New Yorker, Oct 9, 2000

Ergogenic aids fall into two categories:

Physical / Verbal– cheering, music, altitude training, sauna

and massage, psychology etc.

Chemical and Pharmacological – anabolic steroids, stimulants, narcotic

analgesics, beta blockers, diuretics, amino acids, vitamins etc.

Ergogenic Aids: History of Use Ancient Greek Olympians ate mushrooms Aztec athletes ate human hearts In late 1800s, European cyclists took heroin, cocaine

"speedballs," and ether-soaked sugar tablets Winner of 1904 Olympic marathon took strychnine

and brandy during race Winner of 1920 Olympic 100-m dash drank sherry

with raw egg before race In 1960 Olympics, Danish cyclist died in road race

from amphetamine In 1967 Tour de France, famed British cyclist died,

also from amphetamine Olympic testing began in 1968 for stimulants

Ergogenic Aids: History of Use

Development of Dianabol East German female

swimmers of 1970s-1980s Cyclists deaths (1987-1990) Chinese female swimmers

(1992-1994) 1998 Tour de France

27 Chinese athletes removed from team

Bulgarian and Romanian weightlifting teams expelled

USATF relinquished drug testing– alleged >12 positive tests

not reported last 2 years

Desire to Win by Elite Athletes

>90% would take it if assured of not being caught

>50% would take it even if side effects were lethal in 5 years

A 1997 SI survey of elite US athletes asked whether they would take an illegal drug that

guaranteed an Olympic gold medal.

Ergogenic Aids: Placebo Effect

Ariel & Savill, MSSE, 1972

Increasing Muscle Mass

Anabolic steroids

Growth hormone

Protein supplements

Anabolic Steroids

Male hormones have anabolic effects– accelerated growth of muscle, bone, and

red blood cells

Anabolic steroids are synthetic relatives to testosterone– high-volume training needed for beneficial

effects– inhibit protein breakdown

Anabolic Steroids: Secondary Effects

Androgenic effects– males: testicular atrophy, breast

development, sperm count, acne– females: masculinization, facial & chest

hair growth, deepening of voice, acne

Additional effects– aggressiveness, mood swings, altered

glucose metabolism, thyroid, lipid profiles

Commonly Used Anabolic Steroids

Testosterone Stanazolol Nandrolone DHEA Androstenedione

DHEA and Androstenedione: Precursors of Testosterone

Androstenedione

DHT Testosterone Estrone (E1)

Estradiol (E2)

DHEA

Effects of DHEA and Androstenedione After 12 Weeks of Training

Wallace et al., MSSE, 1999

Protein Supplementation

Research suggests that athletes have 2-3X RDA higher protein needs

Typical American athletes already consume this amount

Increased carbohydrate intake more important to increasing muscle mass

Fatigue: Implications for Ergogenic Aids

Power/Speed events– muscle mass– CNS & sympathetic stimulation– acidosis– depletion of PCr

Endurance events– muscle glycogen depletion– low blood [glucose]– fat oxidation rate– dehydration– diminished O2 delivery

Bicarbonate Loading

Intramuscular effects of acidosis PFK, phosphorylase Ca2+ sensitivity cross-bridge force output ATP turnover– slows recovery rate

Effects of bicarbonate loading plasma pH– speeds H+ and La- transport from muscle

Benefits of Bicarbonate Loading

not all studies report performance benefits– dependent on dosing– benefits maximal exercise of 1-10 min– GI distress

Performance After Bicarbonate Loading

Costill et al., Int J Sports Med, 1984

High-Intensity Exercise Effects on Muscle Metabolites

forcelactate

PCr

ATP

Endurance Training Adaptations

VO2max (~15%)

cardiac output (~15%) mitochondrial volume (2X) La threshold shifted to right ability to use fats (spares glycogen)

Increasing O2 Delivery blood doping

RBC and blood volume submax pH– La, HR

breathing 100% O2

EPO– stimulates RBC production

altitude training– live high, train low

ACSM Position Stand, The use of blood doping as an ergogenic aid. MSSE, 28:i-viii, 1996.

Effect of Blood Doping on VO2max and Fatigue

Performance After Blood Doping

Performance After Inhalation of 100% O2

What limits endurance performance?

Pyruvate-malate

oxidase

Palmitoyl carnitine oxidase

VO2max Maximal endurance

Cytochrome oxidase

.95 .93 .74 .92

Pyrave-malate oxidase

.89 .68 .89

Palmitoyl carnitine oxidase

.71 .91

VO2max .70

Davies et al., 1981, 1982

What limits endurance performance?

Recovery in rats restored to normal iron-intake diet.

Davies et al., AJP, 1982

Increasing Energy Supply

Carbohydrate availability– feeding before/during

competition– enhancing fat use

Creatine– important for energy

production during power/speed events

Glucose

Increasing Fat Utilization

FA availability will fat oxidation Caffeine

lipolysis? EPI release?– blocks adenosine receptors– inhibits phosphodiesterase

Ephedrine– ß-receptor agonist

Increasing Fat Availability

Caffeine fat availability and carbohydrate use?– spares carbohydrate stores? threshold for motor unit recruitment– altered E-C coupling– facilitated nerve transmission ion transport w/in muscle catecholamine release

Other nutritional products

Carbohydrate Feeding

During Exercise

Ivy et al., MSSE, 1979

Effect of Diet on Carbohydrate Storage and Exercise Duration

CHO intake Glycogen content

Exercise time

(g/24 h) (mmol/kg) (min)

100 (15%) 53 57 280 (55%) 100 114 500 (98%) 205 167

Effect of Diet on Muscle Carbohydrate Storage

Costill & Miller, IJSM, 1979

Other Banned Substances Stimulants – reduces tiredness

– ephedrine, cocaine, amphetamines

Painkillers– narcotics

Diuretics– rapid weight loss– masks steroid use

Dehydration and Performance

Saltin & Costill, 1988

If you were to design a new ergogenic aid for a(n),

endurance athlete speed athlete power athlete

what physiological mechanism(s) would be affected that result in better performances?