NewTypeFarIRandTHzSchottkyBarrierDetectorsfor ...downloads.hindawi.com/archive/2011/459130.pdfV. G. Ivanov 1 andG.V.Ivanov2 1 Solid State Infrared Devices, Electron, Central Research

Hindawi Publishing CorporationAdvances in OptoElectronicsVolume 2011, Article ID 459130, 6 pagesdoi:10.1155/2011/459130

Research Article

New Type Far IR and THz Schottky Barrier Detectors forScientific and Civil Application

V. G. Ivanov1 and G. V. Ivanov2

1 Solid State Infrared Devices, Electron, Central Research Institute, Toreza Avenue, 68, Saint-Petersburg 194223, Russia2 Broadband Home Solutions, Motorola Mobility, Sedova Street 12, Saint-Petersburg 192019, Russia

Correspondence should be addressed to V. G. Ivanov, [email protected]

Received 7 April 2011; Revised 25 May 2011; Accepted 4 July 2011

Academic Editor: Satishchandra B. Ogale

Copyright © 2011 V. G. Ivanov and G. V. Ivanov. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative CommonsAttribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work isproperly cited.

The results of an experimental investigation into a new type of VLWIR detector based on hot electron gas emission and architectureof the detector are presented and discussed. The detectors (further referred to as HEGED) take advantage of the thermionicemission current change effect in a semiconductor diode with a Schottky barrier (SB) as a result of the direct transfer of theabsorbed radiation energy to the system of electronic gas in the quasimetallic layer of the barrier. The possibility of detectingradiation having the energy of quantums less than the height of the Schottky diode potential barrier and of obtaining a substantialimprovement of a cutoff wavelength to VLWIR of the PtSi/Si detector has been demonstrated. The complementary contributionof two physical mechanisms of emanation detection—“quantum” and hot electrons gas emission—has allowed the creation of asuperwideband IR detector using standard silicon technology.

1. IR and THz Detectors for Space Astronomy

The reception of television images of various objects in thefar IR and submillimetric band of a spectrum is of greatinterest in solving many scientific and applied problems.Such problems can be met in astronomy, fault detection,medicine, and safety systems [1]. In recent years very closeattention has been paid to the development of variousTHz systems; however, the problem of creating the mostprogressive staring detectors for the far IR and THz bandof the spectrum is far from resolved [2]. Over the set of themajor characteristics the most demanding requirements areimposed on staring detectors (or FPAs) for optoelectronicsystems (OESs) for exoatmospheric astronomy. As a rule, ifdetectors of such class can be created, they can also be usedfor many other purposes. The published modern detectorsfor space OES are shown in Table 1.

The table shows the following.

(1) The size of the focal plane used within the astro-nomical systems is significantly larger than the pho-tosensitive surface of any existing FPA as well as anyFPA under development. The large size is extremely

undesirable and is only allowable to some extentin survey system channels and narrow field of viewspectrometry channels.

(2) Among the existing FPAs it would appear that thebest characteristics belong to HAWAII-2 FPA, whichprovides output noise less than 7 electrons and theleast value of NEP limited by background fluctua-tions. This FPA, as well as VLWIR-002, was designedusing VLSI silicon technology. The production ofFPAs based on VLSI silicon currently provides, andapparently will provide for the next 5 to 10 years,a competitive advantage for this type of FPA incomparison to other types over a number of majorcharacteristics. It should be noted that at the presenttime only silicon technology is capable of providingFPAs on an industrial scale.

(3) A number of works have shown that the transitionedge sensor (TES) will not be able to provide NEP =10−20 W/Hz1/2 (which must be achieved according toastronomical systems architects) or an appropriatedynamic range. Development of multiplexers based

2 Advances in OptoElectronics

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Advances in OptoElectronics 3

on SQUID remains 15 to 20 years behind thetechnology of CCD and CMOS silicon multiplexers.The obstacle of creating an on-board cooling systemfor this type of FPA may also be insurmountablewithin the timeframe of the projects being planned.

(4) Taking into account the physical principals of coolelectron bolometer functioning and the results ofmeasurements obtained for some of the detectors,detectors of this type have approached the values ofthe NEP given by astronomers. However, all the FPAdevelopment obstacles mentioned above for the TESremain, at least for 100× 100 format FPAs.

(5) The new matrix FPA proposed in this paper, withsensitive elements based on hot electron gas emissiondetectors (HEGEDs) with 100% use of standardsilicon technology, will resolve the problem of sizesuch that the required values of NEP can beapproached and simplify significantly the problemof FPA cooling. From the astronomical perspective,an FPA of this type will be preferable to theexistingFPA technology for on-board wide-spectrum surveycameras (SIRTF and SOFIA projects).

(6) Relatively higher operating temperatures and the useof mature silicon technology, which provides sim-plicity and therefore allows serial production of FPAsbased on HEGED, are the undeniable advantages ofthe sensors in comparison to other known far IRand submillimeter radiation sensors currently used incivil equipment.

2. New Type of IR FPA Detector

2.1. State of the Art. Quantum infrared Schottky Barrier (IRSB) detectors, and architectures of monolithic IR FPAs basedon silicon with such detectors, have been considered in manyworks (e.g., [3, 4]). The sensitivity of IR SB detectors toradiation results from excitation of electrons (or holes) withabsorption of radiation quantums in a quasimetallic SB layerwhen the energy of quantums exceeds the potential barrier[1]. The achievable cutoff wavelength of an SB photo diode’ssensitivity while using such “quantum” physical mechanismof IR waves detection is completely determined by theheight of the potential barrier. The increase in the cutoffwavelength [5, 6] has been achieved by lowering the potentialbarrier height. The sensitivity of such SB quantum detectorsdecreases quickly with increasing wavelength. Lowering theSB barrier height results in a fast increase of SB darkcurrent which essentially worsens the sensitivity threshold ofthe detector and demands a significant decrease in coolingtemperature, essentially lowering the dark current to reducethe shot noise and increase SNR.

Within a waveband of 12–25 microns the energy ofquantums lies within the range of 0.1–0.05 eV. Creationof quantum IR SBs with these potential barrier heights isproblematic.

Detectors and FPAs with VLWIR and sub-mm sensitivitycan be created on the basis of thermal detectors [7]. The

operation of all thermal detectors of electromagnetic emana-tion is based on the variation of the physical characteristicsof the detector’s substance at heating caused by the absorbedemanation. To provide maximum relative increase in thedetector’s temperature (per unit of the absorbed energy) andprevent leakage of the heat flow to the substrate, the fullthermal capacity of the detector has been reduced as muchas possible. In particular, such SB thermionic detectors areconsidered in [8].

The shortcomings of thermal detectors and FPAs withthermal detectors are the constructive and technologicalcomplexities of thermic insulation of the detector’s pixelsfrom each other and from the substrate, as well as temper-ature fluctuations and sensitivity to vibrations.

Recently we suggested [9] a new physical principle ofoperation for the IR detector (as well as a design for thedetector and the FPA), where the effect of a thermionicemission current shift in a semiconductor diode with aSchottky barrier (SB) is caused by direct transfer of absorbedradiation energy to the system of electronic gas (as a hole)in the quasimetallic layer of the barrier. The opportunity todetect the radiation having energy of quantums less than theheight of Schottky diode potential barrier and to obtain asubstantial improvement of a cutoff wavelength to VLWIRof the PtSi/Si detector has been demonstrated [10]. Thus,the temperature of the crystalline lattice of the detectorcan practically stay constant, and thermic insulation of thedetectors and the substrate is not required. In [9] suchdetectors have been referred to as hot electron gas emissiondetectors (HEGEDs).

2.2. New Detector’s Principle of Operation. The principleof operation of detectors such as HEGED is explained byFigure 1. The cross-section of the p-type silicon detector withPtSi/Si SB is shown schematically on Figure 1(a). Figure 1(b)shows the resulting zone diagram of the detector, andFigure 1(c) shows qualitatively the dependence of the prob-ability of the energy levels occupied by platinum silicide onthe energy of electrons for three various Kelvin temperaturesof the electron gas.

The electromagnetic radiation of the FIR with energyhν smaller than the height of the potential barrier of theSB is directed through the silicon substrate (1) and thedoped silicon layer (2) and is absorbed by the layer (3).The thickness of this layer (3) is comparable to the inverseabsorption constant in the given silicide of metal. Within themetal silicide layer (e.g., platinum silicide) the absorption iscaused mainly by the gas of the free electrons. As in the casewhen a SB operates as a quantum detector of radiation, theabsorption of the radiation with energy hν in the layer (3)results in generation of “hot” electrons (or holes), althoughwith insufficient energy to overcome the potential barrier(ΨMS) of the metal-semiconductor junction. These electronscannot directly pass from metal to the semiconductor andthus cannot create a signal current. The SB cannot be usedas the quantum detector. However, the extra energy of these“hot” electrons gets transferred to all the free electrons in themetal silicide through inelastic electron-electron collisionswithin time τe-e ≤ 10−12 s. At the same time, at a low


1 2 34

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Figure 1: Cross-sectional view and energy diagrams of the detector: (a) a cross-section of the detector on silicon of p-type with SB fromplatinum silicide (PtSi/Si); (1): substrate, (2): p+ layer, (3): PtSi\Si layer, (4): antireflection coating; (b) the zone diagram of the detector (Evac:energy level of vacuum, Ec: bottom of conductance band, Ev : a top (ceiling) of valence band, EFS, EFM: Fermi energy in the semiconductorand in metal, accordingly, ΦS, ΦM: potentials of work function from the semiconductor and metal, ΨMS: maximal SB barrier height, andΔΨ: depression of barrier height at the reverse direction voltage; (c) the dependence of probability of occupancy of energy levels of platinumsilicide from electrons energy for three different temperatures of electronic gas.

temperature the electron-phonon energy relaxation timeappears to be much longer and lies within 10−7–10−10 s. Atthis condition an electron gas temperature increase has beenobserved which results in a growth of the probability of thestates where the energy levels greater than ΨMS are occupiedby holes (in the p-type silicon) and, therefore, an occurrenceof an additional current of thermionic emission from metalinto the semiconductor. The difference between the currentsof the thermionic emission at absorption of the radiation andwithout the absorption creates a signal current as in [8].

The key point of the signal current appearance is the cre-ation of conditions where the spatial-energetic equilibriumin the system of electron gas in the layer of metal silicideoccurs much faster than the transmission of superfluousenergy of this gas into the crystalline lattice (and, hence,heating up of silicide layer and silicon). In a stationary casethe size and space distribution of electron gas temperature Te

can be obtained by solving the power balance equation of theabsorbed radiation by a layer and the power of all losses.

The estimations [9] for detectors PtSi-/p-Si of 1E−5 cm2

have shown that within the band of wavelengths of 12–19

microns and at the background temperature equal to 300 Kthe background limited mode (BLIP) can already occur ata temperature of the crystalline lattice less than or equal to100 K and the threshold power corresponding to this mode(at an integration time of 40 ms) can achieve (1–5) E−15 W.Reduction of the background load essentially reduces thevalue of the threshold power.

2.3. Experimental Results. A set of different samples of SBdetectors based on PtSi/p-Si have been manufactured. Nospecific thermoinsulation measures have been undertakenbetween the detectors and the substrate. Except for the sizesand some details of manufacturing techniques these samplesare, in fact, photosensitive elements of two-dimensionalCCD FPA. Its configuration and measurement techniques arepresented in [10].

Typical spectral dependencies of detector responsivityS(λ) on the thickness of the platinum silicide layer equal to30 nm at two temperatures are shown in Figure 2.

At T = 80 K, S(λ) falls with a growth of λ and lookstypical for quantum detectors with PtSi/p-Si SB. The optical

Advances in OptoElectronics 5

0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20

Responsivity

T = 12 KT = 12 KT = 80 K

1E + 00

1E − 01

1E − 02

1E − 03

1E 04

1E − 05

Wavelength (micron)

S(A

/W)

−

Figure 2: Spectral dependence of responsivity of PtSi/Si SB detec-tors with thickness of platinum silicide 300 A at different tempera-tures of crystalline lattice (reverse bias is equal to 12 V).

barrier height Ψopt ≈ 0, 23 eV. At excess of a wavelengthof 5.5 microns the responsivity becomes less than 6 ×10−5 A/W for the whole examined band of wavelengths, andthe “quantum” mechanism of detectors sensitivity ceases towork.

The S(λ) dependence changes radically when the tem-perature decreases. Thus, at T = 12 K, S(λ) does not varyqualitatively within the waveband of 2,0–5,0 microns incomparison to the observed data at 80 K and reaches itsminimum at approximately 3,5–4 microns. However, withgrowth of the wavelength the S(λ) grows nearly exponentiallyand at λ = 19 microns achieves the values of 0,3–0,4 A/W.Such values of S(λ) were previously observed for detectorswith PtSi/p-Si SB only at the waveband of “quantum”mechanism of sensitivity at λ = 2, 0 microns where theycorrespond to quantum efficiency η = 0, 2 (some decreasingof S(λ) in a range of 16-17 microns is explained by the two-phonon absorption in silicon). Such behaviour of S(λ) meansthat there is a contribution of another, not quantum, physicalmechanism of sensitivity. Existence of a minimum in thespectral dependence S(λ) is associated with the contributionof both physical mechanisms into the signal current, and itsdepth decreases with an increase of platinum silicide layerthickness. Thus, at 12 K the detectors investigated show thepresence of sensitivity in a wide spectral band ranging from2 up to 19 microns, which includes the atmosphere band oftransparency and such interesting absorption bands as thoseof water steam and carbonic gas.

It is known that for the backside illumination the short-wave limit of sensitivity for such detectors will be within therange of 1,2 micron. At the same time, at λ = 19 microns therecession of S(λ) is not observed and one can assume thatfurther growth of λ should be accompanied by an increaseof S(λ). Since the absorption of the radiation occurs in themetallic layer, we believe that HEGED mode can ensure

that detectors and FPAs are applicable for operation over asuperwideband of spectrum (up to sub-mm wavelengths).

3. Noise Equivalent Power (NEP)

It is well known that NEP and detectivity are the commonlyaccepted characteristics that are used to compare variousFPAs by their ability to register the lowest (threshold)power incident upon a photosensitive element. Both ofthese characteristics, however, are not measurable directlyand their values cannot be calculated without informationabout the FPA architecture and the modes at which thevalues of the optical signal threshold power are obtained.In particular, it is important to know which of the noisecomponents prevail for the given FPA, its noise frequencies,and the rate of the output signal. Unfortunately, the valuesof these characteristics are not mentioned for most casesof FPA comparison. Therefore, attempts to compare FPAsusing only the NEP values often appear to be noninfor-mative and can sometimes even be misleading. NEP canbe calculated in case the SNR and the power of desiredincident signal values have been measured. However, thecalculation will involve additional characteristics of the FPAmentioned above. Thus, the threshold power calculated fora photosensitive element becomes the primary characteristicobtainable from the given real measurements. Besides, thisparticular characteristic is very important for the purpose ofsensitivity comparison of different thermal imaging systems.However, it is a matter of preference on what kind of noiseequivalence is chosen, the threshold power is considered tobe preferable. The above consideration is valid for NETD aswell.

Theoretical values of the IR threshold power for an FPAwith HEGED, operating in the mode of signal integration for40 ms and with an output rate of 1 MHz, are provided in [9].Both the detector’s dark current noise and the noise createdby the background electrons are taken into account. Theseestimations show that, for an FPA with HEGED without abackground at T < 60 K, the achievable threshold power canbe 10−18 to 10−19 W. The presence of a background essentiallyincreases the threshold power. In the given research nodirect noise measurements are conducted and real values ofthermal background are presented. At these experimentaldata conditions the estimation of the threshold power atthe operational mode of the detectors is similar to thatdescribed in [9] and for the spectrum band of 14 to 19 μgives a value of the order of 10−14 W. It is expected thatwithin the rate of the output signal up to several MHz thenoise created by fluctuations of the dark charge will prevail;therefore, for an output rate of 1 MHz we should achieveNEP ≈10−17 W/Hz1/2.

4. An Opportunity to Increase the Detector’sOperating Temperature

The previous considerations lead us to expect that with anincrease in the detector’s crystalline lattice temperature itsresponsivity for the wavelengths with energy of quantums


less than the barrier height should also increase. It is possibleto come to the same conclusion using a theoretical approach.One should take into account that within the validity limitsof Richardson’s law the dependence of thermionic current,generated by both the temperature of the lattice and thetemperature of electronic gas, is described by identicalexpressions that do not have extremes at the correspondingtemperatures. The expressions also allow an estimation ofthe values of threshold temperature of the electron gasrequired to obtain the detector’s SNR equal to 1 at differenttemperatures of the lattice. These estimations [9] show thatthe difference between the required threshold temperature ofthe electron gas and the lattice temperature decreases withthe rise of the lattice temperature.

However, there are two factors that limit the opportunityto increase the operating temperature of the detector. First,with the increase of temperature there is a reduction ofelectron-phonon relaxation time. Thus, hot electrons trans-mit their energy to the lattice before they create a photocur-rent, and the physical mechanism upon which HEGED isbased ceases. The extrapolation estimations made in [9] formetallic layer Hf show that comprehensible values of theelectron-phonon relaxation time can be obtained up to atemperature of 60 to 70 K. The definite influence on thereduction of this “cooling” time of the electron gas can beintroduced also by the structure and impurity of the metalsilicide layer. Therefore, optimization of the nanostructureparameters and a certain level of cleanliness of this layershould play an important role. At this stage of the researchthe main focus of attention is on the problem of detection ofthe HEGED effect. For this purpose, obviously, temperatureslower than those supported by the theory were used. Therewas no sensitivity observed in the far IR at a temperatureT > 30 K.

Secondly, apart from the radiation which creates thesignal photocurrent, with the presence of background radi-ation there is also a background photocurrent. As a result,the noise, which is determined by fluctuations of thiscurrent, depends on the responsivity of the detector. Atthe observance of HEGED physical mechanism operatingconditions, it is reasonable to derive the absolute limit of thedetector’s operating temperature (T∗) from the dark currentand background photocurrent equality condition. For themultielement FPA, operating in charge integration mode, itis necessary that the sum of the dark and background chargedoes not result in an overflow of the pixel charge capacity.In this case the optimum operating temperature can become(and it becomes in some cases) below T∗.

5. Conclusion

Experimental research into detectors with PtSi/p-Si SB hasconfirmed the earlier theoretical estimations which showedthat superwideband IR detectors of the new type (hotelectrons gas emission detectors (HEGED)) can be createdusing Schottky Barriers and that the detectors will besensitive to radiation at the energy of quantums smallerthan the potential barrier. Spectral measurements of theresponsivity made within a band of 2–19 μ have shown that

detectors of this type have a sensitivity of at least 1,2 and up to19 microns and can theoretically work within LWIR and also(probably) VLWIR bands and within the submillimeter bandof electromagnetic radiation spectrum. The responsivity ofdetectors of this type grows with increasing wavelength andat a reverse voltage of 10–30 V at 12 K; at the thicknessof a platinum silicide layer no more than 300 A its valuesachieve 0.3–0.4 A/W at a wavelength of 19 μ. The operatingprinciple of the detectors allows, according to estimations,their operating temperature to be increased up to 60–70 Kwith improvement of the silicide layer creation technology.The possible ways that two-dimensional FPAs with HEGEDfor LWIR and VLWIR can be created are now under investi-gation.

References

[1] “New T-ray source could improve airport security, cancerdetection,” ScienceDaily, November. 27, 2007.

[2] “Second workshop on New Concept for Far-Infrared/Submil-limeter Space Astronomy,” Consensus view for NASA, CollegePark, Md, USA, March 2002.

[3] W. F. Kosonocky, H. G. Erhardt, G. Meray et al., “Advancesin platinum silicide Schottky-barrier IR-CCD image sensors,”Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical InstrumentationEngineers, vol. 225, pp. 69–71, 1980.

[4] T. S. Villani, W. F. Kosonoky, F. V. Shallcross et al., “Con-struction and performance of 320x244 – element IR CCDimager with PtSi Schottky-barrier detectors,” Proceedings ofInternational Society for Optics and Photonics, vol. 1107, pp.9–21, 1989.

[5] T. L. Lin, J. S. Park, T. George, E. W. Jones, R. W. Fathauer, andJ. Maserjian, “Long-wavelength PtSi infrared detectors fabri-cated by incorporating a doping spike grown by molecularbeam epitaxy Appl,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 62, no. 25, pp.3318–3320, 1993.

[6] B.-Y. Tsaur, C. K. Chen, and B. A. Nechay, “IrSi Schottky-barrier infrared detectors with wavelength response beyond12 mkm,” Electron Device Letters, vol. 11, no. 9, pp. 415–417,1990.

[7] A. Rogalski, “Infrared detectors,” Hayka, vol. 93, no. 8, pp. 81–157, 2003.

[8] J. E. Murguia, P. K. Tedrow, F. D. Shepherd, D. Leahy, andM. M. Weeks, “Performance analysis of a thermionic thermaldetector at 400 K, 300 K, and 200 K,” Proceedings of the Societyof Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol. 3698, pp. 361–375, 1999.

[9] V. G. Ivanov, G. V. Ivanov, and A. A. Kamenev, “MultielementIR detectors based on Schottky barriers sensitive to radiationwith quantum energy less than the height of the potentialbarrier,” Journal of Optical Technology, vol. 75, no. 8, pp. 518–523, 2008.

[10] V. G. Ivanov, G. V. Ivanov, A. A. Kamenev, V. A. Arutynov,R. M. Stepanov, and V. I. Panasenkov, “SB IR detectors withsensitivity in region, where quantums energy is less thenthe barrier height,” Applied Physics, no. 1, pp. 87–93, 2010(Russian).

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NewTypeFarIRandTHzSchottkyBarrierDetectorsfor ...downloads.hindawi.com/archive/2011/459130.pdfV. G. Ivanov 1 andG.V.Ivanov2 1 Solid State Infrared Devices, Electron, Central Research