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The Scientific Revolution
AndThe Enlightenment
Mr. Giesler Global Studies
New Ideas About The UniverseThe Universe of Aristotle and Ptolemy
Throughout the Middle
Ages, European scholars
believed that the Earth was
the center of the universe.
1500s, European
scientists began to
challenge this thinking
Scientist began to
question the old ideas of
the world.
TTYN: Identify as many ‘old’ ideas which scientists began to questionScientific Revolution: A New Way of Thinking!
Copernicus challenges Aristotle and Ptolemy (leave off the ‘p’) Using math, suggested the universe was heliocentric, or sun-
centered
Galileo Has Copernicus’s Back"father of modern observational astronomy", the "father of modern
physics",the "father of science", and "the Father of Modern Science."
Early 1600s, Italian astronomer Caused an uproar within the Church On Trial; threatened with death Forced to rescind …. not empirically proven
Gravity
English scholar, Sir Isaac Newton (1642-17272) Used mathematics to prove the existence of a force that kept planets in their orbit around the sun…the same force that made objects fall towards EarthTheorized that nature follows uniform laws
New Approach to Investigation
Perform experiments to test hypothesis
Scientific Method
Identify problem
Form hypothesis
Record results
Analyze results, form conclusion
New Ways Of Thinking
Scientific Method ScholarsFrancis Bacon, experimentation to
gain scientific knowledge
Rene Descartes, reason key
Believed everything should be doubted until proved by reason
Relied on math, logic
Ideas of both continue to influence modern scientific methods
Experimentation
Observation
Human Reasoning Rene Descartes “Father of Modern
Philosophy”
His fundamental break with Scholastic philosophy was twofold.
First, thought that the Scholastics’ method was prone to doubt given their reliance on sensation as the source for all knowledge.
Second, he wanted to replace their final causal model of scientific explanation with the more modern, mechanistic model.
Reason over Tradition
"I think, therefore I am"
Descartes method required:
Accepting as "truth" only clear,
distinct ideas that could not be
doubted
Breaking a problem down into
parts
Deducing one conclusion from
another, and
Conducting a systematic
synthesis of all things. Descartes
based his entire philosophical
approach to science on this
deductive method of reasoning.
The Impact of Bacon and Descartes Each of these pioneers advocated the complete overthrow of all the
methods and most of the results of the authorities that came before
them.
They each demanded a new standard of precision, since there were
so many examples of sloppy reasoning and observation that littered the
path of the science of the past.
A commitment to doubt in general and a concern about the
"deceptions of the senses“.
Believed in the reduction of problems to their smallest constituent
parts as a general principle.
Their ideas and the ideas of other thinkers during the Scientific
Revolution paved the way for other changes that would occur in Europe
in the 1700sIf a man shall begin in certainties, he shall end in doubts;but if he will be content to begin with doubts he shall end in
certainties.“ – Francis Bacon
The School of Athens, 1511Raphael
1: Zeno of Citium 2: Epicurus 3: unknown 4: Boethius or Anaximander or Empedocles?
5: Averroes 6: Pythagoras 7: Alcibiades orAlexander the Great? 8: Antisthenes or Xenophon? 9: unknown or the Fornarina as a
personification of Love or (Francesco Maria della Rovere?) 10: Aeschines or Xenophon? 11: Parmenides?
12: Socrates 13: Heraclitus (Michelangelo) 14: Plato (Leonardo da Vinci) 15: Aristotle 16: Diogenes 17: Plotinus (Donatello?) 18: Euclid or Archimedes with students (Bramante?)
19: Zoroaster 20: Ptolemy? R: Apelles (Raphael) 21: Protogenes (Il Sodoma, Perugino, or Timoteo Viti)
Now The Why?
Causes of the Scientific Revolution
Medieval Intellectual Life and Medieval Universities
The Italian Renaissance
Renewed emphasis on mathematics
Renaissance system of patronage
Navigational problems of long sea voyages
Better scientific instruments
Consequences of the Scientific Revolution
Rise of the “Scientific Community”
Royal Society of London (1662)
Academy of Royal Sciences (1666)
Scholars could engage in discourse about theories and ideas,
this expanding knowledge
The modern scientific method
A universe ordered according to natural laws
The GREATEST impact was on how people thought and
believed TTYN: Answer the following questions in short-answer format
What are the causes and consequences of the Scientific Revolution
Who is impacted by the Scientific Revolution? How are
people/groups impacted?
Natural Laws
TTYN: Can you describe what natural laws are?
Laws that govern human beings
Scholars thought they could solve the problems of society
By way of the Scientific Revolution, this new way of thinking
lead to the Enlightenment
TTYN: What does it mean to be an enlightened thinker?
The Age of Enlightenment
1700s, the period in which people rejected traditional ideas
and supported a belief in human reason
Logical thought can lead to truth is called Rationalism
New ways of viewing authority
Progressive, Rationalistic, Humanistic worldview
Emerged out of the Scientific Revolution and culminated in
the French Revolution
Spokesmen = Rising Middle Class
Paris = Center of Enlightenment
Optimism about mankind’s abilities
Distrust of Tradition and Revealed Religion
Scientific method could be applied to society as well
Society can get better as risks are taken
Man is naturally good
Good life is on earth
So, What Was It?
The Old Regime
TTYN: Describe the ‘Old’ Regime? Who were they? What was the problem?
Built on tradition
World of hierarchy, privilege and inequality
Allied with the Church
Challenged by the reform impulse of supporters of the
Enlightenment
The Big FourTTYN: Can you identify these guys?
Locke
Voltaire
Rousseau
de Montesquieu
What Were The Enlighten Thinkers Up ToThe Idea of Progress
The anti-religious implications of
the Enlightenment
The relativity of truth and morality
John Locke’s New Psychology
Essay Concerning Human
Understanding (1690)
-- “Tabula Rasa”
“Tabula Rasa” - Concerns itself with determining the limits of human
understanding in respect to God, the self, natural kinds and artifacts,
as well as a variety of different kinds of ideas. It thus tells us in some
detail what one can legitimately claim to know and what one cannot.
The human mind at birth is a complete, but receptive, blank slate (scraped tablet or tabula rasa ) upon which
experience imprints knowledge.
The Philosophes
France – The host of most (not all) of the Enlightened Thinkers.
TTYN: Why France?
18th century French intellectuals
Interest in addressing a broad audience
Committed to reform
Celebrated the scientific revolution
The “Mystique of Newton”
Science applied to society
All the same, the concepts of religious freedom for all, equality
before the law and the supremacy of human reason were
proclaimed loudly and clearly by the heroes of the movement. In
France they were called the philosophes.
Embraced scientific progress and geographical discoveries,
and were dismayed at the corruption, superstition, hypocrisy
and injustice condoned if not fostered, by the church and the
state.
Believed that ignorance was evil and they blamed this evil on
the religious and political leaders, leaders who claimed to be the
special agents of God's revelation in order keep the common
people shackled in ignorance.
Divine Right
Philosophes believed that human progress would only come
through intellectual and spiritual enlightenment—not blind
obedience to authority.
Enlightened humanity could bring an end to poverty,
injustice, racism, and all the other ills of society.
The Philosophes
TTYN: You’re a peasant or farmer in France during the early 18th century and while sipping your coffee coolatta at the local Starbucks and you listen on conversation between two philosophes – what is likely going through your mind and what might be your initial impulse?
The Philosophes
The Problem of Censorship
The attempt of the Old Regime to control new thinking
Publishers and writers hounded by censors
Over 1000 booksellers and authors imprisoned in the Bastille in the early
1700’s
Battling censorship
Authority Reacts
Diderot’s Encyclopedia
Ultimate strength of the philosophes lay in their numbers,
dedication and organization
Written between 1751-1772
Attempted to illustrate all human knowledge
Emphasis on practical science
The encyclopedia was not just a massive compilation of what was
known at the time about all things scientific and philosophical. It
was also an expression of the radical and controversial ideas
espoused by the philosophes.
Many of its articles reflected the impious attitudes of its
contributors like Voltaire, Montesquieu and Rousseau, for example.
As such it served as a manifesto for a new way of looking at the
world.
TTYN: Before there was the internet, where would you go for information on a particular subject?
Back to The Big Four
Locke's Political Philosophy , which he expounds on in his Two
Treatises of Government focuses on five central topics
The state of nature
Natural law
Property
Consent and toleration goes into these topics in more depth
than is possible in a general account and provides much useful
information on the debates about them.
Much of Locke's work is characterized by opposition to
authoritarianism.
Back to The Big Four
Much of Locke's work is characterized by opposition to
authoritarianism.
This opposition is both on the level of the individual person and
on the level of institutions such as government and church.
For the individual, Locke wants each of us to use reason to
search after truth rather than simply accept the opinion of
authorities or be subject to superstition.
Locke’s ultimate goal was aimed at refuting the patriarchal
version of the Divine Right of Kings doctrine…that people are not
naturally free and all legitimate gov’t is absolute!
VoltaireRole of the Church - The Roman Catholic Church which in France
had become the only official state-sanctioned religion
Voltaire argued that people should be permitted to worship as
they pleased or not at all.
Jean Calas Case
Hated hated the Catholic Church
Believed that God had created everything but then let it evolve
on its own
A Treatise on Tolerance that focused entirely on the Jean
Calas case
Small Group ActivityRefer to Notes PacketA Treatise on Tolerance
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Rousseau in favor of direct democracy….totally against a
monarchy (in any fashion)
TTYN: Describe both a monarchy and direct democracy
Believed that under any other type of gov’t, people are forced to
give up liberty
The Social Contract - "All men are born free, but everywhere they
are in chains.“
Had an impact on the French Revolution, it also had a profound
influence on the Declaration of Independence adopted in 1776 by
the new United States of America.
A Discourse on the Sciences and Arts - argues that the progression
of the sciences and arts has caused the corruption of virtue and
morality.
The Discourse on the Origin of Inequality
citizens making policy and law decisions in person, without going through representatives and legislatures
A monarchy is a form of government in which total sovereignty is invested in one person
Interested in Politics not so much science
Spirit of the Laws.
Inspired by the British political system
Advocated a separation of powers amongst the various
branches of government.
The English constitution had divided state powers into three
independent branches of government: the executive, the
legislative, and the judicial.
Believed this would create a system of Checks and Balances.
TTYN: How does Montesquieu’s political philosophy relate to
your life?
Baron de Montesquieu
Checks and Balances. Separation of Powers
“Liberty is the right to do what the law permits.” -
Montesquieu
“Curiosity is the lust of the mind.”
Hobbs
“It is forbidden to kill; therefore all murderers
are punished unless they kill in large
numbers and to the sound of trumpets.” -
Voltaire “All mankind…being all equal and independent no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty” -
Locke
All men are born with a nose and ten fingers, but no one
was born with a knowledge of God.
Voltaire
"All our knowledge begins with the senses, proceeds then to the
understanding, and ends with reason. There is nothing higher
than reason." - Immanuel Kant
Quotable Quotes