiiirliiril steel ball to fiill through 11 dcfinitc colu~iiii of tlic solution. Coinnicrcinl nitro- cclluloscs vary i n viscosity b t h w i i fitirly wide liinits, dcpcnding cntirclp upon the conditions of tlicir inanu- fnctnre. Iligli-grnde enmicls nnd wood Incqiiers rcquire ii nitrocellulose of tlic lowest viscosity. For chcnper products i i liiglicr viscosity iiiiitcriril sufliccs, wliilst n bronzing liquid mist contain IL iiitroccllulosc of high viscosity i t i order to kccp the bronze powtlcr i n sus1)cu- sion.

Solveiak und di1iteiit.s .4 nit~roccllulosc filiii is forincd siinply by ilepositioii

from solut,ion as tlic solvent cvriporates. No osiclrition or polymeri~nt.ion liiis to t ikc pliico i n order thnt i t niiiy be produced. Tlic time tnkcti to obtnin sncli i i film, tllercforc, tlcpciids upon tlic rritu of eviiporiitioii of the solution. !I!Inifi, i 11 gencriil, tile lower tliu boiling point

the more quickly tlie surface coated will be in a condi- tion for use. This is not strictly true, because rate of evaporation does not depend only upon the boiling- point of a liquid, although the boiling-point can usually fairly accurately be tnlceii as nn indication thcreof.

Although i t would sccm advantageous to use ns low boiling a solvciit as possible, diflicultics arc introduccd here, becnusc, owing to rapid cvaporation, the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere is lowercd to such an extent that the dew-point is rcnchcd, aud inoisturc is dcpositcd upon tlie film. This auscs “ blushing ”-that is, precipitation of the nitrocellulose, with tlic conscqucnt formation of a film lucking in Iiardness and iicllicrciice. To a low-boiling solvent i s tlierefore iiddcd :t high-boiling solvent to slow down the rate of cvaporiitioli sufliciently to prevent the occur- rence of blusliing.

Solvents for nitrocellulosc are comparatively expen- sivc, nnd i t is prncticnlly impossible under the varied conditions of use to atteiiipt to recover them. They arc thercforc almost invariably diluted with certain non-solvents. A tliluent must be perlcctly iniscible with the solvents employed, niid must not cause precipitation of tlie nitrocellulose, citlicr on riddition or n t any stngc during tlie evriponition of tlic solution. Only tliree non- solveiits linve found niiy extensive use in tlie industry- nniiiely, benzenc, toluciic, and light pctroleuin spirit. Low-boiling solvcnts arc tliliitetl with bcuzcuc and high- boiling solvents witli tolueuc. If ti low-boiling solvent were diluted with II high-boiling non-so1vent, tlie former would evaporate more quickly rind ” solvent blush ” would occur-t1i:tt is, ~~rccipitrttioti of nitrocellulost~ through csccss of noii-solvcnt.

No o m solvent lias been found ideal in its boiling- point, rntc of cvnporation, solvciit power and so on ; it is therefore almost iuvariitbly tlic rule to usc u illixturc of liquids. Jhperiencc has sliown that the smoother the distillntion curvc of such n mixture tlic better tlie film obtained therefrom. A light, suitably cut petroleum spirit is tlicrcforc nn excellent nou-solvent t o use in order t o obtriin thc correct boiling range. Tcclitiical solvents, however, usually contaiii at least traces of water, or are liable to itbsorb water, tinct \\.hen using a ootrolcum spirit grcat cnrc has to be exercised in order not to o~~ tn i i i n turbidity.

01ie otlicr poiiit that should be mentioned is tlint in tiny serics of liquids tlirit niny bc solvents-such ns ketoiics or esters-thc lowcst members arc always thc bcst solvents. Increase in niolecular weight dccrcnses

Since iiitrocellrdosc docs not foriii n true solution, i t is impossible to obtniii any saturation point by which to compare various solvents. Addition of more nitro- ccllulosc inercly iiicrcascs the viscosity of n solution. It is tlicrcforc usud to coinpnrc tlic solvent ~ O \ V C C of liquids by dissolving in 100 C.C. of each 5 grains of tlic same nitrocellulose, at n teniperiittlre of 20” or 25’ C., aud noting tlic timouut of u piuticalnr non-solvcnt rcqiiircd just to produce ~ir~cil)i tatio~i.

Of t he many liquids proposed (1s nitrocellulose solvents, thoso used to niiy grcat extent by the industry tire ethyl, butyl mid nmyl acetates, iicctone, methyl ethyl ketone, ~ o o d spirit, nnd atliyl lactate. 13utyl propionnte,

the aolvellt power.

338 CHEMISTRY AND INDUSTRY Aprll IG, 1027

dincctonc nlcohol, nnd licxaliii acctnte arc also used, but to a smallcr extent. Alcohols also always find a plncc in lacquer formula?. tYliiht not true soIvents, since the puirc substnnccs only C ~ U S C gclntinisntion of nitroccllu- lose, thc nlcoliols cannot bc clnssed as incrt diluents, sincc tlic prcscncc of sniall quantities of 0 t h bodics wilt convert them into powcrful solvcnts.

JIct,hyl nlcohoI in tlic form of wood spirit mas one OF thc solvcnts first used for nitrocclliilosc lnequcrs, nnil it owed its solvcnt properties to its contcnt of acctone nnd otlicr impuritics. Ethyl alcohol, ns nlrenily n1c11- tioncd, is used for dcliydrating nitroccllulose, wliicli is often marketed containing 30% of this body, Aiiliydrous ethyl nlcoliol hns recently bccn csperimentcd with in the Unitcd Stntcs in conjunction with a nitroccllulosc of sliglitly lomcr nitrogen content. Esccllciit results nrc rcportcd t o havc bccn obtaincd. Scvcrd solvcnt mixturcs arc also on the ~iindict tlicrc, consistiag of

ester. Duty1 hlcohol is now prod uccd in large quantitics by n fermentation proccss, and 1iii.s IargcIy rcplaced amp1 nlcoliol in Incqucrs. It is nn csccilciit I)lcncling ngeiit., and forms a constant lioiling mixture with water distilling n t 92'' 9. - Pusel oil or pure nmyl nlcoliol is nlso often indiitlcd i n lacquer formulw. Tile presence of n higher boiling nlcohd proniotcs tlic iorniiitioii of ii

nitroccllulosc solution of good flowing propcrt,ies, giving n smooth and lustroe9 film. Tlic alcolinls, too, lire tlie bcst solvcnts for ninny of thc gums and rcsiris xsed, and are often incluiled €or that rcnson.

One rcmnrknblo fcntiire nhout, tlic nitroccllulosc 1ncqr;cr iniliiatry is the fact t l i n t the scnrdi for suitable solvcnts and plnsticiacrs hn!: lcd YO tlic coiiimcrcinl production of iiumcroiis coinpounds prcvioudy rcgnrded ns purely laboratory oiiriositics.

Some of tlic clien~~ec Incquers cmploy scrap celluloid ns the nit~oecllaloee btise in solutions containing acetone as t h e principal solvent. Sucli Incquers do not prorlocc as satisfactory film ns thosc obtaincd whcn R Iiigh- elnas low-viscosity nitrocellulosc is used. TIic rcason is the wrin.biIity of tlic raw material. This nlwnys contnins cnmphor also, wliicli slowly volntiliscs froiii the dry film and lcnvcs i t porous. Solutions contnining lnrgc am0unt.s of ncctonc nlso tend to give mnttc surfnccs, nnd are inorc proiic to absorb iiioisturc tliau ie dcsirnblc. l!he bcst films nrc obtnincd 1)y the use of iinliydrous mn.tcrinls.

Plasliciscrs A film of nitrocclliilosc ulonc is inclincd to be brittle,

nnd wlien subjcetcd to strain is apt to arch nwny from its support. This dcfcct is ovcrcomc by tlic nddition of R

" plnsticiscr " to tho lncqiicr. Thc film thus obtained is flcxiblc niicl ndliesivc.

The f i s t compound used of any importnncc in this rcspcct WILS camphor. It wns fiiirly cffcctivc, but in time it cvnporiited from tho film and loft it porous nnd brittlc. Castor oil and liiisecd oils-both raw niid boiled-rcplnccd cninphor, nnd still find considcrnblc USC, inore especially in tho elicapcr lncqucrs nnd cuniiiels. Castor oil is nliiiost itivnrinbly n constitucnt of leirtlicr dopes, niid acroplnne dopcs usually contuiii i t too.

Liiisccd oil is iiot popiilnr as n plnsticiser, owing to its

anhydrous cthyl alcoliol plus n small ~~crcent* 'I g e fll nn

drying qualities, mliilst tlic smell and propcrty of tcndiiig to make tlic film too soft are against cnstor oil. High- class lacquers and ciiiiinels utilise for this purpose high- boiling solvents, dinost always an cstcr, thc most uscful of which are triphciiyl and tricresyl phosphntcs, butyl stenrate, butyl tnrtarntc, dibutyl plithnlntc, nncl triacetin. Bciizyl alcohol is also occnsionnlly used, inore cspccinlly in this country.

Giwu and resins Practically all nitrocellulosc lacqucrs and ennmcls

now made contain somc rcsin. The rcasoii is twofold. Tlic resin incrcnscs tlic gloss and ndhcsioii of the coating, and sccondly, since tlic ncldition of resin to the nitro- eelltilosc solution does not apprccinbly raise the viscosity, it allows tlic production of n solution of grcnter totnl solid contcnt.

The gums and resins used arc oftcn not complctcly solublc i n thc solvciits of tlic lacquers. It is usual, thcreforc, to dissolvc :IS much as possiblc in n pn.rticulnr liquid, scp:irating tlic clcnr liquor, and cithcr adding t l int to tlic nitroccllulosc solution, or clsc cvapornting to obtain tlic resin and rcdissolving tl int with tlic nitro- ccllulosc.

Tlic gums nnd rcsins iitiliscd are usually tliosc uscd i n tlic spirit vnniisli triiile, but in order to obtniu n. transpnrcnt film, hard and dumble, and of high nnd permanent gloss, i t is invariably ncocssnry to nsc :L inixturc of two or iiiorc. Thc iiiost wiclely-uscd rcsins arc slicllnc, mastic, diiniiiinr, copnl n l ~ d sandnrnc. Synthetic resins, sucli as cstcr gum-madc by cstcrifying rosin with glycerin-nnd albertol-n product of tho bnkelitc typc--liavc also found favour.

Piy)mtk rmd dyes Of tlic innuincrablc pigments niid clycs nvnilable, only

tliosc of the highest toile and masimum covcring power havc bccn nscd. I'igmcnts must be cstrcniely fincly ground in ordcr thnt t h y mny rcninin i n suspension. Soiuc Incqucrs contniii low-viscosity nitroccllulosc, in ordcr to obtnin tho ninxiniiini totnl solid coiitcnt, blcndcd with a sninll qunntity of Iiiglicr visc0sit.y nitro- ccllulosc in ordcr t o obtain sufficient hocly to support tlic? pigmciit nnd Itcop i t in suspcnsion.

tlpplicctlioit Uiitil quitc rccciitly the only inctliod in usc for tliu

application of nitroccllulosc Iiicqiicrs nnd cnwiicls wiis spraying. Recent improvements, however, liiivc led to the production of tlicso iiinterinls in n condition pcrfcctly suitablc for brushing. Tlic solvcnts uscd i n this cnsu niust bc such tlint,, whilst suffioicut tiine is allowed for tlic brush mnrks to sinootli out, tlicy must iiot Lc so rapid in tlicir notion of dissolving nitroccllulosc t h t t h y cut tlirough prcviously npplied coiLts.

Wliilst the coiisuniption of nitroccllulosc lncqucrs rwid cnnnictls iii this country is still small compnrcd with thnt in tlic Uiiitctl Stiitcs, thcrc is no rcason, i1ow t h y linvc obtained n good footing, uvliy tiicy should not ti3 rnpidly ~IICZCRW in popiilarity. Such bcing tlic ciLsc', cnormouR qiuiiiti tics of solvcnts will be rcquired, niid will Icad to thc growtli of a ncw braricli of tlic cliemicd industry in this country,

April l:, 1027 CHEMISTRY AND INDUSTRY 339

SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY OFFICIAL NOTICES

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING, JULY 4 to 8,1927 In nccordnnce witli tlic provisions of By-law ti&

notice is liereby givcii that thc Annual Gcnernl Nceting of thc Society of Cheinicnl Industry will bc hcld in the Dcbating Hall, Tlic Union, Univcrsi ty of Edinburgh, 011

Tuesday, July 5, 1027, at 10 a.m. A prdiminnry progrnminc appcnrcd on page 265 of

C~ENTSTRY AS]) TNDUSTRY, for Blnrcli 25, 1037, but n inorc detailed programme will bc issued shortly. . In nccordancc with the provisions of By-law 23, notice is hereby given tlint the following mcnibcrs of Council retire from tlicir rcspectire ofliccs a t tlic fortlicoming Annual Gcnernl AIccting :-

Blr. Francis €1. Carr, C.B.E., Preside)it ; Dr. E. Prnnk- land Armstrong, F.R.S., Professor J. W. IEinclilcy, Professor J. C. Pliilip, P.R.S., and Sir Ricliard Tlirelfnll, K.B.E., P.R.S., Vice-l'rcsside~~s ; BIr. IV. A. S. Calder, Mr. W. JI. Coleman, Dr. IVillinin Cullcn, nnil BIr. J.

Members Elected April 8, 1927 Ihlwr, licginnld. 71, First Arciiuc, Ahnor Pnrk, TJonclon, E. 12.

13uning, Ilr. IIiirrn L., nciisine-~risinllntic X.N.P.M., Post,hiis

Burninn, Asel S., I<. Patcntvcrlcct, \'nlhnlli~rngcn, 136,

Clmllengcr, Dr. Izrcdcrick, Chemistry Dept., Tlic Univcrsit,y,

Dnisli, Arthur J., Tlic Gns \\'arks, ?1lonkbridgc, York.

15wjng, Honicr I-[., 54, Xcw Brontl Strcct, London, E.C.2.

Iloclistndtcr, Irving, 227, Front Strcct, NCW York City, N.Y.,

I-Iydc, A. T., c/o AIessrs. \Vnltcr B:iltcr L% Co., Ltcl., Doc-

Lning, John B., R:iilwny IIotcl, Hnddington, N.13. Brewery

Myers, T. Hcnry, Thc Croft, Stainton llontl, Mnrton, Yorks.

Nicliolls, Frcdcrick, Rcdliciigli Gnsworks, Giitculiciid-on-'L5.nc.

Pupil Gns Rngiiiccr.

G U , liottcrdn~n. Assis1:int Aliinngcr.

Stoclcholni. Uyxdircktor.

illuiiclicstcr. Lecturer.

Chemist.

Clicmienl Engincer.

U.S.A. Clieniical 13nginccr.

clicstcr, Blnss., U.S.A.

Clicniis t.

Fncl Clicniist.

Clicniist.

340 CHEMSTRY AND INDUSTRY Aprll lli, 1027

to liold in November, tlic committee decided to give up tlic project.

Tlie totnl mcnibcrship for I026 was 14s ; 4 werc trans- ferred to otlier sections, 0 resigned, and tlierc wcrc 2 dentlis, lcnving 133, to wllich sliorrld bc added 5 trans- ferred froin otlier sections mid 4 iiew incinbers, making n totnl nicinbersliip of 142. The section hnd lost two luenibers tltrongh de:ith-i”. P. .I. Anclcrson, Librarian to thc Univcrsity 01 hbcrdcen, arid 3Ir. itlIin Cottrell. Mr. Cottrell wns n Incnibcr of Ooininittcc, and was cvcr ready nncl willing to give liis rible services to promote the wclfnrc 01 the Section nIid tlic Society ns :i wliolc.

The niiinber of nssocintcs on tlic rcgistcr was less tlian last ycnr owing to sevcral obtaining nppointincnts out- side the nren of the section. A. sinall sub-comniittec Iind bccii fornicd to ltccp i n touch with nssocintcs nnd to bring the nctivities of the section before the notice of students in Edinburgh.

BIr. W. A. l\rillianis, who lins been chairman of the scctioii for the last two years, retires from tlic chairinmi- ship a t tlic ciicl of tlic prcscnt scssion. Tlic scction o\ws n great rlcnl to N c . Rillinins for liis unfailing interest in its mlfnre aud for his able pnrticipntioii iii all its activities.

CALENDAR OF FORTHCOMING EVENTS Apr. 21. INSTJTUTION OF W I N O AND RfETALLUROY, Burling-

ton House, Piccndilly, W.1. Annunl Mcctiug. Apr. 22 FARADA~~ Socrmy. O.i$ord ~ i c c l i i c g . Unircrsity

and 23. JIuscuin, Osforcl. Gcncral discussion 011 “ Tlic thcory of strong clcctrolytcs.” On April 3-7, from 3.30 to G.0 pin., nnd G A G to 7.15 p.ni., Part T.- ‘6 AIobiIitiw of ions,” will be givcn, including tlic following papers :-(1) Introductory paper. Bcport on conductivity of strong cloctrolytes in clilutc solutions, by 1’. Dcbye. Con~n~~inicntctl by 15. HUcltcl. (2) licport on a rcvision of tlic contluc. tivity tlicory, by L. Onsriger. (3) Rcfmctomctric evidence for tlic existence of undissocintctl niolc- culcs nnd complex ions in solutions of strong clcctrolytcs, by K. Fnjnns. (4) Elcctrolytic transforcncc of wntcr, truo trnusfercnco nunibrrs, ionic niobilitics and water slicnth of the ions, by H. Romy. (6) Ionic inobilitice in non-aqueous solvcnts, by 11. Ulicli. (G) Tlic mobilities of the elcmcntnry ions in inctliyl alcohol, by €1. €Inrtlcy nnd H. R. linikcs. (7) Notes on tho Dobyc-Huckcl thcory, by €1. Rsrtley and R. 1’. Bcll. (6) Thc ionisntion of some typical strong clcctrolytcs, by 1). A. blnoInnos. (9) A thcrn~odynninicnl study of tlio systeni lcnrl chloritlo-potnsuiuin chloridc-wntcr a t 28” C., by A. J. Allwnnd and L. J. Bnrrngc. (10) Note on tlie occurrcncc of points of inflcsioll in tlie conccntrntion-sapour prcssurc curve of nqucous solutions of cortniii clcctrolytcq, by A. J. Allmnnd. 011 April 23, from 9.30 to 11 n.tiI., ant1 11.30 to 1 p.ni., nnd 2.15 to 3.45 pm., I’m% 11.- “Activity,” will l o lidd when tho following papers will be given :-(1) Tntrodnotory papor. On tho activity of olcotrolysis, by J. N. J3rijnsted. (2) Stroiig clcctrolytcs in rolntioli to statisticnl thcory, LI pnrticiilnr tho plinso intcgrnlH of Gibbs, by 12. H. Fou4or. (3) Noto on tho theory of 1)ebyo itutl HUckcl, by U. L. CIInpninn. (4) Anoninlica in tho tlicory of soliitions of strong clcctrolytcs, by N. Ujorruni. (6 ) RIixcd Eiolutioiis of clcotrolytcs nncl non-clcctrolyta, by G. Scntchnrd. (a) On tllc

thermoclynnnlio properties of n fcw concentrntcd snlt solutions, by H. S. Hnrncd. (7) The nctivity of zinc chloride in conccntrnted solution, 11y F. Foxton nnd W. J. Sliutt. (8) Influence of salts on solubility in non-:iqi~cous solvcnts, by C. A. Kraus. (I)) Thc usc of nmnlgnin clcctrodcs for dctcrinining nctivitica in inctliyl nlcoliol, by J. H. Wolfciidcn, C. P. Wright, N. L. lbss-Knuc, nnd P. S. Bncldcy. (10) The sigiificnnco of thc activity cocfficicnt, by Mcrle Ibndnll. (11) Methods of calculation of nctivity cocfficiont, by Merlc ltnndoll. (12) Eleotroclicniicnl propcrties of non- aqueous solution of strong electrolytes, by J. R. Pnrtington. (13) Tlic definition nncl clinrnctcristics of strong clcctrolytcs, by T. h1. Jmvry. (14) ‘I’lic activity of hydrogen ion in niiscd solvcnts ns :L function of cnvironinciit, by H. Niilct.

iipr. 26. IXSTITUTIOX OF MECIMNICAL ENOINEERS. Grudtc- u ! d Sectiati, I;oitdoti. Storcy’s Gntc, 8t. James’s Pnrks S.IV.1, nt 7 p.m. “ Pnrccl nncl pnckngc convoying plant,” by H. W. Cadinnn.

Apr. 25. SOCIETY OF C r r ~ x r c a ~ ISDUSTI~Y. Cliemiccrt X’ngimwhg G‘ro~p. Additionnl Rlccting at the Anicricnn Film Co., Lttl., 69-91, IVarclour Street. London, W.1, nt 8 p.m. “ Pcrmt~ncnt moulding inncliincs for ciist iron,” by Prof. J. W. Rincliley, illustrntcd by tb film showing tho proccss. Infornitrl Dinncr nt 0.30 p.m., nt tho Rcstaunnt Au Pctit lticbu, 44, Old Compton Street, W.1.

INSTITUTION OF MINING AND METAUURCY The nnnunl dinncr of tlic Institution of Mining nnd

Nctnlliirgy was held on April 6 in tlie Hotel Victoria, Sir Thonins 1%. HolInnd presiding. Tlic cliicf guest wns Ah. Amery, Sccretnry of Stiitc lor Dominion Affnirs and the Colonics, wlio proposed the tonst of “ The JIincrnl nntl Mctnl Indiistries of the Enipirc.” Hc said tliat the whole fabric of civilisation hrirl grown tip in the main on tlie two great pillnrs of rigriciiltiirc and mctnllurgy. Notliing liad beon n more doniinnnt factor thnn $lie utilisntion of metnls, both for tlie conquest of ninn over nnturc, and over his fellow Innn. It was possible tliiit tlic great new discoveries of gold niiglit have n very stiinulnting effect in bringing about the recovery of the worlcl froin tlic ilcprcssion wliicli followed tlic Grcnt War. We wcrc under tlic obligation of pnying to tlic Unitcd States 6,700 tons of gold, which we sliould pcobnbly liuve to pay in work, in British goods, and service spcnt to ncquirc the gold to bc prrid biick. The pcol~lcin of tlic Aniorican debt WILS, tlicrcforo, niuoh iiiorc otic for tlic prospector and tlic mining engineer tlian for the financicr. Sir Robert IIoriie, RI.P., p s i d e n t of tlio Empire i\Cining nud I\[etnllurgicnl Coilgross in Caundn this yew, replied. IIc snid tlint judging froin tlic rcspousc wliich wns colniiig from the various Doininions and Colonics, hc l i d tho grctrtcst hope of :L inceting i n Alontrcnl in August such as had riiroly bceii seen in tlic liistory of the world, and ha bdicvcd tlint tliey would be itblc to do soinetliing which would be of tlie grcatcst possiblo vnluc. Me hoped tl int tlioy would rill d o tlioir iitinost to encoiirngo tlic invostigntions. wliicli wero boiiig niutle nt the prcseiit tiinc for tlie bettor iise of conl. If n irictliotl coiild bo tliscoveretl by wllich rill tlic constituents of coal could bo most ii~efiilly ClnJ)1OyCd, it 1~0lt1d eiiorinously 11dd to tho \vculth Of

Apt11 15, 1027 CHEAIISTRY AND INDUSTRY 341

this country. No investigation was of any use unless they could show t ha t the result of the e.qenditare upon it would yield a revenue upon the capitnl invested.

The toast of I‘ Our Guests,” proposed by Dr. IVilliam Cullen, was responded to by Sir Alfred JIond, N.P., who said he agreed tha t tlic world rcquired a iiem gold inflation. The prosperity of the world had alwtiys been in ratio to the discovery of new golclGelds. Lirni- tations of trade went together with limitntions of credit. People wondered at the prosperity of America. 1 1 0 ~ niuch of tha t prosperity was due to the fact that by D most ingenious elaboration dead credits lind been mobilised anti harncsscd to the wheels of industry 1 That enabled them to produce a condition of prosperity which was likely to remain a leading factor. We manted new methotls in industry and ncm methods in finance. ‘Unless some of our industries destroyed antiquated and obsolete machinery, and introiluccd moro advauced methods of rcsenrch, they could not e q e c t to survive the modern competition of Germany mid America. Speaking of the great chemical merger with which he was associated, he snicl that this had been inadc because i t was rcaliscd thnt i f the cliemicnl industry was to survive in the front rank, as they intended it should, i t could only be done by the pooling of brains, finance, technical knowledge, and research. In a few months they were obtaining results from tlie merger which he did not think would have bcen obtained in years. Lord Aleston proposed the health of ‘ I The President of the Institution,” which the chnirmnn acknowledged.

PERSONAL AND OTHER ITEMS Dr. W. E. Garner has been appointed to succeed

Prof. J. W. 3IcBnin ns professor of physical chemistry in the University of Bristol.

Dr. 31. W. Travers has been appointed rcader in applied physiciil chemistry and an lionornry professor in the University of Uristol.

Tlic degree of D.Sc. of London University lins been conferred upon 3Ir. W. 13. J. Vernon for a tliesis entitled ‘ I Tlie Atmospheric Corrosion of RIcbls (Second Espcri- mental Report to the Atmospheric Corrosion llescarcli Committee).”

Prof. H. Preiindlicli lins been appointed deputy director of the Kniscr Willielm Institute for physical and clcctro-chemistry.

Tho trustees of the John Simon Guggcnhcim 3Iernorid Poundation have i~nnounced tho nwirds of fellowships for 1937-28 to, i m r rtlios, Dr. It , 13. I h w y , for research into low-tempcraturc effects on $Lilts, prin- ciprilly a t Cnmbridgc (Ur. Harvey hns discovered that ethylene will hnsten the ripening of fruit irnd vcgctnbles), Dr. L. V. Tlcilbrunn, for research into tlic colloid cliernistry of protoplnsm, iiiicl to Ih. J. W. Wootlroir, for rcscrrrcli on tho phosphorescent, clicmi-Iuiiiiiicsceiit, and photo-elcctrio properties of cod liver oil nnd otlicr substnncov wliicli either have anti-mchitic proporties or uin be tictirated by ultra-violot irradiation, principnlly with Prof. Sir E. Itutherford ut Citnibridge cuid Prof. J. E. S. Townsend at Oxford.

hIr. John Ysrko Jiickson, who lins hccn connected with the Salt Union for 27 yenrs, hiis been appointed

an additional member of the board. He is head of the coastwise and Continental sales ckpartment ~ n d foreign representative of tlic Union.

Blcssrs. Fucrst Brothers & Co., Ltd., announce tha t their Chairman, A h . J. Fucrst, is retiring after 43 yenrs’ connexion with the compnny ant1 its predecessors, Fucrst Brothers, of which he was one of the founders iii 1884. His two sons, G. Bl. and €1. It. Flierst, are the remaining directors, nnd will carry on the company’s business of chemical, oil and drug mcrchnnts as before.

The Consolirlated Gold Pields of South Africa, Ltcl., Gold 3icdal and Premium linve been aw.nrdetl by the Institiition of Blining and Btotallurgy to Dr. S. IV. Smith, for his paper, entitled ‘ I Liquntion in molten dloys and its ~iossible geological significance.”

The httc N r . T. Al~~rclocl~, J.P., chnirrnan of the Employers’ Federation of Bleachers, left $.130,520, with net persont~lty E111,221. The Pottery Inquiry

The Committee appointed to inquire into the nppli- cation made by the British Pottery 3lanufacturers’ Pederation for the imposition of a Safeguarding duty on imported bablcwnrc of translucent pottery, has reconi- mended that a duty of ZSs. per cwt., on the net weight, should be imposed for i~ period not cscceding 5 years, on translucent and vitrified pottery used in conncsion with the service of food nnd drink. The Committee consisted of three members, two of ~ d i o m rcconinicnilcc! thnt the application should be granted. The Committee concluded tha t nothing in the nature of ‘ I ring ” prices exists in the industry ; that the present uncmployment in the industry is due to thc iniportation of foreign china ; and thnt, though seine econoniics could be effocted by co-operiitive worliiug, the industry is carried on with reasouitblc efficiency and cconoiny. Light Leather Goods Inquiry

The Committee appointed to inquire into applications made by the Nntionnl Leather Goods and Snddlery Manufacturers’ Association for tlic iniposition of a duty upon light Ieatlicr biigs and other rcceptnclcs, including bags and receptacles of niatcritils made to resemble leather, and by tlie British Fittings Blnnufacturcre’ Association for the irnpositioil of a duty Cpou nictal frames, locks, and clasps for bngs nnd other receptacles, has concliided that a c:isc for n duty hns not been nintle out. The Sugar Industry

At a Inccting of the IXmpire Sicgrir Section of the Ihitish Empire I’rodiicers’ Orgnnia;1tion, which re~ircsents tlie entiro sugnr-producing industry of tho British Einpire, it \v;is unrininiously decidcd to constitute the section into a federation. Tlie objects of tho federation tire ‘ I to prolnotc the intcreljtv of tlic sugar industry of the 35nipirc and to collect infonnntion in regnrtl to all mtitterx relating to iiiethoils of production, tmnsport, and iniirkctiiig ; to crirry out IL progrnmme of propn- gaudn aiid publicity witli n view to increasing the pro- diiction, sale, anti consumptioii of IS~npiro sugar ; and to obtain such treritincnt for ~iii~iire-producc(11~1ce~l siignr 112

will wcure stability nnd generally to tnlte such rictiou as Inay bo con~itlared desirnblo in the interests of tho Empire sugnr inilustry.”

342 CaEMISTRY A ND mDUSTRY AprU 16,1027

Sale of Chilean Nitrate It is announced tlint free selling of Cliileaii nitrate

mill be perinissiblc from April 14, 1927, but no nitrate sold under the free systcm may leave Cliilc before Juric 16, 1927. Therefore, nitrate sold uiidcr the free systciii will not be arnilablc in Europe until the iniddlc of Jiily, and so prices for the present senson cnniiot be nffccted. Municipal CoaLmining in Germany

The Frankfurt Gas Company and the Nunicipality of Cologne have purchased 11 coalfields from the Rhciiiische Stahlmcrke 11.-G. This is considered as a couiiterrnove to the proposed schclnc of the Rheni~li-~~~estplialian coal syndicate for the supply of heat and pomr for the whole of Gcrinauy from the Ruhr. The largest share- holder in the Rhciilischc Sttlhln~crlre is the I.-G. li'arbcn- industric, which has hitherto viewed the Ruhr power scheme with apprcheusion. The move is significant, as the Rlieinisclic Stahlwerkc is itself the third largest participator in the Rhenish-Westphnlinn coal syndicate. Third Census of Production (Seed-crushing Trade)

In the following stntcment, particiilnrs arc given in respect of the cpiiitity and value of thc iiiniii classes of products manufitcturcrl during tlic ycnr 1924 by firms cngngcd in tlic sccd-crusliing inclustry. Tlic figures covcr fnctories and worksliops in Grait Britain :-

Sold or nddcd l o stock Totnl Jlnko

I'rDductd 11, Yenr of llcturir Qunntltlcs Sclliiig

\'nliic USILEtTISEI, 0 I l . S Tons Tons f

COcoIl l l t . . . . . . . . 45,200 10,800 i38,OOO Cotton Soci . . . . . . . . . 87,400 20,SOO ];LO8 (100 Ground Kilt . . . . . . . . 20,100 18,500 85O:OOO Llllsccd . . . . . . . . 124,600 118,700 4,707,000 i ' l1iIn J<criiei' . . . . . . . . i!v,.too 105,000 J , R ~ ~ , o o ~ Ilnpo Seed . . . . . . . . . . -5,500 15,800 04(5,000 Bcsnmo . . . . . . . . . . 2,800 2,800 12IJJOO Soya llcnii . . . . . . . . . . 10,300 4,000 170,000 Sunllorvcr . . . . . . . . (5,400 0,200 270,000 otlrcr Uiirooucd oii's . . . . . . . i5,soo 4;~oo i7u,ooo

I ~ E F I S E D 011s' mcollllt . . . . . . . . . . . . 28,500 1,4(51,000 Cotton Seed . . . . . . . . . . 74,700 3,400.000 Oronird Iiut . . . . . . . . . . 11,600 (510,000 -I.iI1§CCd- -. ....

IJoiled . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,000 213,000

rnlm . . . . . . . . . . 4,SOO 11~3,000 Iiollncd 1,300 U5,OOO . . . . . . . . . . . .

Palin I<criici' . . . . . . . . . . 21.800 1.021.000 . . . . . . . . . . . . Ilnpo Sccd 0;tlOO '447;OOO So D Dcnii .. 17 000 iOi,O00 otxcr ll0flllCd 011s'. : : :: :: : : 12:aoo 74(5,(100

Tohi llellncd 011s. . . . . . . . 187,000 8.002.00~

OIL-SEED CAW ASU AIK\L Cottoll SCCd . . . . . . . . . . Groiied Iiut . . . . . . . . . . lAlllsccd . . . . . . . . . . . . 1lZIpo Sccd . . . . . . . . . . . .

'II IJcnli . . . . . . . . . . . . ,""I 'II in l<crnel . . . . . . . . . .

433,000 3,2fr3 000 45,500 41?:000

2,7l,OOO 3,103,000 .I.t,.lOO 204,000 80,000 fX1,000

ll0,400 ,ll0,00Il 200."00 I?GJ,000

4UY,500 4,485,000

Totnl Oil-Seed Cnkc nnd BIcnl . . . . 1,164,100 13,402,ooo

Acld Oib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153,000

A11 Otlicr Prodi ic l . . . . . . . . . . . . 477,000

Totnl \'nlno of Goods .\hido . . . . . . . . X30.344.000

Or~fiw I1iionuCTS

lllnok lircnso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8?,000

Tile quiiiititics slio\n~ uiiilcr tlic Iientliiig " Totlil Rlt~ku in Ycnr of ltcturii " rcprcsciit, without duplicntioii, tllc totnl amount of cacli specified cliiss of unrcfiiictl oil espresscd during tlic yciir 192'1, wlictlicr tlie oil wis

subsequently refined by the firm by whom i t was espresscd, or was sold by that firm in an unrefined stntc. After taking into nccount tlie exports a i d itnports of crude oil, i t is practicalIy certain that all the crnde oil rnaclc in the United Kingdom and iiot refined by the original crusliers J B ~ S sold to inanufacturcrs of soap, margarinc, p in ts , etc., except in tlie cascof cottonseed oil. With regard to tlic latter, either there mas refined in 1924 an exceptionally large quantity of crude oil remain- ing in stock from previous years, or there was a duplicn- tion between the crudc and the refined oil amounting in value to €1,000,000, or a little more. Purther, thc 463,500 tons of " Compound and Otlicr Oil-Secd Cake " may include sorne cake bought (for mising) from otlicr inaltcrs and also included as output of the makers from W ~ O R ~ it was bought, and to the cstcnt to wllich this has occurred, duplication is involvcd. An ndditionnl 29,500 tons of cakc and meal, shown on returns made by inanufacturcrs of soap and candles, sliould be added to the 1,456,000 tons, sliomii above as produced in seed- crusliiiig cstablislimcnts in 1921.

During 1907 tlie output of oil, oil caltcs and sundries totalled 1,371,000 tons, valued a t f 12,9~10,0O, and other products totalled in valuc 521,000. Particulars of tho quantity of tlic output for any class of seed oil or cakc sepanitcly w r c not nvnilable in 1907. Tlie total nial;c of vcgct:lblc oils, unrcfiuccl iii 1007. was 250,000 tons, coinpared with 472,700 tons in 1924, and of oil-sect1 c:tlrcs and meals the figures wcrc 1,146,000 tons in 1907, :tg:iinst 1,454,400 toils in 1934. Tlic tlcvelopiiiciit in crushing varieties of oil sccds and Iwriicls not gcncrally liandlctl in this country before the war is clearly shown by tlicsc figures. Esports of unrefined oils in 1924 were 56,900 tons, of rcfincdoils 25,600tons, niid of oil-secd calm and riicnls 95,200 tons. The totiil quautityof oil-sccdcnltcs :ml iiienls imported i ~ n d retained for use was 26.5yo of tlic total qunntity mniinfacturccl in thc Unitcd Kingdom, wliicli was 1,454,400 tons, and the quniitity of esports :imounted to 6.5% of t l in t quantity. The corrcsponding proportions for tlic year 1007 wcrc about 30% arid ?,yo, rcspcctivcly. '1Bc net output of the factoricv cmployetl in the industry wns, in 1924, f3,532,000, tlie total csti- imted cost of mntcrinls used amounting to f32,512,000. I'lic net output per pcrson cinployccl wns €273 in 1924, and €180 in 1907, Tlic averngc number of pcrsons ciiiployed during the yciir wiis 14,027, cornpurecl witli 7696 in 1907. Tlic total capacity of engines i i t seed- crtishiiig factories during 1924 amounted to 50,529 h.p., iigninst 2(3,492 1 i . p in 1907. In ndditioii, in 1924, firctories mcrc also cquippcd with electric inotors, drivcii by purclinscd clcctricity, aggregating 22,987 1i.p. 15lcctric iiiotors aggregating 17,077 11.11. ivcrc rcttiriicd i i i 1924 ns drivcii by electricity gciicrntcd in tlic firms' o w i works. About 7% of tlicsc inotors wero shown 11s in reserve or idle. Castorseed Crop of British India, 1926-27

From iufornintiou rcceivcd from proviiiccs and stntos which coiitoin practicnlly tha wliolo arca undor castor- secd iu India, tlic total area reported is 1,372,000 acres, cornparad with 1,401,000 acres last ycar, a dccronsa of 2%. Tho yield is estiinated a t 132,000 tons, as against 144,000 toils liist year, a decreasc of So/,. 'l!ho coiiditioii of the crop is, on tho wliolo, reported to bo fair.