Upload
benedict-mcdowell
View
215
Download
0
Tags:
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
3NIST
What is Ontology?
• A discipline of Philosophy– Meta-physics dates back to Artistotle– Ontology dates back to 17th century– The science of what is
• Borrowed by AI community– McCarthy (1980) calls for “a list of things that exist”
• Evolution of meaning– Now refers to domain modeling, conceptual modeling,
knowledge engineering, etc.
4NIST
What is an Ontology?
complexity
a catalog
a set of generallogicalaxioms
a glossary
a set of text files a thesaurus
a collection of
taxonomies
a collection of frames
with automated reasoningwithout automated reasoning
5NIST
Why Ontology?
• “Semantic Interoperability”– Generalized database integration– Virtual Enterprises– e-commerce
• Information Retrieval– Surface techniques hit barrier– Query answering over document sets– Natural Language Processing
6NIST
Need more knowledge of what terms meanSame term, different concept
BookBook Manual
“The old man and the sea”
“Windows XP Service
Guide”
“The old man and the sea”
“Windows XP Service
Guide”
DB-DB-
Unintended models occur during integration
7NIST
Solution Knowledge
• DB- xy Book(x) author-of(y,x) Person(y) xy Manual(x) author-of(y,x) Company(y)
• Better captures intended meaning– Prevents (this) unintended model
• Allows better standardization
8NIST
Need more knowledge of what terms mean
Less expressive More expressive
Horse–Name–Age
Name: Top Hat/BillingsAge: 3
DB-DB-
The same object becomes two.
Horse–Name–Age–Owner
Name: Top HatOwner: BillingsAge: 3
9NIST
Solution Knowledge
• DB-– Identity Criteria: Same name
• DB-– Identity Criteria: Same name and owner
• Better captures intended meaning
10NIST
Need more knowledge about what the user wants“Can the user please be more specific?”
• Search for “Washington” (the person)– Google: 26,000,000 hits– 45th entry is the first relevant– Noise: places
• Search for “George Washington”– Google: 2,200,00 hits– 3rd entry is relevant– Noise: institutions, other people, places
11NIST
Solution Knowledge• Domain Knowledge
– Person• George Washington• George Washington Carver
– Place• Washington, D.C.
– Artifact• George Washington Bridge
– Organization• George Washington University
• Semantic Markup of question and corpora– What Washington are you talking about?
12NIST
Need more knowledge about the possible answers“Can the user please put more of the answer in the question?”
• Search for “Artificial Intelligence Research”
– Misses subfields of the general field– Misses references to “AI” and “Machine
Intelligence” (synonyms)– Noise: non-research pages, other fields, Mensa types
13NIST
Solution Knowledge• Domain Knowledge
– Sub-fields (of AI)• Knowledge Representation• Machine Vision etc. • Neural networks
– Synonyms (for AI)• Artificial Intelligence• Machine Intelligence
• Query Expansion– Add disjuncted “general terms” to search– Add disjuncted “synonyms” to search
• Semantic Markup of question and corpora– Add “general terms” (categories)– Add “synonyms”
14NIST
Need more knowledge of reasoningAllies of my enemies are my…?
• What are all the enemies of Iraq in the Persian Gulf according to the CIA World Fact Book?
– “Persian Gulf” appears as a region and a body of water.– Misses: allies of enemies– Noise: countries with interests in the Persian Gulf,
companies, ships, oil platforms
15NIST
Solution: Knowledge + Reasoning(Cycorp/SRI HPKB)
• Some axioms– Enemy of a country is a country– Ally of an enemy is an enemy– Enemy is reflexive– Countries are located in regions
• Reformulate (country
located-in . (region name = “Persian Gulf”) enemy . (country name = “Iraq”))
16NIST
Solution Theme: More KnowledgeOntologies - at least part of the solution
• “more semantics”, “richer knowledge” … ontologies• Idealized view
– Knowledge-enabled search engines act as virtual librarians• Determine what you “really mean”• Discover relevant sources• Find what you “really want”
– Knowledge-enabled web integrates standardized terms• Requires common knowledge on all ends
– Semantic linkage between questioning agent, answering agent and knowledge sources, etc.
• Hence the “Semantic Web”
17NIST
Key Challenges• Must build/design, analyze/evaluate, maintain/extend,
and integrate/reconcile ontologies
• Little guidance on how to do this– In spite of the pursuit of many syntactic standards– Where do we start when building an ontology?– What criteria do we use to evaluate ontologies?– How are ontologies extended?– How are different ontological choices reconciled?
• Ontological Modeling and Analysis– Does your model mean what you intend?– Will it produce the right answers?
18NIST
Most ontology efforts fail
• Why?– The quality of the ontology dictates its impact– Poor ontology, poor results– Ontologies are built by people
…The average IQ is 100
19NIST
Contributions• Methodology to help analyze & build consistent ontologies
– Formal foundation of ontological analysis– Meta-properties for analysis– “Upper Level” distinctions
• Standard set of upper-level concepts• Standardizing semantics of ontological relations
• Common ontological modeling pitfalls– Misuse of intended semantics
• Specific recent work focused on clarifying the subsumption (is-a, subclass) relation
20NIST
Upper LevelWhere do I start?
• Particulars– Concrete
• Location, event, object, substance, …– Abstract
• information, story, collection, …
• Universals– Property (Class)– Relation
• Subsumption (subclass), instantiation, constitution, composition (part)
21NIST
Subsumption• The most pervasive relationship in ontologies
– Influence of taxonomies and OO
• AKA: Is-a, a-kind-of, specialization-of, subclass (Brachman, 1983)– “horse is a mammal”
• Capitalizes on general knowledge– Helps deal with complexity, structure– Reduces requirement to acquire and represent redundant specifics
• What does it mean?
� x (x) (x)
Every instance of the subclass is necessarily an instance of the superclass
22NIST
Overloading Subsumption Common modeling pitfalls
• Instantiation• Constitution• Composition• Disjunction• Polysemy
23NIST
Instantiation (1)
T21
My ThinkPad (s# xx123)
ThinkPad Model
Ooops…
Question: What ThinkPad models do you sell?Answer should NOT include My ThinkPad -- nor yours.
Does this ontology mean that My ThinkPad is a ThinkPad Model?
25NIST
Composition (1)
MemoryDisk Drive
Computer
Question: What Computers do you sell?Answer should NOT include Disk Drives or Memory.
Micro Drive
27NIST
Disjunction (1)
MemoryDisk Drive
Computer
Micro Drive
has-partComputer Part
Flashcard-110Camera-15has-part
Unintended model: flashcard-110 is a computer-part
29NIST
Polysemy (1)(Mikrokosmos)
Abstract EntityPhysical Object
Book
Question: How many books do you have on Hemingway?Answer: 5,000
…..
30NIST
Polysemy (2)(WordNet)
Abstract EntityPhysical Object
BookSense 1
BookSense 2
….. Biography of Hemingway
31NIST
Constitution (1)(WordNet)
Amount of Matter
Physical Object
Entity
ComputerClayMetal
Question: What types of matter will conduct electricity?Answer should NOT include computers.
33NIST
Technical Conclusions• Subsumption is an overloaded relation
– Influence of OO – Force fit of simple taxonomic structures– Leads to misuse of is-a semantics
• Ontological Analysis– A collection of well-defined knowledge structuring relations– Methodology for their consistent application
• Meta-Properties for ontological relations• Provide basis for disciplined ontological analysis
34NIST
Applications of Methodology
• Ontologyworks• Ontoweb• TICCA, WedODE, Galen, …• Strong interest from and participation in
– Semantic web (w3c)– IEEE SUO– Wordnet– Lexical resources
36NIST
Approach
• Draw fundamental notions from Formal Ontology
• Establish a set of useful meta-properties, based on behavior wrt above notions
• Explore the way these meta-properties combine to form relevant property kinds
• Explore the taxonomic constraints imposed by these property kinds.
37NIST
Basic Philosophical Notions(taken from Formal Ontology)
• Identity– How are instances of a class distinguished from each
other• Unity
– How are all the parts of an instance isolated• Essence
– Can a property change over time• Dependence
– Can an entity exist without some others
38NIST
Essence and Rigidity
• Certain entities have essential properties.– Hammers must be hard.– John must be a person.
• Certain properties are essential to all their instances (compare being a person with being hard).
• These properties are rigid - if an entity is ever an instance of a rigid property, it must always be.
39NIST
Formal Rigidity is rigid (+R): x (x) � (x)
– e.g. Person, Apple
is non-rigid (-R): x (x) ¬ � (x)– e.g. Red, Male
is anti-rigid (~R): x (x) ¬ � (x)– e.g. Student, Agent
42NIST
Identity criteria
• Classical formulation:
(x) (y) ((x,y) x = y)
• Generalization:(x,t) (y,t’) ((x,y,t,t’) x = y)
(synchronic: t = t’ ; diachronic: t ≠ t’)
• In most cases, is based on the sameness of certain characteristic features:
(x,y, t ,t’) = z ((x,z,t) (y,z,t’))
43NIST
A Stronger Notion:Global ICs
• Local IC:
(x,t) (y,t’) ((x,y,t,t’) x = y)
• Global IC (rigid properties only):
(x,t) ((y,t’) (x,y,t,t’) x = y)
44NIST
Identity Conditions along Taxonomies
• Adding ICs:– Polygon: same edges, same angles
• Triangle: two edges, one angle– Equilateral triangle: one edge
• Just inheriting ICs:– Person
• Student
45NIST
Identity meta-properties
• Supplying (global) identity (+O)– Having some “own” IC that doesn’t hold for a
subsuming property
• Carrying (global) identity (+I)– Having an IC (either own or inherited)
• Not carrying (global) identity (-I)
46NIST
Identity Disjointness Constraint
Properties with incompatible ICs are disjoint
Besides being used for recognizing sortals, ICs impose constraints on them, making their ontological nature explicit:
Examples:• sets vs. ordered sets• amounts of matter vs. assemblies
47NIST
Unity Criteria
• An object x is a whole under iff is an equivalence relation that binds together all the parts of x, such that
P(y,x) (P(z,x) y,z))but not
y,z) x(P(y,x) P(z,x))
• P is the part-of relation can be seen as a generalized indirect connection
48NIST
Unity Meta-Properties
• If all instances of a property are wholes under the same relationcarries unity (+U)
• When at least one instance of is not a whole, or when two instances of are wholes under different relations, does not carry unity (-U)
• When no instance of is a whole, carries anti-unity (~U)
50NIST
Property Dependence
• Does a property holding for x depend on something else besides x? (property dependence) – P(x) y Q(y)– y should not be a part of x
• Example: Student/Teacher, customer/vendor
51NIST
Basic Property Kinds Table
O I R D
+ + + ± Type
- + + ± Quas -i type- + - - Mixin
- + ~ + Mat.role- + ~ - Phasedsortal- - + ± Category
- - ~ + Formalrole- - - - Attribution
52NIST
Sortals, categories, and other properties
• Sortals (horse, triangle, amount of matter, person, student...)– Carry identity– Usually correspond to nouns– High organizational utility– Main subclasses: types and roles
• Categories (universal, particular, event, substance...)– No identity– Useful generalizations for sortals– Characterized by a set of (only necessary) formal properties– Good organizational utility
• Other non-sortals (red, big, decomposable, eatable, dependent, singular...)– No identity– Correspond to adjectives– Span across different sortals– Limited organizational utility (but high semantic value)
53NIST
A formal ontology of properties
Property
Non-sortal-I
Role~R+D
Sortal+I
Formal Role
Attribution -R-D
Category +R
Mixin -D
Type +O
Quasi-type -O
Non-rigid-R
Rigid+R
Material roleAnti-rigid~R Phased sortal -D +L
54NIST
The Backbone Taxonomy
Assumption: no entity without identity
• Since identity is supplied by types, every entity must instantiate a type
• The taxonomy of types spans the whole domain• Together with categories, types form the backbone
taxonomy, which represents the invariant structure of a domain (rigid properties spanning the whole domain)
55NIST
Taxonomic Constraints
• +R ~R• -I +I• -U +U• +U ~U• -D +D
• Incompatible IC’s are disjoint
• Incompatible UC’s are disjoint
• Categories subsume everything
• Roles can’t subsume types
56NIST
Phased Sortals
Backbone TaxonomyCategories
Top TypesTypes &Quasi-Types
FormalRoles
Material Roles
Attributions
Mixins
Non-sortals
Sortals
Idealized view of an ontology
58NIST
Dealing withOntological Relativism
• Deciding about the meta-properties carried by a given property…
Is up to YOU!
• But a common agreement must be achieved about the formal meaning (and practical utility) of meta-properties
71NIST
Entity
Fruit
Physical objectGroup of people
Country
FoodAnimal Legal agent
Amount of matterGroup
Living being
LocationAgentRed
Red applePerson
Vertebrate
Apple
CaterpillarButterfly
Organization
Social entity
assign meta-properties
72NIST
Remove non-rigid propertiesEntity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Agent-I-U+D~R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Food+I-O~U+D~R
Country+L+U-D~R
Legal agent+L-U+D~R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Red apple+I-O+U-D~R
Red-I-U-D-R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Caterpillar+L+U-D~R
Butterfly+L+U-D~R
73NIST
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Analyze taxonomic links
• ~U can’t subsume +U• Living being can change
parts and remain the same, but amounts of matter can not (incompatible ICs)
• Living being is constituted of matter
74NIST
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Analyze taxonomic links
• ~U can’t subsume +U• Living being can change
parts and remain the same, but amounts of matter can not (incompatible ICs)
• Living being is constituted of matter
75NIST
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Analyze taxonomic links
• ~U can’t subsume +U• Physical objects can
change parts and remain the same, but amounts of matter can not (incompatible ICs)
• Physical object is constituted of matter
76NIST
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Analyze taxonomic links
• ~U can’t subsume +U• Physical objects can
change parts and remain the same, but amounts of matter can not (incompatible ICs)
• Physical object is constituted of matter
77NIST
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Analyze taxonomic links
• Meta-properties fine• Identity-check fails:
when an entity stops being an animal, it does not stop being a physical object (when an animal dies, its body remains)
• Constitution again
78NIST
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Analyze taxonomic links
• Meta-properties fine• Identity-check fails:
when an entity stops being an animal, it does not stop being a physical object (when an animal dies, its body remains)
• Constitution again
79NIST
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Analyze taxonomic links
• ~U can’t subsume +U• A group, and group of
people, can’t change parts - it becomes a different group
• A social entity can change parts - it’s more than just a group (incompatible IC)
• Constitution again
80NIST
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Analyze taxonomic links
• ~U can’t subsume +U• A group, and group of
people, can’t change parts - it becomes a different group
• A social entity can change parts - it’s more than just a group (incompatible IC)
• Constitution again
85NIST
Country+O+U-D+R
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Analyze Roles
Geographical Region
+O-U-D+R Caterpillar+L+U-D~R
Butterfly+L+U-D~R
Lepidopteran+O+U-D+R
Agent-I-U+D~R
• ~R can’t subsume +R• Really want a type
restriction: all agents are animals or social entities.
• Subsumption is not disjunction!
86NIST
Country+O+U-D+R
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Analyze Roles
Geographical Region
+O-U-D+R Caterpillar+L+U-D~R
Butterfly+L+U-D~R
Lepidopteran+O+U-D+R
Agent-I-U+D~R
• ~R can’t subsume +R• Really want a type
restriction: all agents are animals or social entities.
• Subsumption is not disjunction!
87NIST
Country+O+U-D+R
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Analyze Roles
Geographical Region
+O-U-D+R Caterpillar+L+U-D~R
Butterfly+L+U-D~R
Lepidopteran+O+U-D+R
Agent-I-U+D~R
• ~R can’t subsume +R• Another disjunction: all
legal agents are countries, persons, or organizations Legal agent
+L-U+D~R
88NIST
Country+O+U-D+R
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Analyze Roles
Geographical Region
+O-U-D+R Caterpillar+L+U-D~R
Butterfly+L+U-D~R
Lepidopteran+O+U-D+R
Agent-I-U+D~R
• ~R can’t subsume +R• Another disjunction: all
legal agents are countries, persons, or organizations Legal agent
+L-U+D~R
89NIST
Country+O+U-D+R
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Analyze Roles
Geographical Region
+O-U-D+R Caterpillar+L+U-D~R
Butterfly+L+U-D~R
Lepidopteran+O+U-D+R
Agent-I-U+D~R
Legal agent+L-U+D~R
• ~R can’t subsume +R• Apple is not necessarily
food. A poison-apple, e.g., is still an apple.
• ~U can’t subsume +U• Caterpillars are wholes,
food is stuff.
Food+I-O~U+D~R
90NIST
Country+O+U-D+R
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Analyze Roles
Geographical Region
+O-U-D+R Caterpillar+L+U-D~R
Butterfly+L+U-D~R
Lepidopteran+O+U-D+R
Agent-I-U+D~R
Legal agent+L-U+D~R
• ~R can’t subsume +R• Apple is not necessarily
food. A poison-apple, e.g., is still an apple.
• ~U can’t subsume +U• Caterpillars are wholes,
food is stuff.
Food+I-O~U+D~R
91NIST
Country+O+U-D+R
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Analyze Attributions
Geographical Region
+O-U-D+R Caterpillar+L+U-D~R
Butterfly+L+U-D~R
Lepidopteran+O+U-D+R
Agent-I-U+D~R
Legal agent+L-U+D~R
• No violations• Attributions are
discouraged, can be confusing.
• Often better to use attribute values (i.e. Apple Color red)
Food+I-O~U+D~R
Red-I-U-D-R
Red apple+I-O+U-D~R
92NIST
Country+O+U-D+R
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Geographical Region
+O-U-D+R Caterpillar+L+U-D~R
Butterfly+L+U-D~R
Lepidopteran+O+U-D+R
Agent-I-U+D~R
Legal agent+L-U+D~R
Food+I-O~U+D~R
Red-I-U-D-R
Red apple+I-O+U-D~R
93NIST
Country+O+U-D+R
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Geographical Region
+O-U-D+R
Lepidopteran+O+U-D+R
The backbone taxonomy
94NIST
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Agent-I-U+D~R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Food+I-O~U+D~R
Legal agent+L-U+D~R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Red apple+I-O+U-D~R
Red-I-U-D-R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Caterpillar+L+U-D~R
Butterfly+L+U-D~R
Country+O+U-D+R
Geographical Region
+O-U-D+R
Lepidopteran+O+U-D+R
95NIST
Entity
Fruit
Physical objectGroup of people
Country
FoodAnimal Legal agent
Amount of matterGroup
Living being
LocationAgentRed
Red applePerson
Vertebrate
Apple
CaterpillarButterfly
Organization
Social entity
Before
96NIST
Entity-I-U-D+R
Physical object+O+U-D+R
Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group
+O~U-D+R
Organization+O+U-D+R
Location+O-U-D+R
Living being+O+U-D+R
Person+O+U-D+R
Animal+O+U-D+R
Social entity-I+U-D+R
Agent-I-U+D~R
Apple+O+U-D+R
Fruit+O+U-D+R
Food+I-O~U+D~R
Legal agent+L-U+D~R
Group of people+I-O~U-D+R
Red apple+I-O+U-D~R
Red-I-U-D-R
Vertebrate+I-O+U-D+R
Caterpillar+L+U-D~R
Butterfly+L+U-D~R
Country+O+U-D+R
Geographical Region
+O-U-D+R
Lepidopteran+O+U-D+R
After