NEW ZEALAND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

NEW ZEALAND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

OVERVIEW NOTES

PART ONE 1800 - 1865

MAORI SOCIETY 1800

ECONOMIC LIFE

Living Areas. Fortifications were common from the 16th century. There was a base settlement for winter and food-gathering camps in other locations.

Food. It was often scarce, very fibrous and hard on the teeth. Staples were kumara or fernroot supplemented by shellfish, fish, roots, berries and birds. There was some horticulture.

Land. Ownership was complex, involving rights over food gathering, land use and resources. Hereditary rights were community rights.

Trade. News and trade goods travelled quickly. Trade was usually the exchange of reciprocal gifts such as obsidian, green- stone and mutton bird.

Warfare. Traditional causes were women and land. Status and prestige had to be protected and enhanced.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Kinship was the basis of Maori social organisation. The hapu (group of families) was the basic unit of society. The whanau (extended family) was the smallest unit. Each had a kaumatua (family elder). The iwi (tribe) was made up of a number of hapu linked by kinship. Within Maori society, tuakana (seniority) and teina (junior) reflected age, rank and gender.

CULTURAL ASPECTS

Art. This included carving, tattooing and weaving. The geometric, rectilinear and spiral motifs used revealed ideas, myths or religious values.

Values and Beliefs. It was a highly competitive society, pre- occupied with the search for mana. The major organising belief was tapu. It varied in its manifestations but certain norms were universal. Utu (revenge, payment) governed relationships where tapu failed to act as a sanction.

Cosmology. The earliest written account was in 1849 (Arawa tribe). Whakapapa provided a time-scale for Maori myth, tradition and history.

The Voyagers. The canoe traditions of origin are confused and contradictory .Their function was to unify whole groups of hapu.

SITUATION IN 1840

There were 42 tribal groups. Boundaries were marked by hills, rivers, or prominent trees. Mana provided the driving force of Maori society. The forces of mauri (life force) and death, tapu and noa, male and female, east and west gave balance. Maori society was ready for the dialogue with the Pakeha in goods and ideas.

EARLY MAORI -EUROPEAN CONTACT 18OO-1840

European interest in the Pacific: Cooks journals alerted Europeans to the rich resources of New Zealand. After the establishment of British penal colonies in Australia more traders arrived. From the 1790s the demand for oil brought whalers to New Zealand waters. In 1792 the first sealers arrived in the south. Kauri spars and flax were gathered from the north of New Zealand.

Maori Enthusiasm for trade

Maori culture was open to innovation and keen to trade, especially in food and metal products.

Misunderstandings

From 1810-20 race relations were characterised by increased violence. The reasons included:

1. European ignorance of Maori expectations.

2. Traders were less scrupulous when the seals were declining.

3. Interhapu rivalries.

The Boyd Massacre

The Boyd called at Whangaroa in 1809 wanting kauri spars. It was captured by a group of Maori. The crew and most of the passengers were killed. The Pakeha accounts of the incident are confused about responsibility for the massacre. The effect was to interrupt contact between New Zealand and Australia for some years. Marsden had to delay establishing his proposed mission.

lntermedaries

Bridging the gap between the cultures and making arrangements for trade were:

1. Maori travellers who had visited Sydney and Hobart on whaleboats or who had been kidnapped.

2. Europeans who lived with Maori tribes.

The Missionaries

1.Anglican: The Church Missionary Society (CMS) established a mission at Rangihoua in 1814 under the protection of Ruatara. Samuel Marsden -a fearless, dedicated New South Wales pastoralist and merchant - had persuaded the CMS to set up the mission. Marsden held the missionaries to their task. Henry and Marianne Williams established a CMS mission at Paihia.

2. Wesleyans: established a mission at Whangaroa in 1823. After it was sacked in 1827, they re-established it at Mangungu on the Hokianga under the protection of Waka Nene and Patuone.

3. Roman Catholic: Bishop Pompallier arrived in 1838. He established himself at Kororareka. Later Roman Catholic missions were established on the North Hokianga. The Catholic Church did not have the resources to follow up Pompallier's early successes.

Early problems of the missions

1. Maori were more interested in trade in muskets than the Christian message.

2. The Ngapuhi, in control in the North until the late 1820s, were confident in their own culture.

3: The missionaries could not speak the Maori language.

Hongi Hika (1777/8-1828)

Hika was a warrior - leader of the Ngapuhi who quickly recognised the advantage of a European Mission. With a mixture of aggression and friendship, he set out to get what he could from the missionaries. On his visit to England in 1820, he met King George IV and acquired gifts which he sold to buy guns. With 3000 men he led campaigns against the Ngati Whatua of Auckland, the Ngati Maru of Thames, and the Waikato. He invaded Rotorua.

Conversion to Christianity

Communities converted as did individuals. Regional variations existed. There were few converts in the Waikato or Rotorua. Some historians see conversion as the result of a series of crises which destroyed Maori confidence. Others say the Maori selectively borrowed for their own reasons and to have access to Pakeha power. The Ngapuhi have been used as a model for what was probably happening to all tribes.

Reasons For Converting to Christianity

I. War Weariness. With casualties probably as high as 19%, this affected the Ngapuhi by the end of the 1820s.

2. Disease. European diseases -such as venereal disease, influenza, viral dysentery, measles and whooping-cough -had a devastating impact. Traditional Maori medicine and tohunga could not cope. That missionaries were immune and offered some pain relief was seen as the power of the Pakeha God.

3. Education and Literacy. The missions educated the slaves of the Ngapuhi. When these slaves returned home they spread the desire for literacy. William Colenso and his printing press printed one New Testament for every two Maori by 1845. In 1844 William Williams published the first dictionary and grammar of Maori language. The ability to read and write gave access to Jehovah's power.

4. Rivalry. Other tribes bitterly resented Hongi's monopoly of access to missionaries. They also wanted traders. Inter-hapu and inter-tribal rivalry led to different Christian denominations being accepted. As the Ngapuhi were Anglican their enemies were Wesleyan or Catholic.

A synthesis of religion

The mana of Papahurihia -a tohunga karakia (a man of prayer) -spread in the Northern tribes in the 1830s. He performed miracles. The growth of the Papahurihia sect is evidence of a complex system of borrowing taking place, accommodating traditional rivalries and enmities.

Te Rauparaha (1768-1849)

He was a Ngati Toa rangitira with important kinship links with leading Tainui hapu. In 1820, to escape from a Waikato invasion, he organised the evacuation of his people by sea. He consolidated his position on Kapiti Island, chasing the Mauapoko tribe off their lands. He had 2000 slaves on Kapiti preparing flax for trade. In 1828 with 300 warriors of Ngati Toa, he invaded the Kaikoura coast. In return for a cargo of flax, Captain Stewart of the brig Elizabeth helped him invade Akaroa and the Ngai Tahu.

The situation in 1839

1. There were 2000 Pakeha, 40 shore whaling stations (bi-racial), renowned for drunkenness and debauchery.

2. The many points of contact between Pakeha and Maori included intermarriage, Pakeha-Maori who were members of Maori tribes (Barnet Burns) and traders (Clendon, Mair, Tapsell).

3. Mixed race individuals and communities were increasing.

4. Some old customs were disappearing and new customs taking their place. Cannibalism had almost ended. European clothes were widely used. Iron tools were in common usage. Whaling boats were replacing canoes. Polygamy was in decline. Tobacco, potatoes, maize, and pork had become a regular part of Maori diet. Various forms of tapu were declining. Sunday observance was becoming commonplace.

TOWARDS BRITISH ANNEXATION 1840-1852

Attitude of the Colonial Office

The American Revolution had shown that colonies were a waste of money. In the current free trade ideology, colonies had no place. Existing colonies received little attention. But with the establishment of British convict settlements in Australia Britain accepted that she had some responsibility for New Zealand. Convicts took refuge there. The missionaries too needed protection.

Humanitarianism

There was an increasing concern for rights and welfare of non- European peoples. Missionary societies, especially the CMS and its secretary, Dandeson Coates, championed humanitarian views. No British government could afford to ignore them.

British Obligations

1. British subjects in New Zealand had an indisputable right to be protected by their sovereign.

2. The Maori must be protected from the worst consequences of white invasion, especially from convicts.

Legal Principles

1. Justices of the Peace were appointed by the Governor of New South Wales to exercise authority in New Zealand.

2. A bond was required of ships' captains, to be forfeited if they discharged convicts or removed any Maori.

3. All British subjects in the Pacific were bound to obey British law. This was to be enforced by ships' captains (the main offenders).

4. Occasional British ships were sent to inspect the New Zealand coast.

5. In 1823 the courts of Tasmania and New South Wales were given jurisdiction over British subjects in New Zealand.

Events of 1830s

1. Missionary Concern. Missionaries campaigned actively in Australia and Britain for British government intervention. They were concerned about the evil effects of uncontrolled settlement on the Maori.

2. Stewart's Assistance to Te Rauparaha. This caused shock and dismay. Though Stewart was arrested, the witnesses disappeared and he had to be released.

3. The Appointment of James Busby. He was appointed by the Colonial Secretary as Resident in New Zealand. He was to impose law and order, assist the missions, protect the Maori, and stabilise them.

Busby As Resident (1833-1838)

1. No Status or Power: He had no power over British subjects. The support he had expected from the Governor of New South Wales was lacking. He had no troops and no status with the Maori. The Ngapuhi attacked his home.

2. The United Tribes of New Zealand. Thomas McDonnell, a trader in Hokianga, was appointed as additional Resident in 1835. McDonnell had more mana with the Maori. Busby set out to undermine McDonnell's authority by encouraging 34 chiefs to sign a declaration of independence. Busby's aim was also to protect New Zealand from Baron Charles de Thierry , a colorful, flamboyant adventurer. The declaration had little effect on British policy .

Towards a Decision

1. European Population Increases. By 1838 there were 30 shore whaling stations and a European population of 800.

2. Missionary Demands For Intervention. In 1837 a parliamentary committee investigating transportation to Australia confirmed missionary complaints that many settlers in New Zealand were escaped convicts and were jeopardising the work of the mission. In 1837 a Report of the Select Committee of House of Commons on the state of the Aborigines drew evidence from New Zealand and concluded that native welfare could not be left to colonists.

3. French Interest. In 1838 Pompallier established a French Catholic mission in Kororareka and D'Urville returned to explore the New Zealand coast. The French threat was never of serious concern to the Colonial Office, but New South Wales business- men were worried about their investments in New Zealand.

4. Inter-Hapu Fighting. In 1837 fighting in the Bay of Islands led Busby to request a ship of war or an armed force to protect British subjects. HMS Rattlesnake under Captain Hobson was dispatched and asked to report on- the situation.

Hobson Recommended:

Sovereignty over trading posts or factories to be established by cession from the chiefs and a system of indirect rule. Chiefs to be persuaded to protect British lives and property .

Busby's Recommendations:

He dismissed the factory-type plan. He wanted a Protectorate established. He emphasized the misery of the Maori, the European responsibility for this, and the Maori claim to protection of the British Government.

New Zealand Association

Formed in 1837 by Wakefield and associates, it had an ambitious scheme to colonise New Zealand. It sought support from the Colonial Office. The British Government required the Association to become a joint-stock company. They would only be granted part of New Zealand. The Association decided the conditions were unacceptable.

Hobson

When offered the job as consul he made it clear that the factory plan was only the minimum step; it would be best for Britain to assume full sovereignty.

Wakefield takes a chance

The New Zealand Colonisation Company (which replaced the earlier Association) now owned I million acres, and a ship, and had selected immigrants ready to leave. It now wanted the British Government to honour its earlier promise of support. But the Government rejected them. Wakefield persuaded directors of Colonisation Company that annexation was inevitable. Wakefield did not force annexation but reacted to its inevitability. The Tory sailed on 12 May 1839. The Company was warned that any land bought from the Maori would probably be re-purchased by the Crown.

Hobson's Instructions

The Colonial Office had still not finished drafting instructions for Hobson when the Tory departed. Its departure hurried the British Government to finalise policy. Chiefs would cede sovereignty over limited areas and would receive a guarantee of territorial and sovereign rights. The form of government for annexed areas had not been decided. Hobson would not have a military force. He was to encourage colonisation.

Arrival of Hobson

Hobson arrived in Sydney 24 Dec 1839 and was sworn in as Lieutenant-Governor. During the voyage he had decided to seek the cession of the whole country.

CROWN COLONY 1840-1852

The Treaty of Waitangi

Hobson's main objective was to establish civil government in order to protect rights of British and Maori subjects. First he had to persuade Maori chiefs to cede sovereignty to the Crown. He consulted local Europeans and missionaries and fashioned a Treaty from various drafts. In haste, Henry Williams translated it into Maori.

The Hui at Waitangi (5 Feb 1840)

The assembled chiefs debated the issue in Maori. Hobson spoke in English. Williams translated his remarks and read the Treaty in Maori. The first chiefs who spoke were hostile. They feared they would lose their chiefly mana. Issues of personal and hapu mana may also have been involved. Decisive speeches were made by Hone Heke and Waka Nene who pointed out that the process of European penetration .had gone too far to be stopped.

Signatures (6 Feb 1840)

No further debate was permitted by Hobson. After 43 chiefs signed, presents were distributed. Hobson promised protection to all religious groups, including Maori custom and usages.

Problems and misunderstandings

Certain important concepts were ambiguous.

1. Pre-emption was ambiguous in both texts. Hobson saw it as a Crown monopoly over all land transactions. The legal meaning was 'first option.' In translation, Williams used the word 'hokonga' meaning buying, selling, barter, exchange.

2. The concept of sovereignty was not adequately translated in the Maori text. The use of missionary Maori confused the issue.

3. The great majority of Maori could neither read nor write. The discussion was more important to them than the text.

4. In effect the Treaty set up two sovereignties.

Annexation of the South and Stewart Island

On 21 May 1840, Hobson proclaimed the North Island British by cession and the South Island by discovery.

Further Signatures Hobson collected another 56 signatures from Hokianga in spite of opposition from traders. After Hobson fell ill, Shortland and Symonds collected the remainder. It had been signed by over 500 chiefs. Except to the Ngapuhi, it had little meaning before the 1865.

Disagreements

1. Hobson decided to make Auckland the capital. Most Maori (100 000) lived in the north. There were only 12 296 Pakeha in 1845. The Port Nicholson settlers were outraged.

2. Hobson had no money to buy land. But the Maori could sell only to the Governor. The Ngapuhi were very aggrieved by this.

3. The validity of the New Zealand Company's land purchases was in question.

4. No one was certain what rights were conferred by the Treaty. Politicians, civil servants and Governor Gipps (NSW) believed the Maori had no rights to lands they neither inhabited or cultivated (waste lands). Whereas Hobson, Shortland and missionaries felt the Maori owned all of New Zealand.

Accord

The Colonial Office and the New Zealand Company reached agreement in Nov 1840. The British Government agreed to give the Company 4 acres for every 1 pound spent on immigration. In return the Company waived rights to the 20 million acres it claimed.

The New Zealand Company and Land Ownership

Maori ownership of the Wellington area was confused. The Atiawa, pushed out of North Taranaki by the Waikato, themselves dislodged Wellington tribes. In October 1842 the Company and the Colonial Office disagreed over the land purchases the Company claimed. It was the Company's view that the Treaty did not apply in the area of Cook Strait or the South Island. Hobson disagreed.

The Law

Hobson's instructions had allowed for a transition stage. The government was to support missions and schools. Tribal war was to be outlawed, also cannibalism, human sacrifice and infanticide. Other customs were to be tolerated during a slow erosion of Maori authority. But Hobson's repeated requests for more soldiers to enforce the law were ignored. He refused to recruit a militia from the settler population.

Maori View

Most hapu only accepted the Governor's authority in dealings with Pakeha. Fitzroy (Hobson's replacement) issued a Native Exemption Ordinance in July 1844. This modified English law to accommodate Maori needs, especially in disputes involving Maori alone. It was very unpopular with Pakeha settlers.

Conflict

1. Nelson: In 1843 Captain Arthur Wakefield tried to seize the fertile lands of Wairau to satisfy settler needs for more land. The Ngati Toa resisted, burning the surveyor's huts. They wanted Spain to investigate. Jingoism and racial confidence in Nelson led settlers into forming a vigilante group to teach the Maori a lesson. Te Rauparaha and Te Rangihaeata resisted, took prisoners and slaughtered them. Fitzroy believed settlers to be in the wrong and refused to punish the Ngati Toa. The settlers were furious.

2. Taranaki: The Atiawa returned and demanded payment for land already purchased from some of the tribe. Spain found for the New Zealand Company. Fitzroy withheld the Waitara area from the settlers. The settlers were infuriated.

3. The North: The Ngapuhi were disgruntled with the Governor and the Treaty. Crown pre-emption had ended land sales. The decline of deep-sea whaling, the end of customs duties, and the capital moving to Auckland, hurt the regional economy of the north. The Ngapuhi had lost mana to the Ngati Whatua and the Waikato. Kawiti attacked Kororareka in 1845. Heke cut down the flagstaff, the symbol of British authority. The attacks were well conceived and executed. British troops were defeated and Kororareka sacked. Most Ngapuhi remained neutral or fought against Kawiti and Heke. At Puketutu and Ohaewai, the British faced defeat. Kawiti rejected the terms offered by Fitzroy.

Governor George Grey

Fitzroy was recalled. Grey arrived in Nov 1845. He had more troops and heavier cannon. With 1000 men he led the attack on Kawiti's new pa at Ruapekapeka. Grey claimed victory but it was probably a tactical draw. Heke's mana remained high but the Governor had demonstrated the British ability to keep troops in the field. Maori forces were part-time soldiers.

Grey Extends Settlement

1. In the Cook Strait region the colonists outnumbered the Maori. Grey captured Te Rauparaha, ending Ngati Toa resistance to settlement of the Upper Hutt and Porirua.

2. In 1850-53 Grey purchased much of South Island and the Hawkes Bay- Wairarapa.

EUROPEAN SETTLERS ARRIVE 1840-1860

Why did they come to New Zealand?

1. The desire to better their circumstances.

2. The need to begin again after bankruptcy, bigamy, disgrace or failure in Australia.

3. The glowing ads, paid passages, and promises of employment by colonising associations.

4. The hope for better opportunities for their children.

5. British society was under stress with widespread unemployment, low wages, grim living conditions. The middle class especially felt that opportunities were restricted.

Edward Gibbon Wakefield and the New Zealand Company

While in goal, he wrote A Letter From Sydney in 1829 which outlined a controlled, large-scale approach to migration, a scheme for systematic colonisation.

His Plan

It was to transplant a cross-section of pre-industrial English society to a new land. Land was to be bought and surveyed. Emigrants were to be selected carefully for balance of sexes, age groups, and occupations. Emigration procedures were to be organised efficiently, colonists to be concentrated in the towns. It would be an agricultural settlement with small-scale industry .In 1838 the New Zealand Association became a joint-stock company. It was a commercial venture.

Land Price

1. Land was to be sold at a uniform and sufficient price.

2. It would be purchased cheaply from the Maori and re-sold at a higher, fixed price.

Results of the High Fixed Price

1. As land would be out of reach of the working class settlers, their labour would be available for capitalists.

2. Profits would be used to subsidise labourers' fares and for public works. 75% of proceeds would be spent on further emigration.

3. High land prices would keep the settlement compact.

Land Orders

Town and agricultural sections would be part of each land order. The increase in the value of the town section would provide an excellent return. As only original sections were to include town lots there was a rush on them in 1839. But only half the buyers were intending to emigrate. The land orders were distributed by lottery.

The purchase of the land In 1839 William Wakefield was sent to New Zealand on the Tory to discover and buy at least 110000 acres of flat fertile land with a safe harbour. Though he was instructed to be frank, fair and tactful with the Maori over land deals, he was not provided with enough cash. Dicky Barrett (whaler) helped Wakefield negotiate with the Atiawa (Te Wharepouri, Honiana Te Puni) who with the Ngati Toa, had driven out Ngati Kahungunu. Because the tribes were uneasily allied they were prepared to make a deal. The sale of Port Nicholson (Wellington) was concluded on 27 Sept 1839.

Areas of Ambiguity

1. The sellers were unaware of the scale of the immigration and the threat to their numerical superiority.

2. The Maori did not foresee the complete clearance of bush and loss of birds.

3. The implied understanding that the sellers were to retain villages, cultivations and urupa (cemeteries) was not written down.

4. The sellers did not realise their land was to be redistributed by the London lotterv.

Why did chiefs sell?

1. Some sold the right to temporary occupation.

2. Others wanted a powerful ally against enemy tribes. The Atiawa sold land in Taranaki as protection against the Waikato.

Emigrant Ships Despatched

After Colonel Wakefield purchased more land from Te Rauparaha, he claimed to have bought a total of 20 million acres. Before the land could be surveyed, the sale verified or legal title established, the Company had despatched its first three emigrant ships.

THE WAKEFIELD SETTLEMENTS

Wellington

In 1840 the first 1000 settlers arrived. When the Petone site proved unsuitable settlement shifted to Te Aro and Thorndon. Because Auckland was the capital, land values did not rise as much as hoped. Surveyors rode roughshod over the Maori, taking much of their land. In the Butt area, Te Rangihaeata resisted. When William Spain investigated the land sales and the Company's title to the land. the Company would not co-operate. After Grey arrested Te Rauparaha, settlers were able to move into the Butt and Porirua. Wellington was too hilly and the soil was too infertile to be a success as an agricultural settlement.

Wanganui

In May 1840,40 000 acres was purchased by E.J. Wakefield for 700 pounds. Land titles were uncertain and disputed but it was flat, fertile, and with river frontages. Wanganui developed slowly. There was conflict with the Maori tribes until Donald McLean sorted out boundaries and land titles in 1848.

Nelson

Led by Arthur Wakefield, this was designed to be bigger and more profitable than Wellington. Land buyers were to get 150 rural acres and 50 suburban acres. Original sections were sold in London in 1840-1, with a lottery providing the order of choice.

Problems

1. Only half the sections were sold, mostly to absentees.

2. The area chosen had too little land for such an ambitious project.

3. Very few capitalists or employers arrived. There was little capital for development.

4. Jobs were scarce but assisted immigrants had been offered guaranteed employment. They had to be offered relief work. When the

Company got into financial trouble, relief and rations were cut. There was much distress.

5. Most settlers came from industrial towns. They found clearing, draining and farming a difficult task.

6. Because relationships between the government and the Company were strained, settlers felt the government was hostile and

neglected them.

Recovery

In 1847, Governor Grey purchased the Wairau. By 1850 Nelson was exporting. Farming was succeeding and sheep farmers were establishing themselves in the Wairau.

New Plymouth

As with other New Zealand Company settlements, New Plymouth settlers faced problems of uncertain land titles, finding sufficient employment and coping with the administrative bungling of Company officials. Life was very harsh for the first immigrants. Isolation was a major problem, made worse by the absence of a protected harbour. Food was in short supply. Many settlers left for other settlements. The Maori owners of the land began to drift back and disputes intensified. But by the mid-1850s agriculture was flourishing and New Plymouth had a population of 2000.

Was the New Zealand Company a Success?

1. By 1848 it had brought nearly 10000 new settlers to New Zealand. Not all stayed.

2. All the settlements had suffered from rushed, defective land purchases. But by 1848 land titles had been sorted out.

3. The clashes with the Colonial Office had meant distress to the colonists.

4. Its dealings with the Maori had damaged race relations.

OTHER SETTLEMENTS

Otago A scheme for a Scots-Presbyterian settlement based on Wakefield's ideas of systematic colonisation brought settlers to Otago in 1848. The Free Kirk of Scotland, a reformed evangelical church, dominated the settlement. The land was purchased from the Ngai Tahu for 2400 pounds. William Cargill was appointed Resident Agent.

Problems The Scottish settlers had little money. Land sales were slow. Lack of capital slowed development. Work was hard to find. The Company had to provide work for the jobless. Some settlers left for other centres. The more prosperous English settlers owned more land.

Pastoralism By mid-50s the farms were established. Sheep became the most successful investment. Pastoralists needed cheap leases. The high uniform price for land had to be abandoned in 1855-6.

Canterbury (1850)

John Robert Godley, a very religious High Church Anglican with strong links to the Establishment, combined with Wakefield to establish a settlement to promote the values of the Anglican Church

The Plans The Canterbury Association intended to sell land at 3 pounds an acre. The profits would be used to survey and prepare the settlement, finance immigration, religious and educational needs and return a profit to the Company. Land sales were restricted to bona fide settlers.

The Settlement Godley went to New Zealand as the Company agent. However, only 1/6 of the sections had been sold when the first batch of settlers arrived. The preparations for the arrival of the settlers were restricted. The grand plans for education and religion had to be curtailed.

Pastoralism As in Otago, pastoralism was the best investment. Godley modified the fixed land price in spite of criticism by Wakefield and other Association members. By 1852 all the plains and most of the low hills were leased by pastoralists. It was a body blow to the idea of a closely settled agricultural community . Though nearly 4000 immigrants had arrived, the Association was in debt and was discontinued in 1852.

Auckland -the Unplanned City

In 1840, after tribal conflict, it was largely de-populated. To Hobson it was an ideal site for a capital. It lay between the two main Pakeha settlements of Kororareka and Port Nicholson. It straddled the area of the biggest Maori population. Food was available from the Waikato (Maori).

The Purchase The Ngati Whatua chiefs hoped the land sale in 1841 would protect them from the powerful Ngapuhi. Subdividing and reselling town sections began almost immediately, to the envy of the Wakefield settlements.

Rapid Growth By 1842 the population reached 2895, including a garrison of 95 soldiers. There were constant worries about Maori attack. Capital for development was scarce as boom turned to depression. Maori trade kept business alive.

A Government Town By 1845 the Colonial Office was spending more and stimulated the economy. Auckland had close trade and shipping links with Sydney. Prosperity rested on official expenditure and government contracts. It had eclipsed Kororareka as sea trading port. By 1853 there were 8000 people.

Maori Population Of all the settlements it had the largest Maori population. Maori labour was important.

The six settlements were:

1.Isolated from one another by irregular shipping links.

2.More interested in local than national issues.

3.Short of capital for development.

4. Affected more by local conditions than planning.

5. Frontier societies characterised by drunkeness, assault and theft.

WAKEFIELD IN RETROSPECT

1. Wakefield's plan was a speculative investment. The lottery encouraged absentee ownership and speculation. Its profits were needed to pay for immigration.

2. There were too few capitalists. This held back development.

3. Economic development lay with pastoral farming not close- knit agricultural settlements.

4. The Company's attitude to the Maori race was callous, greedy and self-interested.

Wakefield's Contribution

His idea that land should be sold at a sufficient price became official Colonial Office policy. Also of value were his ideas on the selection of immigrants -the emphasis on families, the balance of sexes, youth and fitness. All these were important to a new colony. Above all, his colonisation scheme did lure settlers to New Zealand and may well have spared the settlements from the worst excesses of the frontier.

SOCIETY 1840-1860

Wakefield's plan for a replica of pre-industrial British society didn't work out.

SOCIAL RANGE

1. Very few men or women of property or capital came.

2. The middle-class, merchants and shopkeepers, were well represented.

3. The working classes were not a cross-section of English or Scottish working classes. Selection procedures aimed at attracting working class settlers who were strong, young and self- reliant. Young married couples were preferred. A balance in numbers between single males and females was attempted. To get an assisted passage an immigrant had to:

a. Be under 40, preferably between 20 and 30.

b. Have a medical certificate.

c. Have a parish recommendation of good character.

Preference went to farm servants, shepherds and domestic servants. Selection was not as rigorous as planned, but emigration only appealed to the young and relatively adventurous. Auckland had widest social range. It included boys from Parkhurst prison, escaped convicts and ex-soldiers.

SOCIAL ORDER

The settlers wanted to break out of the old social order, not perpetuate it. They could do so because:

1. It was easier to become a landowner than Wakefield anticipated.

2. The shortage of skilled labour gave them a chance to demand better working conditions, shorter hours and increased pay.

Social Attitudes

Working people grew rapidly in self-respect. Egalitarian attitudes, lack of respect for authority and social status was common. Social reIationships especially those of children, were open and easy- going. But there were still strong social divisions based on wealth.

Cultural Backgrounds

Immigrants came from similar cultural backgrounds. The small number of French (Akaroa) and Germans (Nelson) were out- numbered by those from the British Isles. Many came via Australia. They were already experienced settlers.

Women

Value To Wakefield, women were essential to a new society. They were the homemakers, upholders of moral values, agents of civilisation. Colonisers wanted equal numbers of men and women.

Occupation That of most women was wife. There were few opportunities for employment outside the home. The largest category was domestic service. New Zealand families enjoyed a higher standard of living, so there was less need for women to work outside the home.

Household Work Everyone had to do some household work. The wider range of functions and duties than in England for middle- class women gave them a greater sense of purpose and usefulness.

Contribution Some helped on farms (selling butter) or in shops. Widows or deserted wives often took over the management of a farm or business. Women were also responsible for setting a higher moral tone. They were expected to redeem men from the evils and roughness of frontier life. Dancing girls, barmaids, actresses, and prostitutes were also present in all the settlements.

Public Role Women could not stand for public office or vote.

FAMILY

Value The colonisers saw the family as a source of social stability.

Marriage For both women and men it was vital to marry prudently. Upon marriage, a woman's property and wages belonged to her husband. In 1860 the Married Women's Property Act gave a deserted wife rights to her own wages and possessions.

Divorce It was virtually unknown but desertion was common. The socially prominent just lived apart. Marriages were more often terminated by the death of the husband than that of the wife. Only a small percentage of surviving wives remarried.

Household Usually large, they included lodgers and servants.

RELIGION

Religious organisations aimed to convert the Maori. The spiritual welfare of the settlers was secondary. Lay leaders took responsibility for services; held in strange places such as courthouses and woolsheds. The great majority of settlers were nominally Christian but did not attend public worship regularly.

DEMOGRAPHY -CHARACTERISTICS OF THE POPULATION

1. It was very youthful.

2. It was predominantly male. In the 1851 census there were 9000 males and less than 6000 females between ages of 15 and 60. This imbalance peaked in 1864 with 2.27 adult males to every 1 adult female.

3. It was very mobile.

4. There were very high rates of violent crime among Pakeha males. This peaked in the 1850s. Most convictions were for assault and drunkenness involving individuals, not gangs.

5. There was a clear link between crime and alcohol. The government gained profitable revenues from the sale of alcohol. So when the Select Committee of Parliament in 1864 identified drunkenness as the main cause of crime, nothing was done to limit the trade.

RACIAL ATTITUDES

1. Racial Arrogance: Though Pakeha settlers were impressed by Maori farming skills, trading ability and readiness to learn new ways, most viewed Maori culture as savagery. Most settlers were patronising, arrogant and contemptuous. They learned, however that it was fatal to underestimate Maori warrriors.

2. Intermarriage: There was considerable intermarriage but no statistics were kept until 1886 on mixed race individuals. As more European settlers arrived, liaisons and intermarriage declined.

POLITICAL POWER

From 1840-1852

New Zealand was a Crown Colony governed on behalf of Queen Victoria's Government by a Governor appointed by the Crown. The wealthier and better educated settlers wanted to participate in politics and to control their own affairs. The long squabbles between the Colonial Office and the New Zealand Company embittered relationships between the settlers and early governors.

Elected Assemblies

In 1846 the British Secretary for the Colonies, Earl Grey, sent out a complicated constitution which allowed settlers' representatives to participate in government. Sir George Grey persuaded the Colonial Office to postpone it. He argued that relationships between Maori and European were still too unsettled and settlers were still dependent on financial help from Great Britain.

Settlers Demand Elected Assemblies

But many settlers, such as John Robert Godley, waged war against the Governor. They formed Constitutional Associations. They demanded immediate action.

1852 Constitution

It was greeted with much enthusiasm. It established six provinces, each with its own Provincial Council, popularly elected Superintendent and wide local powers: Central Parliament controlled national affairs. There were two houses, an elected House of Representatives and an appointed Legislative Council. Maori policy was reserved to the Crown but the money to implement it had to be voted by Parliament. The franchise was based on property. Women had no vote. Maori men were effectively excluded because they did not own land as individuals.

Elections

The first elections were in 1853. There were no clear-cut political divisions or party lines. They were not hotly contested.

Responsible Government

In 1856, Governors had to take advice of ministers who had a majority in the General Assembly. They were therefore responsible to the General Assembly.

EDUCATION

The intentions of the colonisers to set up schools were limited by poor land sales. Many children received no education. In 1847 Church of England, Roman Catholic and Wesleyan schools, but not non-sectarian schools, were given subsidies by Governor Grey.

Provinces Provide Education 1852

Most gave subsidies to schools. Nelson had the best provision, with a levy on householders after 1858. Elsewhere the provision was very uneven, school attendance low, illiteracy very common. Parents could not afford school fees in addition to the loss of labour and income. Secondary schools were for the wealthy only. Tertiary education was not available.

MAORI SOCIETY 1840-1860

In 1840 the Maori were more concerned with rivalry and competition within their own society than in relationships with the Pakeha. But Pakeha were a source of prestige and guns. Maori society was fragmented in nature.

Social Changes

1. Enthusiasm for literacy.

2. Some old customs disappearing (polygamy).

3. Enthusiastic adoption of the externals of Christianity, such as the Sabbath as a day of rest.

But traditional beliefs and practices existed side by side with the new. Tapu and maketu (sorcery) were still important. Demands for utu were for material payments, and developed less often into large-scale fighting.

Declining Population

By 1858, the Pakeha was beginning to outnumber the Maori. Maori mortality rates were very high. Influenza, measles, whooping- cough, dysentry, measles (epidemic 1854) were taking a toll. Fertility rates were also affected by venereal disease and ill-health. Children were very susceptible in epidemics.

THE ECONOMY 1840-1870

THE GROWTH OF PASTORALISM

Sheep imported from Australia were grazed on leased runs in the Wairarapa, later expanding into the Hawkes Bay. At first the organisers of the settlements opposed sheep farming but wool was very profitable.

1. Ideal Conditions: The climate was very suitable; pasture abundant, especially in the dry rolling tussock country of Marlborough, Otago and Canterbury.

2. Land prices: In 1853, Grey lowered the price ofland in Wairarapa and in South Island. Grey borrowed from Australia ideas for regulating pastoral leases. Only the Crown could buy from the Maori. All land was leased or sold. There was no squatting. As selling land to runholders was the main source of revenue for Provinces, they introduced sales on liberal credit terms, such as deferred payment.

3. Rapid Growth: By 1853, there were 100000 sheep and 100 sheep runs. By 1861, there were 2.5 million sheep, mostly in the South Island. By the end of the 1870s, because wool prices were buoyant, there were some very large estates and sheep stations.

4. Wealth: The runholders made more money than other colonists. They have been described as 'gentry' but they were not as wealthy as the Australian pastoralists.

5. No Competition With Agriculture: Agriculture remained important because much of the South Island was suitable for mixed farming. The colonising elite remained committed to agriculture.

THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY

The main resources were sheep, capital, cheap land, native grasses and labour.

1. Capital: Most runholders had capital when they arrived.

2. Sheep Breeding: The Australian merino was best on the South Island high country .Experiments were made with English Romneys, Lincolns, Leicesters and Southdowns.

3. Experimentation: English grasses, and mixed farming were tried. The stock carrying capacity of runs was raised.

4. Wire Fencing: -Cheap fencing reduced labour, allowed better stock management, more effective breeding and better land use.

5. Problems: included overstocking, rats, wild dogs, tutu and diseases such as footrot and scab.

6. Employment: Shepherds were permanent hands. Large numbers of shearers (contract workers) were used. In the 1860s an Australasian labour market for shearers developed. Machine shearing, which began in 1880s, reduced the level ofskill needed. A large itinerant labour force of brickmakers, fencers, drovers and bullockies was required.

7. Transport: The main exports of wool, sheepskins and tallow were transported by great bullock wagons.

Expansion Slows

Until the land was fully occupied, capital was mostly invested in stock. By the 1870s runholders had to invest in land.

An entrepreneurial economy was emerging of bank credit, mortgages and loans.

AGRICULTURE

Sizeable agricultural areas existed. With the 1850s Australian drought the price of wheat and potatoes increased. Nelson and

Auckland were the leading grain growing provinces of the early 1850s. By 1856 wheat and oats were grown on a sizeable scale in Otago and Canterbury .Characteristics were:

I. English or Scottish farming practice had to be modified.

2. North Island agriculture took longer to establish. The land had to be cleared of bush, fern and flax.

3. In all settlements farmers aimed to meet their own needs. Surpluses were shipped to local settlements or exported to Sydney.

4. Maori farming dominated the North Island.

5. Farming was labour intensive. Ploughs, harrows, mattock and hoe were often used.

Labour Roles

The farm was a partnership with gender roles well defined. The dairy herd, making butter and cheese, the hens and kitchen garden were women's work. Women rarely worked in the fields. The wife managed the household; the husband looked after the crops and stock.

Maori Farming

Few statistics are available. Some of the largest merchant houses specialised in trade with Maori. Governor Grey encouraged Maori farming, giving them ploughs, horses and lending money for mills.

Characteristics: Wheat, maize, potatoes and kumara were the staples of Maori diet and tobacco was increasingly grown. Fertiliser was not used. The same crop was planted on the land until the land was exhausted, then it was abandoned to Pakeha weeds and new land burnt off. Corn was grown in clumps, potatoes in mounds, both planted according to the moon and other natural signs.

Ngati Porou Expansion 1850-1855: An estimate of about 100 000 bushels of wheat was produced from the east coast. Maize, onions and salt pork was exported, cattle and horses increased in number, ploughs and mills multipled. There was further expansion in the 1870s.

Rangiaowhia: in the upper Waikato, was the showplace of Maori agriculture in 1840s and 1850s. Rev John Morgan encouraged agriculture and introduced wheat, oats and barley, and fruit trees. By 1850 there was more than 1300 acres in crops, a large water powered mill, ten ploughs, 7 carts and drays.

Effect of the War: It destroyed Maori agriculture in the Waikato. In 1864 British forces captured and burnt Rangiaowhia. The land was confiscated for European use.

GOLD

Discoveries

In May 1861, Gabriel Read -a veteran of California -hit rich pay dirt in Otago. Gold was discovered in Westland in 1866, and in Thames in the late 1860s. Thames gold was not alluvial but required capital for stamper batteries to smash the quartz.

Population Growth

By the end of 1863 Central Otago had a population of 24000. Dunedin had 12000 and Invercargill had grown to 2000. The population of Westland increased to 40 000. Thames grew to 12000.

Towns sprang into existence overnight. Hokitika, Greymouth and Westport became flourishing ports and commercial centres. Pubs, stores, banks, and markets sprang up.

Consequences

1. Population Growth: The population of New Zealand trebled.

2. South Island Growth: The population grew 6 times in a decade.

3. South Island Prosperity: Otago exported gold worth pounds 10 588 000 between 1861 and 1870. Westland exported pounds 9293000 from 1864-1870. Dunedin and Christchurch grew rich.

4. Closer Settlement in the South Island: Coach services (Cobb and Co) united the provinces. Coastal shipping flourished. Agriculture boomed.

Demography

Most gold seekers were male, young and unmarried.

1. Gender Imbalance: There were only 25 women for every 100 men on the West Coast.

2. Youth: 80% of the men were between 21 and 39 years.

3. Cultural Diversity: Most were British born. Irish Catholics were more numerous than before. A high proportion came from Victoria. Maori worked on the diggings, as did American Blacks, Indians and Chinese. The Chinese miners arrived in 1864 from Australia, encouraged by Otago merchants and businessmen. By 1871 there were 2500 Chinese miners in Otago. The other miners resented their presence.

4. Customs: Many Australian goldfield customs were adapted. Miners were very egalitarian and democratic, refusing to acknowledge rank or status. Their attitudes decisively shaped the new society.

Miners' Rights

The authorities borrowed from Australian experiences. The 1856 Goldfield Act subordinated everything on declared goldfields to gold mining. There was an export duty on gold, a system of wardens courts, provision for democratically elected mining boards. The miner's right entitled a miner to a claim and to vote.

Yields Fall

As alluvial gold was taken yields dropped. Miners turned to other methods such as sluicing, dredges, dams and sinking shafts. Companies were formed.

The Economy Stagnates

At the end of the 1860s, gold yields fell, wool prices fell. Timber milling, flax and whaling remained important in some areas. War preoccupied the North Island.

BATTLES FOR SUPREMACY 1860-1864

Competition between Maori and Pakeha began to develop on the basis of:

Who Owned The Land

The Victorian market for produce collapsed. Pakeha farmers were in a stronger position because they owned their farms by individual tenure, were better able to use technical innovations, had access to credit and were able to switch to pastoralism. Maori farmers were hit hard. No tribe was free of debt; shop-keepers charged exorbitant interest rates.

Authority

When the Maori were in the majority, British law was effective only in the main centres. But by 1858 the settlers were outnumbering the Maori. A demand arose to have Maori chiefs stripped of their power. The British wanted to demonstrate that they held substantive sovereignty over New Zealand.

Land Sales

Ownership of land defined areas of control. Selling the land meant transferring power and authority. Many Maori were eager to sell land. They wanted better access to skills, goods, markets and employment. Others wanted to demonstrate the legitimacy of their claim to disputed land.

THE KING MOVEMENT

This movement, taking shape in 1857-8, was the first attempt at a Maori national movement. The first King, an aged Waikato chief, became Potatau I.

I. It did not unite all Maori. Though predominantly a Waikato movement, even in the Waikato support was not unanimous.

2. It meant different things to different members. To some it was a way of coping with increasing disputes over land sales by transferring all land to the King. To others, it was a source of mana, to exist side by side with that of Queen Victoria.

3. It was an effort to consolidate a sense of Maoriness.

Plans

To keep a distinct territory from Mangatawhiri River to the interior Waikato. Chiefs were to place their land under the King's mana. Pakeha were not excluded but had to accept the King's authority and Maori law. The three basic principles were Te Whakapono, Te Aroha, Te Ture (Christianity, Love, Law).

Pakeha Reaction

To the Pakeha, for whom two rival sovereignties was not possible, the King Movement was potentially hostile. It ended the gradual and peaceful erosion of Maori authority.

THE TARANAKI WARS

Causes

1. The fertile Waitara of the Atiawa was desired by New Plymouth settlers. They were pressing for the confiscation of all 'waste land'.

2. In 1848 Wiremu Kingi actively opposed the sale of any more land. Kingi's followers resisted land sales vigorously.

3. Other hapu leaders resented Kingi's assumption of leadership. Teira {Taylor) offered to sell land to Gore Browne, the Governor, in defiance of Kingi.

4. Gore Browne accepted Teira's offer, maintaining that no chief had the right to say whether land should be sold or not unless he was a part-owner. Kingi was in fact a part-owner. Gore Browne did not want to recognise Kingi's authority. In his view, the Queen's sovereignty needed to be asserted.

5. King's men obstructed the surveyors. Martial law was declared.

The two sides

The war aims for the British were a swift decisive victory to demonstrate British power and superiority (sovereignty).

For Maori the aim was defensive-to preserve what they already had.

The British force began with 800 soldiers, later increasing to 3500 men. Maori never fielded more than 700-800 part-time warriors with no artillery.

The Fighting

The British found it difficult to engage in large-scale battles where they had the advantage. Fighting took place at Waireka, Mahoetahi, Matarikoriko and Puketakauere. British success was extremely limited. The military command (Colonel Gold) was blamed. The effective Maori strategy was to abandon a pa when it had served its purpose. They operated a well co-ordinated shift system; kept men supplied with food; continued trade in Auckland to maintain supplies.

Ceasefire: Fighting ended on 18 March 1861 after Wiremu Tamehana intervened. Public support for war was falling away. Several prominent Pakeha criticised Gore Browne. Doubts about the justice of the Waitara purchase emerged. Immigration was being ad- versely affected. The British Government was not enthusiastic about continuing to bear the cost. Gore Browne was replaced by Sir George Grey (his second Term).

Results

The Waitara purchase was to be investigated. The economy of Taranaki was crippled. Though the Maori had achieved their defensive aim their economic resources were devastated.

WAIKATO WAR

Grey's Peace Policy: Grey set up runanga or new institutions to give the chiefs local administrative powers. When the Maori chiefs did not use it to sell land it lost its appeal. Grey also tried flattery and gifts, his 'flour and sugar' policy , but pensions and gifts could not solve the problems of a declining population, social disruption and poverty .

War Policy: At the same time Grey prepared for war. He was uneasy about the formidable, independent, central tribes. The limited support the King Movement had given to the Taranaki war had demonstrated its military muscle. He built roads into the Waikato and planned for gunboats on the Waikato River. He kept the troops from the Taranaki War, supplementing them with an extra 3000 men.

Events Leading to War

I. Grey decided the Waitara should be returned to its Maori owners. First he occupied the Tataraimaka block which had been seized by Taranaki tribes. The angry Atiawa unsuccessfully ambushed government troops at Oakura. The Waitara was officially returned in May 1863.

2. Grey blamed the Kingites for the Oakura ambush. He also claimed they had a plot to invade Auckland. On II July 1863 he ordered the invasion of Waikato.

Causes of Conflict in the Waikato

1. The long-term cause was the basic antagonism of Maori and Pakeha. The settlers and even the missionaries welcomed war. They wanted to subjugate Maori nationalism. Their argument was that the 'rule of Pakeha law should prevail'.

2. Grey, like Gore Browne, wanted to establish British authority more effectively. Grey saw the Oakura ambush as a rejection of British authority.

3. The settlers and financiers coveted the rich lands of the Waikato.

The Opposing Armies

1. The British Force: In 1864 Grey had 14000 men. Of these, 4000 were colonial forces, 9000 were Imperial soldiers, a few hundred were pro-British Queenites (Arawa). Total mobilisation is estimated at 18 000 men. They were commanded by Lieutenant- General Cameron. It was one of the best prepared and organised British campaigns.

2. The Maori Force: With limited written evidence estimates of their strength have varied greatly. Cycles of concentration and dispersal were characteristic. On three occasions forces of 1000-2000 men assembled for up to three months. Total Maori mobilisation is estimated as 4000 warriors. This would only have been possible with a high degree of co-operative action. Leaders were Rewi Maniapoto of Ngati Maniapoto, Wiremu Tamehana of Nl{atihaua, and Tikaokao of Ngati Maniapoto.

Proclamation

On 9 July 1864, Grey issued a Proclamation calling on all Maori living north of the Mangatawhiri river to take the oath of allegiance to Queen Victoria or retire beyond the river. Those who resisted were liable to have land confiscated. This did not reach the Waikato until after Cameron's troops had crossed the Mangatawhiri.

The Fighting

The Maori force used guerilla tactics, killing settlers in outlying districts, and attacking communication lines. Cameron had to tie up three-quarters of his men in protecting communications. The Maori aim was to block Pakeha progress into the Waikato.

Meremere: A Maori force of about 1500 men constructed a pa and held up the British advance for 14 weeks, then dispersed.

Rangiriri: Its capture opened up the Waikato.

Ngaruawahia: was occupied by the British on 9 December. Cameron offered terms which were rejected.

Paterangi: was by-passed by a brilliant British manoeuvre. This allowed Cameron into the heartland of the Waikato. Rangiaowhai was burned and sacked.

Orakau: Rewi Maniapoto, forced into a defensive stand on a un- suitable site, resisted five assaults before attempting an audacious breakout.

End of Waikato War

Cameron decided against advancing further into the rugged hill country of the Ngati Maniapoto. War came to an indecisive end in 1864.

THE TAURANGA CAMPAIGN

Causes

A small British defensive force had been stationed at Camp Te Papa since 1864. The Ngai Te Rangi were neutral but had supplied the Waikato with soldiers and provisions. Rawiri Puhirake, fearing a British attack, decided to go on the offensive. This bold and impudent leader, deliberately challenged British authority.

Cameron Attacks

The challenge was welcomed as a chance for a decisive victory and a blow at Maori power. Cameron had 1700 men and powerful artillery. The Ngai Te Rangi had 200 warriors. But in a brilliant military manoeuvre the small Maori force decimated the much larger British force. A later victory at Te Ranga allowed the British to salvage some of their pride. The Ngai Te Rangi were able to negotiate moderate peace terms.

RESULTS OF THE WARS

For Maori

No one single battle was decisive but the cumulative effect was very destructive of Maori society and power. About 500 Kingite warriors were killed or wounded. The economy was strained, trade with Europeans stopped, the people demoralised by the loss of homes, land and constant retreat. People who fled south from the confiscated fertile lands had to eke out a living from rugged hill country. But the King Movement, though battered and weakened, was intact. It remained behind the autaki (frontier). Maori authority hung on.

For the British

Success was very limited. Both the Colonial Ministry and Grey felt that further operations were necessary to win the war. But Cameron refused. Britain had conquered less than one-third of the territory of the Waikato tribes.